GENBIO 2ND QUARTER REVIEWER PDF

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 4. Quaternary – multiple polypeptide subunits, example: (2ND QUARTER) hemoglobin. Module 1: Carbohydrates Module...

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 4. Quaternary – multiple polypeptide subunits, example: (2ND QUARTER) hemoglobin. Module 1: Carbohydrates Module 5: Coupled Reaction Process (ATP-ADP Cycle) Organic Molecules: Also known as hydrocarbons, Contains carbon and Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): Main energy currency of cells, energy hydrogen, C-H bonds, Simplest organic compound is 5 atoms, methane released by hydrolysis. Structurally, it is an RNA nucleotide that has a (CH4) chain of three phosphate. Unstable Inorganic molecules: Do not contain carbon and hydrogen, lack of C- Hydrolysis – water mediated breakdown. H bonds. ATP+H2O -> ADP+Pi+energy Carbohydrates: provide energy and provide important functions such ATP Structure: Three phosphate group + one ribose sugar + one as providing shape to certain cells, antibiotics, coenzyme, and essential adenine. part of DNA. CHO (1:2:1 ratio) ATP-ADP Cycle: Types of Carbohydrates 1. ATPase hydrolyses “cut” the bond between the second and Monomers – small molecular subunit third phosphate group in the ATP. Monosaccharide – simplest sugar, usually contains five to six carbon 2. ATP is hydrolysed as ADP and an inorganic phosphate atoms. (glucose, fructose (fruit), galactose (milk)) release a chemical energy. (1 mole of ATP releases 30.6 kJ) Disaccharide – linking two monosaccharide together through 3. ATP-ADP Cycle is reversible. dehydration synthesis. Removing -OH (hydroxyl group) from one 4. Example: Formation of sucrose, sodium-potassium pump. molecule to another. (Sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose (grain sugar)) Reverse reaction of dehydration synthesis is Module 6: The Chloroplast hydrolysis. Polysaccharide – consist of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides (cellulose (cell wall), starch (stored form of glucose in plants), glycogen (stored form of glucose in animals), chitin (exoskeleton of insects, spiders)) Module 2: Lipids Lipids: molecules that do not dissolve in water but can be dissolve in non-polar solvent. Contains more stored energy (9 food calories or 37 kJ of energy per gram), cushioning of vital organs and provides insulation against cold. Precursors for important reproductive hormones. Types of Lipids Triglyceride – three long hydrocarbon chains attached to a carboxyl Chloroplast – synthesis of storage of foodstuffs. Type of plastids. group called fatty acids bonded to glycerol. Absorbs light energy, green color (chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b). Saturated fats – single bonds connect all carbons, and each carbon has Parts of Chloroplasts two hydrogens. Straight and tightly packed against each other. Animal a. Chloroplasts envelope – outer, intermembrane, inner layer. fats such as bacon fat and butter. b. Stromal lamellae – extensions that run one granum to stroma Unsaturated fats – double bond between carbon atoms. One double c. Stroma – matrix containing dissolved enzymes. bond is called monounsaturated, multiple double bonds is d. Grana – thylakoids arranged in tight stacks. polyunsaturated. Liquid in room temperature, primarily comes from e. Thylakoid Lumen – inside the thylakoid. plants, coconut oil and palm kernel oils. f. Thylakoid membrane – houses chlorophyll and different Phospholipids – have two fatty acid tails. protein complexes. Steroids – identifiable structure of having four interconnected or fused Process carbon rings 1. Sunlight strikes the thylakoids Cholesterol – common steroid present in food, can be synthesized in 2. Light energy excites chlorophyll pigments the liver 3. Give up electrons a. LDL Cholesterol – bad cholesterol 4. Entering ETC b. HDL Cholesterol – good cholesterol, absorbs cholesterol and 5. Phosphorylation of ADP carries it back to the liver. 