GE12 Module 1 History and Philosophy of Science.pdf

Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy o...

Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science Objectives: By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:  analyze the philosophical development of science and technology;  compare and contrast various philosophies utilized in scientific thinking;  assess revolutionary ideas of the past as to how they affect modern thinking; and  evaluate previous acquired knowledge from various sources. A. Science, Technology, and Society The undeniable connection between science, technology, and society has been a cornerstone of human civilization. From the simple rock tools crafted by our ancestors to the sophisticated digital age we inhabit today, the trajectory of human progress is truly linked to advancements in these domains. Science, as a systematic pursuit of knowledge about the natural world, has provided the intellectual framework for technological innovation. In turn, technology has amplified human capabilities, reshaping societies, economies, and cultures as times progress Throughout history, technological breakthroughs have catalyzed societal transformations. The agricultural revolution, marked by the domestication of plants and animals, removed the nomadic nature of societies, leading to the emergence of complex civilizations. The industrial revolution, powered by steam and later electricity, transformed economies, urbanization patterns, and labor practices. More recently, the digital revolution, driven by advancements in computing and communication technologies, has interconnected the world, revolutionized industries, and redefined social interactions (Castells, 2023). The relationship between science, technology, and society is shows both benefits and challenges. Technological innovations have indeed improved healthcare, increased agricultural productivity, and facilitated global communication. However, they have also raised ethical concerns and environmental issues. The environmental impact of technological progress, including climate change and resource depletion, poses significant challenges for humanity (IPCC, 2021). Which is why in this course, understanding the complex dynamics between science, technology, and society is crucial for addressing contemporary issues and shaping a sustainable future for the entire planet. This course will explore the historical and philosophical development of science and technology, their impact on various aspects of society, and the ethical implications of recent technological advancements. As the spearheads of the future, studying for and engaging in critical discussions this course, you should be able to develop a keen ability to analyze the interplay between these three and to contribute to informed decision-making in a rapidly changing world for its betterment.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science B. History and Philosophy of Science The quest to understand the natural world has been a fundamental human endeavor since the dawn of civilization. It started when humans started to question their surroundings. Ancient civilizations laid the groundwork for scientific inquiry through their observations of the cosmos, the natural world, and the human body. These ancient people developed philosophical frameworks that emphasized reason and logic as tools for understanding reality – a system that had laid the foundation of scientific thinking. Over centuries, these early ideas evolved into the systematic methods of inquiry that characterize modern science leading to the creation of technologies and the development of society. Building upon the philosophical foundations laid by our predecessors, contemporary scientists continue to explore the frontiers of knowledge. But, the practice of science is not merely about accumulating facts; it is also deeply rooted with philosophical questions about the nature of reality, the limits of human knowledge, and the ethical implications of scientific research. Studying the history philosophy of science offer valuable perspectives on these issues, enabling you to critically examine the assumptions, methods, and impacts of scientific inquiry in today’s world be it in any field of study. With knowledge about the historical development of scientific thought, you can better appreciate the achievements of science and help in fostering a society with scientifically-literate citizens while also recognizing its limitations and potential pitfall. Various schools of thought in philosophy have been utilized, consciously and unconsciously by various scientists and innovators throughout the years in their search for truth. Looking upon the perspective of each school of thought can help you reach a better grasp on the truth, in these modern times where false information is rapidly spreading. B.1 Metaphysics, Epistemology, Logic Philosophy of science is the study of the assumptions, foundations, and implications of scientific knowledge. It explores the nature of scientific inquiry, the methods used to gain knowledge, and the relationship between science and society. Three core branches of philosophy – metaphysics, epistemology, and logic – are particularly relevant to understanding the philosophical underpinnings of science. B.1.1 Metaphysics and Science Metaphysics, the branch of philosophy concerned with the fundamental nature of reality, is intrinsically linked to the practice of science for it is the source of the questions that need answers. While often perceived as abstract speculation, metaphysics provides essential conceptual frameworks that underpin scientific inquiry – like formulating a hypothesis.