Gem - PFK 1 and 2.pdf

PFK-1 and PFK-2: Key Regulators of Glycolysis PFK-1 (Phosphofructokinase-1) and PFK-2 (Phosphofructokinase-2) are two crucial enzymes involved in the regulation of glycolysis, the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce ATP. PFK-1: The Rate-Limiting Enzyme of Glycolysis Role: PFK-1...

PFK-1 and PFK-2: Key Regulators of Glycolysis PFK-1 (Phosphofructokinase-1) and PFK-2 (Phosphofructokinase-2) are two crucial enzymes involved in the regulation of glycolysis, the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce ATP. PFK-1: The Rate-Limiting Enzyme of Glycolysis Role: PFK-1 catalyzes the irreversible conversion of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, a key step in glycolysis. Regulation: PFK-1's activity is tightly regulated by a variety of factors, including: ○ ATP: High ATP levels inhibit PFK-1, slowing down glycolysis. ○ AMP: Low ATP levels (high AMP levels) activate PFK-1, stimulating glycolysis. ○ Citrate: High citrate levels (indicating sufficient energy from the citric acid cycle) inhibit PFK-1. ○ Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate: A potent allosteric activator of PFK-1, produced by PFK-2. PFK-2: A Bifunctional Enzyme Role: PFK-2 is a bifunctional enzyme that catalyzes both the synthesis and degradation of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate. Regulation: The balance between the kinase and phosphatase activities of PFK-2 is regulated by hormones like insulin and glucagon. ○ Insulin: Stimulates PFK-2's kinase activity, leading to increased fructose-2,6-bisphosphate production and activation of PFK-1. ○ Glucagon: Stimulates PFK-2's phosphatase activity, leading to decreased fructose-2,6-bisphosphate production and inhibition of PFK-1. In summary, PFK-1 and PFK-2 are essential for the regulation of glycolysis. PFK-1 controls the rate-limiting step of the pathway, while PFK-2 influences PFK-1's activity by regulating the production of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate. These enzymes play a critical role in maintaining energy homeostasis in the cell. —- The fate of pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis, depends on the availability of oxygen. Aerobic conditions (presence of oxygen): Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex: Pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA, a molecule that enters the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle) in the mitochondria. Citric acid cycle: Acetyl-CoA is further oxidized, producing ATP, NADH, FADH2,  and carbon dioxide. Electron transport chain: NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the electron transport chain, leading to the production of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen): Lactate dehydrogenase: Pyruvate is converted into lactate in animals and some bacteria. This process is known as fermentation. Alcohol dehydrogenase: In plants and some microorganisms, pyruvate is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This is also a type of fermentation. Summary: Aerobic conditions: Pyruvate is oxidized to produce ATP, NADH, FADH2, and CO2 through the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain. Anaerobic conditions: Pyruvate is converted into lactate or ethanol in a process called fermentation. The choice between aerobic and anaerobic pathways depends on the availability of oxygen and the specific needs of the organism. – The Cori cycle is a metabolic pathway that involves the conversion of lactate, produced in muscle cells during anaerobic glycolysis, back into glucose in the liver. This cycle is crucial for maintaining blood glucose levels during intense exercise or under conditions of limited oxygen availability. Key steps in the Cori cycle: 1. Lactate production: During anaerobic glycolysis in muscle cells, pyruvate is converted into lactate to regenerate NAD+, a coenzyme essential for glycolysis to continue. 2. Lactate transport: Lactate diffuses from muscle cells into the bloodstream and is transported to the liver. 3. Lactate conversion to pyruvate: In the liver, lactate is converted back into pyruvate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase. 4. Gluconeogenesis: Pyruvate is used as a substrate for gluconeogenesis, a metabolic pathway that synthesizes glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors. 5. Glucose release: The newly synthesized glucose is released from the liver into the bloodstream, where it can be transported back to muscle cells for energy. Significance of the Cori cycle: Blood glucose maintenance: The Cori cycle helps to maintain blood glucose levels during exercise or other conditions that may deplete glycogen stores in the muscles. Lactate clearance: It removes lactate from the bloodstream, preventing acidosis, which can occur when lactate accumulates. Energy recycling: The cycle allows for the recycling of lactate, which would otherwise be wasted. Overall reaction of the Cori cycle: 2 Lactate + 6 ATP → 1 Glucose + 4 ATP + 2 H2O In summary, the Cori cycle is a metabolic pathway that plays a vital role in energy metabolism, particularly during conditions of limited oxygen availability. It helps to maintain blood glucose levels and remove lactate from the bloodstream. — The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) is a metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm of most cells. It is an alternative