6. Energy rich storage compound (ATP) Module 3: Nucleic Acids Module 7: Importance of Chlorophyll and Other Pigments Nucleic Acids – long polymers composed of single elements called Chlorophyll Molecules – have a central magnesium atom. nucleotides. Consists of three components, five carbon sugar, one Light and Photosynthetic Pumps: When a pigment absorbs a photon phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. of light, it becomes excited. Excitation is when an electron is bumped DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) – carries all genetic information in all into a higher energy orbital. organisms. Blueprint of all traits. (Adenine-Thymine) (Cytosine-Guanine) Absorption and Action Spectra: chlorophyll a hardly absorbs any RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) – synthesis of proteins, regulation of genes, green and yellow light. carrier of genetic information of some viruses. Single stranded. Nucleus of eukaryotic organisms, cytoplasm of prokaryotes. Module 8: The Calvin Cycle (Light Independent Reaction) a. mRNA (messenger RNA) – instruction to make a specific protein. b. tRNA (transfer RNA) – responsible for choosing the right amino acids. c. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) - bind mRNA in the right place. Module 4: Proteins Proteins: complex than carbohydrates and lipids. Contains CHON. Repairing and building tissues, acting as enzymes, aiding immune systems, served hormones, and others. Amino Acids – building blocks of protein Polypeptides – long chains of amino acids 4 Structural Levels of Proteins 1. Primary – basically the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. Notes: 2. Secondary – local folded structures. Example: keratin Rubisco (enzyme) – 3. Tertiary – three dimensional, antibodies RuBP – Ribulos-1,5-biphosphate 3-PGA – 3 Phospoglyceric Acid ATP Synthesis – As ions flow down their gradient and into the stroma, G3P – Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate they pass through ATP synthase, driving ATP production in a process NADPH – Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate known as chemiosmosis Light Absorption of PSI – electron arrives at PSI and joins P700. The Carbon Fixation: electron in P700 is boosted to a very high energy level. 1. A molecule combines with RuBP (CO2) NADPH Formation – high energy electron travels down a short second 2. The reaction will be catalyze by rubisco leg, the electron is passed into NADP+ 3. 6 Carbon will split into three-carbon compounds (PGA) Reduction: Module 12: Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration 1. ATP and NADPH are used to convert 3-PGA into G3P Cellular respiration – metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose and 2. NADPH donates electron to 3 PGA to G3P produces ATP. Regeneration Aerobic Anaerobic 1. Some G3P molecules create glucose C6H1206 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + C6H12O6 → C2H50H + CO2 + 2. Others are recycled to regenerate RuBP 6H20 + energy - Oxygen is energy Exchange of gases 3. Regeneration required ATP absorbed and carbon dioxide does not take place Maximum 4. For one G3P to exit the cycle, 3 CO2 molecules must enter is released - Maximum yield of yield of 2 ATP molecules per the cycle, providing three new atoms of fixed carbons. 36 to 38 ATP molecules per glucose The ATP and NADPH that are produced in the light reaction will be used glucose by Calvin Cycle. After being used, ATP and NADPH will be recycled in ATP, CO2 and H2O are products Lactic acid is the product light reactions. (muscle fatigue) Slow in synthesizing ATP Fast in synthesizing ATP 1 molecule of Glucose will be needing the following: Cytoplasm and Mitochondria Cytoplasm - 6CO2 + 6RuBP = 12 3-PGA (rubisco) Fermentation - 12 3-PGA will be reduced and converted into 12 G3P, with the use of 12 ATP and 12 NADPH Chemical equation of Cellular Respiration: - 2 G3P will be making 1 molecule of Glucose C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP - 10 G3P for regeneration of RuBP, with the use 6 ATP Chemical Events in Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation, Citric Acid or Krebs Cycle, and Oxidative Phosphorylation Module 9: CAM and C4 Photosynthesis Module 13-14: Chemical Events in Cellular Respiration Glycolysis – series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvates. Note: PEP- Phosphoenulpyruvate OAA - Oxaloacetate Photorespiration – when rubisco starts grabbing oxygen instead. Sugar is burned up instead created. C4 Photosynthesis 1. CO2 to PEP attachment using enzyme PEP carboxylase 2. OAA formation and pumped into bundle sheath cells. 