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science The Role of Metaphysics in Science Ontological Commitments: Scientists make ontological thoughts, or assumptions about what exists, which are inherently metaphysical. For instance, the belief in the existence of atoms, electrons, magnetic and gravitational fields is an ontological view. These assumptions guide the formulation of hypotheses and experiments. The Nature of Space and Time: Metaphysical questions about the nature of space and time have implications for physics. Concepts like absolute or relative space, the flexibility or linearity of time, and the possibility of time travel are metaphysical issues that influence the development of physical theories. Metaphysics and Scientific Revolutions Metaphysical shifts have often accompanied scientific revolutions. For example, the Copernican revolution challenged the Aristotelian worldview, leading to a new metaphysical view of the universe. Similarly, the development of quantum mechanics forced physicists to confront metaphysical questions about the nature of reality, causality, and the observer's role in measurement. B.1.2 Epistemology and Science Epistemology, the theory of knowledge, is central to understanding the methods and justification of science. It is knowing about knowing. It explores questions about the nature of knowledge, its sources, and its limits, asking questions such as: How do we know what we know? What constitutes justified belief? In the context of science, epistemology is linked to how we come to know about the world, the reliability of scientific methods, and the criteria for justifying scientific claims. Scientific knowledge is built upon a foundation of empirical observation and experimentation. Epistemology examines the relationship between sensory experience and the construction of scientific theories. For instance, the question of whether scientific knowledge is primarily based on induction (generalizing from specific observations) or  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science deduction (inferring conclusions from established theories) is an epistemological approach. Epistemology also plays a crucial role in evaluating the reliability and objectivity of scientific knowledge. It investigates the concept of scientific consensus, the role of peer review, and the potential biases that can influence scientific research. B.1.3 Logic and Science Logic is the study of valid reasoning and argumentation. It provides the framework for constructing and evaluating scientific arguments. Deductive and inductive logic are two primary forms of reasoning used in science. Deductive logic involves drawing conclusions from premises with certainty, like established theories and principles. While inductive logic involves making generalizations based on empirical observations. Scientists use both forms of logic to develop and test hypotheses, formulate theories, and draw conclusions from data. Logic is indispensable in scientific reasoning. It helps to identify fallacies, assess the strength of arguments, and construct coherent explanations. For example, deductive logic is crucial in formulating hypotheses and deriving predictions from theories. Inductive logic is essential for generalizing from observations to create scientific laws. Scientists utilize both forms of logic in order to enhance the rigor and reliability of their research. B.2 Materialism and Idealism Materialism is a philosophical position that asserts that the physical world is the only reality. This view suggests that all phenomena, including mental processes, can be explained in terms of material things and its interactions. Materialism has been a dominant philosophical framework in science, providing a foundation for the scientific method, which relies on empirical observation and experimentation to understand the natural world. A materialist perspective underpins the development of scientific theories and models. For example, the reductionist approach in biology, which seeks to explain complex biological phenomena in terms of simpler components, is grounded in a materialist ontology. Similarly, the physical sciences, such as physics and chemistry, operate on the assumption that the universe is composed of matter and energy. However, critiques of materialism have emerged, arguing that it may be overly restrictive in explaining complex phenomena like consciousness, dreams, and memory.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science Idealism, in contrast to materialism, proposes that the mind or spirit is the primary reality. Idealist philosophers argue that the physical world is either a mental construct or dependent on consciousness. While idealism has historically been less influential in shaping scientific methodology, it has raised important questions about the nature of scientific knowledge and the role of the observer in scientific inquiry. Idealist perspectives have influenced the philosophy of science, particularly in discussions about the relationship between the mind and the world. The concept of observer bias, which recognizes that the researcher's preconceptions can influence experimental outcomes, is rooted in idealist concerns about the subjective nature of perception. An example of this is the particle and wave nature of light and the presence of electrons as a particle and as a shell. Also, some interpretations of quantum mechanics have incorporated elements of idealism as well. B.3 Rationalism and Empiricism Rationalism prioritizes reason and logic as the primary sources of knowledge. Rationalists argue that certain truths can be known independently of experience, through innate ideas or pure reason. This perspective emphasizes deductive reasoning and the power of the mind to uncover fundamental principles of the universe. While pure rationalism may not be sufficient and reliable for scientific discovery, it plays a vital role in formulating theories and hypotheses. Empiricism, on the other hand, contends that knowledge is derived primarily from sensory experience. Empiricists emphasize the importance of observation, experimentation, and inductive reasoning in acquiring knowledge. Scientific inquiry is fundamentally empirical, relying on evidence gathered through observation and experimentation to test hypotheses and develop theories. However, raw data alone is insufficient; interpretation and theory-building, which involve elements of rationalism, are also crucial. This is why the scientific process involves a dynamic connection between rationalism and empiricism. While empiricism provides the foundation for scientific inquiry by grounding knowledge in observation, rationalism is essential for constructing theoretical frameworks and making inferences from data.