to glycolysis and is primarily involved in the production of NADPH, a reducing agent used in various cellular processes, such as fatty acid synthesis, drug detoxification, and protection against oxidative stress. Key features of the PPP: Input: Glucose-6-phosphate Output: NADPH, ribose-5-phosphate, and other sugars Stages: The PPP is divided into two phases: the oxidative phase and the non-oxidative phase. Oxidative phase: Reactions: Glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized to 6-phosphogluconate, which is then further oxidized to ribulose-5-phosphate. During these reactions, NADPH is produced. Yield: 2 NADPH molecules per glucose-6-phosphate molecule. Non-oxidative phase:  Reactions: Ribulose-5-phosphate is converted into various sugars, including ribose-5-phosphate, which is used for nucleotide synthesis. Flexibility: The non-oxidative phase is highly flexible and can adjust its reactions to produce different sugars depending on the cell's needs. Significance of the PPP: NADPH production: The PPP is the primary source of NADPH in most cells. Nucleotide synthesis: The PPP provides ribose-5-phosphate for the synthesis of nucleotides, which are essential building blocks of DNA and RNA. Cellular protection: NADPH is used to reduce glutathione, an antioxidant that helps to protect cells from oxidative damage. Metabolism: The PPP is also involved in the metabolism of other sugars, such as fructose and mannose. Regulation of the PPP: Enzyme activity: The activity of the enzymes involved in the PPP is regulated by various factors, including the availability of substrates, the NADPH/NADP+ ratio, and hormonal signals. Cellular needs: The PPP's activity is adjusted to meet the cell's specific needs for NADPH and ribose-5-phosphate. In summary, the Pentose Phosphate Pathway is a crucial metabolic pathway that plays a vital role in various cellular processes. It provides NADPH for reducing power and ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis, and it helps to protect cells from oxidative damage. — Substrate-Level Phosphorylation is a process where ATP is directly synthesized from a high-energy phosphate compound, without involving the electron transport chain. This occurs in certain metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Key points: Direct ATP synthesis: Unlike oxidative phosphorylation, which uses  the energy from electron transport to produce ATP, substrate-level phosphorylation involves a direct transfer of a phosphate group from a high-energy substrate molecule to ADP. High-energy substrates: These substrates, such as 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate in glycolysis and succinyl-CoA in the citric acid cycle, contain a high-energy phosphate bond that can be easily transferred to ADP. Efficiency: While substrate-level phosphorylation is less efficient than oxidative phosphorylation in terms of ATP production per glucose molecule, it provides a rapid and immediate source of ATP for cellular needs. Examples of substrate-level phosphorylation: Glycolysis: In the energy payoff phase of glycolysis, 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate, and ATP is synthesized. Citric acid cycle: Succinyl-CoA is converted to succinate, and ATP (or GTP in some organisms) is synthesized. In summary, substrate-level phosphorylation is a simple and efficient mechanism for producing ATP in certain metabolic pathways. It plays a crucial role in providing a quick burst of energy for cellular activities, especially under conditions of limited oxygen availability. —- Oxidative Phosphorylation is a metabolic process that occurs in the mitochondria and produces ATP, the primary energy currency of cells. It involves the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2, generated in the citric acid cycle, to oxygen, resulting in the production of ATP through a series of redox reactions. Key steps: 1. Electron transport chain: Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. These complexes are: ○ Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase): Receives electrons from NADH and pumps protons into the intermembrane space. ○ Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase): Receives electrons  from FADH2 and does not pump protons. ○ Complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex): Receives electrons from Complex I or Complex II and pumps protons into the intermembrane space. ○ Complex IV (cytochrome oxidase): Receives electrons from Complex III and transfers them to oxygen to form water. 2. Proton gradient: The pumping of protons into the intermembrane space creates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. 3. ATP synthesis: The proton gradient drives the rotation of the ATP synthase enzyme, which couples the flow of protons back into the mitochondrial matrix to the synthesis of ATP. Efficiency: Oxidative phosphorylation is the most efficient way to produce ATP, generating approximately 36 ATP molecules per glucose molecule. Regulation: The rate of oxidative phosphorylation is regulated by various factors, including the availability of oxygen, the levels of NADH and FADH2, and the activity of the electron transport chain complexes. In summary, oxidative phosphorylation is a complex and highly efficient process that generates the majority of ATP in aerobic organisms. It plays a crucial role in energy metabolism and is essential for cellular function.