3. CO2 is released for the use of Rubisco. CAM Photosynthesis 1. Attach CO2 to PEP to Form OAA 2. CAM plants fix carbon at night and store OAA in vacuoles 3. Use the CO2 during the day, when it can be driven by the sun’s energy. Module 10: Light Reaction of Photosynthesis Light Dependent Reaction – use light energy to make two molecules needed for the next stage of photosynthesis. This takes place in thylakoid membranes. Photosystems – light absorbing molecules, harvesting light. This phase takes place twice, 4 ATP and 2 NADH overall At the end of glycolysis:2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate Light Absorption of PSII – light is absorbed in PSII, energy is passed to pigment to pigment until it reaches the reaction center, energy is transferred to P680. Electron is passed to an acceptor molecule and replaced the electron from water. Splitting of water releases O2. Pyruvate Oxidation – pyruvate converted into a two-carbon molecule bound to coenzyme A, known as Acetyl COA Chemiosmosis: energy source of the ATP Synthase to convert ADP to ATP. In summary, chemiosmosis will yield about 26 or 28 ATP (Reece, 2011). Fermentation – is an anaerobic biochemical reaction where it includes a pathway that consists of glycolysis with some extra reaction on the tail end. It uses organic molecules to regenerate NAD+ from NADH. Producing ATP without oxygen. Lactic acid fermentation – is a metabolic process that helps in generating NAD+ for glycolysis to continue; the product is lactate or lactic acid. Lactate dehydrogenase – is an enzyme required during the process of turning sugar into energy for our cells (Judith Marcin 2015) Citric Cycle or Krebs Cycle – major energy yielding metabolic pathway in cells Alcohol fermentation – is a metabolic process that helps in generating NAD+ for glycolysis to continue; the product is ethanol. The Krebs cycle, or citric acid cycle, begins when acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate, a six-carbon molecule. Citrate is then converted into its isomer, isocitrate. Isocitrate undergoes oxidation, releasing carbon dioxide and forming a five-carbon molecule. This is followed by the oxidation of α-ketoglutarate, which reduces NAD+ to NADH and releases another carbon dioxide. Next, a phosphate group replaces CoA, generating ATP (or GTP) through substrate-level phosphorylation. Succinate is oxidized to fumarate, reducing FAD to FADH₂. Water is then added to fumarate, forming ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF AEROBIC AND FERMENTATION malate, which is finally oxidized to regenerate oxaloacetate, reducing NAD+ to NADH. This cycle produces energy carriers crucial for the Advantages electron transport chain. Aerobic Fermentation 36 to 38 ATP (39% energy Foods that are fermented last two carbons enter from acetyl CoA and two molecules of carbon dioxide transferred), slow and complete longer. are released. breakdown of glucose into ATP. Yeasts and Lactobacillus 6 molecules of NADH and o molecules of FADH2 are generated; and Animals and human muscle produces sour taste in wheat two molecules of ATP or GTP is produced. cells can adapt and perform beer lactic acid fermentation for a Yeasts and Acetobacter aceti Electron Transport Chain rapid burst of energy. spoil wine to become vinegar Bacterial fermentation produces yogurt Lactobacillus bulgaricus produces sour cream, kimchi Clostidium bacteria produces nail polish remover Soy Sauce produced by adding mold, yeasts and fermenting bacteria. Disadvantages 61% of glucose metabolism Consumption of 2 ATP is fast becomes heat Glucose is partially oxidized. Human brain cells cannot perform lactic acid fer. Human muscle cells feel the burning sensations and pain - NADH approaches Complex I and is oxidized into NAD+, donating when lactate accumulates its electrons, same as for FADH2 in complex II. Last electron acceptor is the oxygen that becomes water once protons attached to it. - High energy electrons travel down the ETC, pumping H+ into the intermembrane space which is the source of energy that drives the ATP production in Chemiosmosis. - H+ diffuse through ATP synthase to create ATP. - 30-32 ATP molecules are produced. - Looking back at the previous cellular respiration processes, - Glycolysis yields 4 ATP - Citric acid cycle yields 2 ATP - Thus, the total ATP produced from the entire cellular respiration (from a molecule of glucose) is about 30 – 38.