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science A classic example is the development of Newtonian mechanics. Rationalists like René Descartes contributed to the development of mathematical tools and the concept of a mechanistic universe, while empiricists like Isaac Newton relied on careful observation and experimentation to formulate his laws of motion. The combination of rational and empirical approaches led to a powerful and predictive scientific theory. In contemporary science, the interplay between rationalism and empiricism continues. Theoretical physicists, for instance, often develop complex mathematical models based on theoretical considerations, while experimental physicists test these models through observation and experimentation. This interplay between theory and evidence is essential for advancing scientific knowledge. B.4 Skepticism Skepticism, the questioning attitude or doubt towards knowledge, claims, or beliefs, is another founding school of thought in science. While often associated with doubt and disbelief, skepticism in science is a constructive approach that drives progress and ensures the reliability of knowledge. Skepticism encourages scientists to question established theories, seek alternative explanations, and demand rigorous evidence. This critical mindset is essential for identifying errors, biases, and fraudulent claims. By subjecting ideas to scrutiny, scientists can increase the confidence in their findings and build a robust body of knowledge. The scientific method itself is inherently skeptical. Hypotheses are proposed as tentative explanations and are subjected to rigorous testing. Experiments are designed to disprove rather than prove hypotheses, reflecting a skeptical approach. Peer review, a process where other scientists evaluate research before publication, is another manifestation of skepticism in action. While skepticism is crucial, it is essential to balance it with open-mindedness. Excessive skepticism can hinder progress by shutting down creativity and preventing the exploration of new ideas. A healthy dose of skepticism, coupled with a willingness to consider alternative perspectives, is the ideal scientific approach.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science This school of thought is particularly important in distinguishing between science and pseudoscience. Pseudoscientific claims often lack empirical evidence and rely on anecdotal evidence or logical fallacies. A skeptical approach helps to identify these claims and prevent their acceptance as legitimate scientific knowledge. B.5 The Good Life The pursuit of the good life is a continuous and personal human endeavor. Science has emerged as a powerful tool in shaping this pursuit. It is necessary that we harness the potential of science and technology to address global challenges and improve the human condition while also considering the ethical implications of our pursuits. B.5.1 Science and Human Flourishing Science and technology have been instrumental in enhancing human flourishing. Medical advancements have significantly extended lifespans, reduced infant mortality rates, and improved quality of life for countless individuals. The development of vaccines has eradicated diseases that once ravaged populations, and ongoing research into chronic illnesses holds the promise of further alleviating human suffering (World Health Organization, 2021). Beyond healthcare, science and technology have transformed various aspects of human life. Agricultural innovations have increased food production, reducing hunger and malnutrition. Communication technologies have connected people across the globe, facilitating cultural exchange, economic cooperation, and democratic processes. The internet has revolutionized education, providing access to knowledge and empowering individuals to learn and grow (United Nations Development Programme, 2023). However, the pursuit of scientific knowledge and technological progress also raises complex questions about the nature of human flourishing. While these advancements have undoubtedly improved many aspects of human life, they have also created new challenges and inequalities. B.5.1 Science for the Common Good A growing movement emphasizes the importance of science, and scientifically-literate people for addressing global challenges such as poverty, inequality, and climate change. This perspective shifts the focus from individual scientific achievement to the collective benefit of scientific knowledge. Science and technology are indispensable for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the United Nations. These goals address a wide range of global challenges, including poverty, hunger, health, education, climate change, and gender  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science equality. Scientific innovations, from renewable energy technologies to agricultural advancements, are crucial for progress towards these goals. For instance, the development of affordable and accessible vaccines has been instrumental in improving global health outcomes (World Health Organization, 2021). The building of more inclusive and equitable societies can also be fostered by science and technology. With the power of data and artificial intelligence, it is possible to identify and address social disparities. For example, data analytics can be used to optimize the delivery of public services, such as education and healthcare, to communities. Socrates has mentioned that “the unexamined life is not worth living”. As you take this course, you might have questions like: How does this apply to your future profession? Why do you need to take this course? The answer is not for the subject to answer as it is for you to discover on your own. How will you live a good life with the power of science and technology? Will you use all of your skills and abilities to help in the pursuit of knowledge and the development of society? C. Scientific Thinking Science is a systematic study which builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe, is an important foundation of modern society. At its core, science is a process of inquiry that involves observation, experimentation, and critical thinking. This chapter delves into the nature of science, exploring its philosophical underpinnings, the scientific method, and the essential qualities of scientific thinking. C.1 Nature of Science Science is often characterized as a body of knowledge, but it is more accurately a dynamic process of inquiry. This means that even though science is stable and should be consistent, there are times that it will change due to more updated information. It is a human endeavor marked by creativity, skepticism, and collaboration. Scientific knowledge is tentative, subject to revision in light of new evidence. This characteristic distinguishes science from other forms of knowledge, such as religion or philosophy, which often rely on faith or dogma. A key aspect of science is its empirical nature. Scientists rely on observations and experiments to gather data and test hypotheses. This emphasis on evidence and proof distinguishes science from pseudoscience, which often makes claims that are not supported by empirical evidence. Science is also a self-correcting enterprise. Scientists are constantly scrutinizing their own work and the work of others through peer reviews, leads to the refinement of theories and the development of new knowledge.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science This nature of science is what brings scientific concepts closer to the truth. A unified theory of everything, explaining each and every aspect of the cosmos is what science has in its vision. So, if that means breaking a “truth” in light of new, updated, and properly peer-reviewed information, then people should be open to accepting that updated information – like Pluto being not anymore a planet. The philosophy of science explores the foundations, methods, and implications of scientific knowledge. It investigates questions such as the nature of scientific explanation, the criteria for scientific theory acceptance, and the relationship between science and society. Several key philosophical perspectives have shaped our understanding of science. Positivism, a philosophical movement of the 19th century, emphasized the importance of empirical observation and the rejection of metaphysical speculation. Logical positivism, a subsequent development, sought to establish a rigorous foundation for scientific knowledge based on logic and observation. Falsificationism, proposed by Karl Popper, suggests that scientific theories should be falsifiable, meaning they can be potentially disproven by empirical evidence. This view emphasizes the importance of critical testing and the tentative nature of scientific knowledge. The search for scientific truth is guided by these two philosophies. So basically, all scientific knowledge that is universally accepted as true should be: supported by empirical evidence, and is falsifiable or can/should be subject for critiquing. This overall process brings about the dynamic nature of scientific concepts. However, as long as the search for these concepts follows the scientific method, the results are interpreted as true. C.2 Scientific Method The scientific method is a systematic approach to finding answers/truths. This process involves several interconnected steps: observation, formulation of a hypothesis, experimentation, data analysis, and conclusion. These steps may vary depending on the field of study, but this general framework provides a foundation for scientific investigation, and eventually, scientific concepts. Observation is the starting point of the scientific process. Scientists carefully observe phenomena and gather data. Based on these observations, they develop an educated guess (hypothesis), tentative explanations for the observed phenomena. Experiments are designed to test these hypotheses by manipulating variables and measuring the effects. The collected data is then analyzed to determine whether the results support or refute the hypothesis. Afterwards, the results are published and peer- reviewed before it can be added into the pool of established knowledge.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science A hypothesis is a budding idea but a theory and a principle or law are already established scientific concepts. The meaning of these three are often mixed up but they are different from one another. It is important to be aware of these “levels of truth”. A common understanding of such leads to the creation of a scientific “hive mind” that may work toward the betterment of society. Here are their key differences. Hypothesis: “If I increase the temperature of water, then the sugar will dissolve faster.” A tentative explanation for an observation or phenomenon. It is a proposed answer to a question that can be tested through experimentation or observation. A good hypothesis is specific, testable, and falsifiable. However, its scope is specific to a particular situation, while theories and principles have broader applications. Theory: “The Theory of Evolution explains the diversity of life on Earth through the process of natural selection.” A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experimentation. Theories are comprehensive and can be used to make predictions about future events. Principle/Law: “The principle of gravity states that two objects of different mass fall exactly at the same time under a vacuum.” A fundamental truth or law that serves as the basis of reasoning or action. Principles are often derived from theories and are widely accepted as true because the results of testing and experimentation are consistent upon replication.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science Understanding the nature, philosophy, and methods of science clarifies its importance in the development of technology and society. Utilizing this information correctly establishes proper scientific thinking. Scientific thinking is crucial for society because it enables informed decision-making, problem-solving, and critical evaluation of information. It enables the citizens to distinguish between reliable evidence-based information from disinformation and misinformation. They can also use it to identify logical fallacies, and to assess the credibility of sources. Most importantly, scientific thinking fosters creativity, curiosity, and a lifelong love of learning – a trait students and future professionals, like you, should have. Because by developing scientific literacy, individuals can actively participate in civic discussions about science-related issues and contribute to a scientifically informed society. D. Revolutionary Ideas The history of society is intricately woven with threads of intellectual revolutions that have reshaped beliefs, cultures, and our understanding of the world. These great shifts in thought, driven by groundbreaking ideas and discoveries accumulated through time, have pushed humanity from the confines of ancient beliefs to the frontiers of modern knowledge. These intellectual revolutions have laid the foundation for the technological marvels, scientific advancements, and philosophical inquiries that define our contemporary world. As we move into an era characterized by rapid globalization, technological convergence, and complex societal challenges, insights from these intellectual revolutions remain relevant even today. The Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian concepts, among others, continue to support our approach to scientific inquiry, ethical deliberations, and the exploration of human nature. These foundational concepts serve as intellectual compass points, guiding our exploration of pressing issues such as climate change, artificial intelligence, and the nature of consciousness towards the right direction. D.1 The Copernican Revolution For centuries, the Earth-centered view of the universe, or geocentrism, dominated human thought. However, the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus challenged this belief with his heliocentric theory, proposing that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the solar system. Copernicus' work, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), published posthumously in 1543, marked a turning point in human understanding of the cosmos. The Copernican Revolution, initiated by Nicolaus Copernicus' heliocentric model, marked a pivotal turning point in human intellectual history. By displacing Earth from the center of the universe and placing the Sun in its stead, Copernicus challenged the prevailing geocentric worldview that had dominated thought for millennia. This paradigm shift had profound implications not only for astronomy but also for philosophy, religion, and ultimately, the trajectory of human civilization. Copernicus' heliocentric theory was a radical departure from the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic systems, which placed Earth at the center of the cosmos. Even though Aristarchus already has suggested this way before Copernicus, it only gained the attention of society after the publication of Copernicus. While initially met with resistance and controversy, the Copernican model gradually gained acceptance  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science among astronomers and mathematicians. Key figures like Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler provided observational and mathematical support, solidifying the heliocentric theory as one of the foundations of modern astronomy. Beyond its astronomical significance, the Copernican Revolution had profound philosophical implications. By dethroning Earth from its privileged position, it challenged the view that humans were the sole focus of divine creation. This shift encouraged a more humble perspective on humanity's place in the universe. The Copernican Revolution also had far-reaching consequences for scientific inquiry. It demonstrated the power of observation, mathematical reasoning, and empirical evidence in challenging established beliefs. This emphasis on empirical methods laid the groundwork for the development of the scientific method, which was not established yet at that time, and has been the driving force behind countless scientific discoveries and technological advancements. In the modern era, the legacy of this revolution continues to shape our understanding of the universe and our place within it. Space exploration, made possible by advancements in technology and our knowledge of celestial mechanics, is a direct descendant of Copernicus' groundbreaking work. The search for exoplanets, the study of black holes, and the exploration of the cosmos are all rooted in the heliocentric framework established centuries ago. D.2 The Darwinian Revolution Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was one of if not the most groundbreaking shift in human understanding of the natural world. His groundbreaking work, On the Origin of Species, published in 1859, presented compelling evidence for the descent of all living organisms from common ancestors through a process of gradual change driven by natural selection. Darwin's theory challenged the prevailing notion of divine creation and offered a mechanistic explanation for the diversity of life which put him and his theory in the crosshairs of the church and the majority of the society. By introducing the concept of adaptation and the struggle for existence, Darwin provided a framework for understanding the processes that have shaped life on Earth over millions of years which debunked the way younger estimates stated in the Holy Scriptures. This made the theory quite unpopular. Thankfully, with the discovery and development of the field of  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science genetics, further evidence laid out the path for more and more people to understand and accept the said theory as the modern times moved in. Darwin's ideas continue to be a cornerstone of modern biology, influencing fields such as genetics, ecology, and medicine. The theory of evolution has been refined and expanded through subsequent research, leading to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of inheritance and the genetic basis of adaptation. One of the most significant modern implications of Darwinian theory is its application to human health. Evolutionary medicine seeks to understand and address human diseases in the context of our evolutionary history. Upon examination of the evolutionary origins of diseases, researchers can develop new prevention and treatment strategies. For example, understanding the evolutionary basis of antibiotic resistance has helped inform public health policies to combat this growing problem. Darwin's ideas have also had a profound impact on our understanding of human behavior. Evolutionary psychology explores how natural selection has shaped human cognition, emotions, and social behaviors. This field has shed light on the adaptive significance of various psychological traits and has implications for fields such as psychology, sociology, and anthropology (Pinker, 2022). The concept of natural selection has also been applied to fields outside of biology. Evolutionary economics, for instance, examines economic behavior through the lens of Darwinian principles, exploring how competition, cooperation, and innovation drive economic change. D.3 Sigmund Freud The inner workings of our minds were not clearly studied earlier in history. People who deviate from societal norms are branded as “insane” and “crazy”. However, as time progressed, and with the help of the scientific movement, various interpretations of what possible causes came to be and some interpretations gave birth to the field of psychology. Eventually, Freud would revolutionize it with his psychoanalytic theory. Sigmund Freud, an Austrian neurologist, introduced psychoanalysis, a new approach to understanding the human mind and behavior. Freud’s theories, outlined in his influential work The Interpretation of Dreams (1899), emphasized the role of the unconscious mind in shaping human thoughts, emotions, and actions. The unconscious mind allows for instinctual actions which, as per Freud, drive our overall actions. These life and  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science death instincts serve as reasons for what we do and why we do them. This thought allowed reason to enter in explaining irrational and unacceptable behavior that opposes what the conscious mind is promoting. Freud's concepts, such as the id, ego, and superego, along with defense mechanisms like repression and denial, offered a new framework for comprehending human psychology. His work challenged traditional views of mental illness, suggesting psychological causes rather than solely biological ones. Psychoanalysis became a dominant force in psychotherapy and influenced fields like literature, art, and sociology. While Freud's theories have been subject to criticism and revision, their impact on the contemporary world is undeniable. Psychoanalytic concepts continue to inform various fields, including: Psychology: Psychoanalytic therapy remains a significant approach, although it has evolved to incorporate insights from other perspectives. Modern psychoanalytic theories focus on interpersonal relationships, object relations, and self-psychology. Literature and Art: Freudian ideas have influenced countless works of literature and art, exploring themes of the unconscious, sexuality, and the complexities of human motivation. Advertising and Marketing: Understanding consumer behavior often involves applying Freudian concepts to uncover unconscious desires and motivations. Popular Culture: Psychoanalytic interpretations of popular culture, from movies to television shows, remain prevalent. It is essential to acknowledge the limitations of Freud's theories. Subsequent research has refined our understanding of the human mind, and alternative perspectives have emerged. Nevertheless, Freud's pioneering work laid the foundation for modern psychology and continues to shape our thinking about human nature. Beyond Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud, other scientific breakthroughs contributed significantly to societal transformation. For example, the development of modern physics by scientists such as Albert Einstein and Max Planck challenged our understanding of space, time, and matter. The discovery of DNA structure by James Watson and Francis Crick revolutionized biology and genetics. These and countless other scientific advancements have shaped our world and continue to drive progress. E. Challenges in Modern Times Science and technology has undeniably transformed our world, propelling us from an agrarian society to a technologically advanced global community. However, the 21st century  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science presents unprecedented challenge. The rapid pace of technological advancement, coupled with the increasing complexity of global issues, has created a complex landscape for scientific research and communication. The intersection of science, technology, and society is increasingly intricate. While scientific breakthroughs offer immense potential for addressing global challenges such as climate change, disease, and poverty, they also raise profound ethical dilemmas. Public perception of science, often influenced by misinformation and distrust, can hinder progress and policymaking. The commercialization of research and the pressure to produce immediate results can compromise the integrity of the scientific process as well. We will deal with factors that impede scientific progress, erode public trust, and distort the scientific method, which then slows down, if not stops or redirects societal progress as well. As upcoming workforce of the nation, understanding these obstacles can make you contribute in developing strategies to safeguard the integrity of science and maximize its benefits for your future career and the society. E.1 Dunning-Kruger Effect The Dunning-Kruger effect, a cognitive bias where individuals with low ability in a specific area overestimate their competence, is a particularly dangerous challenge for science. Especially in a time where information is spread fast without proper evaluation or review, the Dunning-Kruger effect is a highly dangerous factor in the spread of false information. This phenomenon has manifested itself in several ways in the recent years: Flat Earth Movement: The resurgence of flat earthers in various social media platforms instilling false information to the viewer causes the erosion of trust in actual science. People who are engaging with these channels tend to be wrongfully skeptical of other scientific principles, breaking well-established, researched, and reviewed scientific content accumulated over the years. Anti-Vaccine Sentiment: A subset of individuals may dismiss the overwhelming scientific consensus on vaccine safety and efficacy, often citing personal anecdotes or misinformation as evidence. This can lead to outbreaks of easily- preventable diseases. Climate Change Denial: Some individuals may still reject the scientific consensus on climate change, even with visible evidence years of data-driven resources. Such individuals often cite extreme weather events, like typhoons and blizzards, as evidence against global warming. This can hinder efforts to mitigate the impacts of climate change as soon as possible. Alternative Medicine Advertisements: These kinds of medicine can indeed have the possibility to cure certain illnesses and improve overall health. However, some alternative medicine are aimed to just fool the consumers. People may be drawn  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science to unproven or ineffective treatments, such as homeopathy or acupuncture, believing them to be superior to evidence-based medicine due to advertisements and “customer accounts”. This can lead to delayed or inadequate treatment for serious health conditions. These examples highlight how the Dunning-Kruger effect can contribute to the spread of pseudoscience and undermine public health and safety. Individuals with limited scientific knowledge may be more susceptible to misinformation and conspiracy theories, making them vulnerable to exploitation by those with hidden interests. To address this challenge, it is crucial to promote science education and critical thinking skills. Being part of a scientifically literate public, we can better equip individuals to evaluate information critically and make informed decisions. In addition to that, scientists and communicators must strive to explain complex scientific concepts in understandable language, building trust and credibility with the public (Kruger & Dunning, 1999). Left to Right: Neil de Grasse Tyson, Richard Dawkins, Bill Nye E.2 False Information The rapid dissemination of information through social media and other platforms has become a major challenge for science. Misinformation (unintentional false information) and disinformation (false information made to deceive) can deviate from people experiencing the Dunning-Kruger Effect. False or misleading information about vaccines, climate change, and other scientific topics can erode public trust and hinder policymaking. Critical thinking skills, media literacy, and fact-checking are essential to combat this problem. Scientists and science communicators must work together to develop effective strategies to counter misinformation (Vosoughi, Roy, & Aral, 2018). The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the profound impact of misinformation on public health. The rapid spread of false or misleading information about the virus, its origins, prevention, and treatment undermined public health efforts and worsened the crisis. Misinformation about vaccines, mask-wearing, and the severity of the disease  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science eroded trust in health authorities and contributed to vaccine hesitancy, which then led to more and more people getting infected. Several factors contributed to the spread of COVID-19 misinformation. Social media platforms facilitated the rapid dissemination of false information through algorithms that prioritized engagement over accuracy. Political polarization and ideological biases also played a role, as people were more likely to believe information that aligned with their existing beliefs. Another thing is that, the novel nature of the virus created a lot of new information to absorb for people, saturating their thinking. People don’t know, however, that some of it was filled by misinformation and conspiracy theories. E.3 Other Challenges Among the two previously mentioned, other challenges which slow down if not impede the progress of science, technology, and society are also present in our present- day setup. Among those are: Political Interference: The politicization of science has become increasingly apparent in recent years. The COVID-19 pandemic exposed how political considerations can influence public health policies and scientific research. For example, the Trump administration's suppression of scientific evidence on climate change and its handling of the pandemic undermined public trust in government and scientific expertise (Oreskes & Conway, 2010). Replication Crisis: The inability to replicate many scientific findings has raised concerns about the reliability of research. High-profile cases of failed replications in psychology, medicine, and other fields have eroded public confidence in science. The pressure to publish and secure funding can incentivize researchers to cut corners, leading to questionable research practices (Open Science Collaboration, 2015). Ethical Considerations: Advances in science and technology raise complex ethical dilemmas. For example, the development of artificial intelligence raises questions about privacy, job displacement, and the potential for autonomous weapons. The use of gene editing technologies like CRISPR also presents ethical challenges related to human enhancement and germline modification (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2017). Funding Challenges: Declining research funding in many countries has hampered scientific progress. Competition for limited resources can lead to a focus on short- term, high-impact projects at the expense of long-term, fundamental research.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science This can hinder scientific discovery and innovation (National Science Foundation, 2020). E.4 Overcoming Challenges To address these challenges, it is essential to foster a culture of scientific literacy, promote critical thinking, and strengthen the public's trust in science. Scientists must communicate their findings effectively and engage with the public. Education plays a crucial role in equipping individuals with the skills to evaluate information critically and make informed decisions. Collaboration between scientists, policymakers, and the public is essential to navigate the complex challenges facing science in the modern world. Improving Science Communication: Scientists must effectively communicate their findings to the public in accessible and engaging ways. Initiatives like Science Communication workshops and public outreach programs can help bridge the gap between scientists and the public. Promoting Scientific Literacy: Educating the public about scientific methods, critical thinking, and media literacy is essential for combating misinformation and making informed decisions. Incorporating science education into school curricula and providing accessible science resources for adults can contribute to a more scientifically literate society. Strengthening Institutional Support: Governments and research institutions must prioritize funding for scientific research and support initiatives that promote open science, reproducibility, and ethical conduct. Investing in research infrastructure and fostering collaboration between scientists from different disciplines can also help address these challenges. Science has made remarkable contributions to human progress, but it faces significant challenges in the 21st century. By understanding the obstacles to scientific advancement and developing effective strategies to overcome them, we can protect the integrity of science and ensure its continued benefits for society. In essence, understanding the history and philosophy of science is akin to peering through the lens of time to witness the evolution of human thought. As we explore the nature of science, its philosophical underpinnings, and the methodological rigor of the scientific method, we equip ourselves with the critical tools necessary to navigate our increasingly complex world. The intellectual revolutions ignited by figures like Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud serve as testaments to the power of human inquiry and the boundless potential of scientific exploration.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science Once you embrace the historical and philosophical dimensions of science, you are not only gaining a deeper appreciation for the achievements of the past but are also cultivating the capacity to contribute to the scientific endeavors of the future. In the words of Carl Sagan, "We are a way for the cosmos to know itself," and through the lens of science, we embark on a continuous journey of self-discovery and cosmic exploration to wit, no job or interest limits it. Ultimately, a science-literate society, grounded in the principles of critical thinking and evidence-based reasoning, is essential for addressing the challenges of the 21st century. With this thinking in mind, we empower individuals to become informed citizens, capable of making sound decisions and contributing to a sustainable and prosperous future for all humanity. References:  Alata, E. J. P. (2021). A Course Module for Science, Technology, and Society. Rex Book Store.  Ariola, M. M. (2018). Science, Technology, and Society: New General Education Curriculum Compliant. Unlimited Books Library Services & Publishing Inc.  Castells, M. (2023). The Rise of the Network Society. Blackwell Publishers.  Cook, J., Nuccitelli, D., Green, S. A., & Jacobs, P. (2013). Quantifying the consensus on anthropogenic global warming in the scientific literature. Environmental Research Letters, 8(2), 024024.  Dawkins, R. (2016). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press.  Deak, M. (2023, October 11). What are the major branches of philosophy?. WorldAtlas. https://www.worldatlas.com/philosophy/what-are-the-major-branches-of- philosophy.html  eBusiness@Newcastle. (n.d.). Evolutionary economic theory - theoryhub - academic theories reviews for research and T&L. TheoryHub - Reviews of academic theories. https://open.ncl.ac.uk/theories/12/evolutionary-economic- theory/#:~:text=Evolutionary%20economics%20is%20broadly%20concerned,developm ent%20(Hodgson%2C%202019).  Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Evolutionary psychology. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/evolutionary-psychology  Evolutionary medicine. Evolutionary Medicine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/evolutionary- medicine#:~:text=Evolutionary%20medicine%20combines%20information%20from,inve stigating%20and%20understanding%20human%20disease.  Fukuyama, F. (2018). Identity: The Demand for Dignity and the Politics of Resentment. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.  Harari, Y. N. (2015). Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. HarperCollins.  IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). (2021). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.  Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1121-1134.  McNamara, D. J. (2018). Science Technology, and Society. C & E Publishing, Inc.  Mitchell, S. A., & Black, M. J. (2016). Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought. Basic Books.  National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). Human genome editing: Science, ethics, and governance. National Academies Press.  National Science Foundation. (2020). Science and Engineering Indicators. National Science Foundation.  Colegio de San Juan de Letran INTRAMUROS, MANILA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS AND SCIENCES GE12: Science, Technology, and Society Module 1: History and Philosophy of Science  Oliver, J. E., & Colgrove, J. (2019). Vaccine hesitancy and misinformation: A review of the evidence. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care, 49(1), 1-10.  Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349(6251), aac4716.  Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. (2010). Merchants of Doubt: How a handful of scientists obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming. Bloomsbury Publishing.  Pinker, S. (2021). How the Mind Works. W. W. Norton & Company.  Rosenberg, A. (2020). Philosophy of Science: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge.  United Nations Development Programme. (2023). Human Development Report 2023. United Nations Development Programme.  Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146-1151.  World Health Organization. (2021). World Health Statistics 2021: Monitoring health for the SDGs sustainable development goals. World Health Organization. Note: Some content were generated with the help of Artificial Intelligence with proper prompt engineering. AI-generated content were then curated with proper evaluation and editing.