GE 319 - The Contemporary World Coursepack PDF

Kinasang-an The Contemporary World  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Welcome Message Welcome to GE 319 - The Contemporary World It has been more than four (4...

Kinasang-an The Contemporary World  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Welcome Message Welcome to GE 319 - The Contemporary World It has been more than four (4) years when the Philippine education system set off on a track that would require it to undergo major transformation. It was a period filled with excitement and uncertainties, particularly for those in the field of education. Taking a plunge – from the enactment of the K-12 law until its implementation - into this new chapter was not without serious concerns and birth pains, but, these were somehow addressed by certain measures adopted by national government and allayed by the reformist vision and profound goals of the K – 12 program. We have seen a new generation of students ready to take on the bigger stage, armed with more knowledge, competent, and equipped with the skills and abilities needed in the 21st century yet willing to learn more. This general education course called The Contemporary World is a discussion based course that aims to inform and discover the student’s place in the growing world. It intends to impart the students with knowledge needed to be competent and excel in their future professions, to comprehend the complexities of the modern world, both domestic and global levels, and adapt to these multiple levels of social interactions. It also aims to turn the new generations of learners into critical thinkers and agents of change, in other words, this course prepares students to the new challenges that they will face after college. The module entitled KINASANG-AN: The Contemporary World captures the essence of the reality where we find ourselves at this moment, where distance has become irrelevant. Conversely, we cherish and applaud our fellows’ acts of heroism, scientific discoveries, and other milestones that indicate the triumph of humanity. Globalization has turned the fantasy of a global village into a reality. Let our learning journey begin! Best of luck to you. kinasang-an (noun) intersection Faculty Information: Name: FRANCIS N. REGINIO Email: [email protected] Contact Number: 09153264281 Office: Social Sciences Department, College of Arts and Sciences Consultation Hours: Friday 8:00 – 12:00 / 1:00 – 5:00 2|Page  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE Cover page ………………………………… 1 Welcome Message ………………………………… 2 Table of Contents ………………………………… 3 USeP Vision, Mission and Goals ………………….. 4 USeP Graduate Attributes ………………………… 5 USeP Core Values ……………………………….... 5 Course Overview ………………………………… 6 Course Assessment ……………………………….. 7 Course Map ………………………………… 8 Module 1 Overview ………………………………… 9 The Lessons ………………………………… 13-39 Module 2 Overview ……………………………….. 40 Lessons in Module 2………………………………. 41-79 Template for writing lessons …………………….. Sample Lessons / modules ……………………... Course Summary ……………………………… References …………………………….. 3|Page  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHEASTERN PHILIPPINES VISION Premier Research University in the ASEAN. MISSION USeP shall produce world-class graduates and relevant research and extension through quality education and sustainable resource management. GOALS At the end of the plan period, the University of Southeastern Philippines (USeP) aims to achieve five comprehensive and primary goals: 1. Recognized ASEAN Research University 2. ASEAN Competitive Graduates and Professionals 3. Vibrant Research Community 4. Proactive Research-based Economic Empowering Extension Services 5. Capacity for Innovative Resource Generation 4|Page  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES LEADERSHIP SKILLS Creates and inspires positive changes in the organization; exercises responsibility with integrity and accountability in the practice of one’s profession or vocation. CRITICAL AND ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS Demonstrates creativity, innovativeness, and intellectual curiosity in optimizing available resources to develop new knowledge, methods, processes, systems, and value-added technologies. SERVICE ORIENTED Demonstrates concern for others, practices professional ethics, honesty, and exemplifies socio-cultural, environmental concern, and sustainability. LIFELONG LEARNING Demonstrates enthusiasm and passion for continuous personal and professional development. PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE Demonstrates proficiency and flexibility in the area of specialization and in conveying information in accordance with global standards. CORE VALUES OF THE UNIVERSITY UNITY STEWARDSHIP EXCELLENCE PROFESSIONALISM 5|Page  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD THE COURSE OVERVIEW COURSE TITLE : GE 319 - The Contemporary World CREDIT : 3 units SEMESTER : First Semester 2020 TIME FRAME : One Semester COURSE DESCRIPTION The course introduces students to the contemporary world by examining the multifaceted phenomenon of globalization. Using the various disciplines of the social sciences, it examines the economic, social, political, technological, and other transformations that have created an increasing awareness of the interconnectedness of peoples and places around the globe. To this end, the course provides an overview of the various debates in global governance, development, and sustainability. Beyond exposing the student to the world outside the Philippines, it seeks to inculcate a sense of global citizenship and global ethical responsibility. COURSE OUTCOMES On the completion of the course, student is expected to be able to do the following: Course Outcomes Graduate Outcomes Aligned to CO1 4.1 Demonstrates Proficient and effective communication proficiency and flexibility (writing, speaking, and use of technologies) in the area of specialization CO2 Application of different analytical modes (qualitative and quantitative, artistic and 2.4 Apply scientific, scientific, textual and visual, experimental, systematic and creative observation, etc.) in tackling problem reasoning methodically CO3 3.3 Articulate one’s Capacity to personally interpret the human possible contributions to experience society and nation building CO4 Capacity to reflect critically on shared 2.3 Demonstrate critical concerns and think innovative, creative thinking skills in problem solution guided by ethical standards solving 6|Page  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD COURSE ASSESSMENT Learning Evidence and Measurement Rubrics As evidence of attaining the above learning outcomes, the student has to do and submit the following: Course Learning Description and other Details Outcomes it Evidence represents LE1 Case Studies  Case studies are conducted at the (Proposal) end of every term to assess what CO1, CO2, the students really know and what CO3, CO4 they need to practice. LE 2 Two-Minute TED  Students shall give a compact Inspired Talk//Two- informative speech on an idea that Minute Informative is worth spreading. This may focus Short on scientific, social, cultural or Or academic topics. Students could TED Script Dialogue also opt for a two-minute CO1, CO2, informative short video presenting CO3, CO4 trivial information that is related to the course-subject.  Students shall give a compact informative speech (script dialogue) on an idea that is worth spreading. Learning Evidence: LE 1 Case Study Evaluation Dimensions Accomplished Competent Beginning 6 5 4 3 2 1 Identification of Issues: Presents accurate and With a few exceptions, Does not recognize This section should detailed descriptions of identifies and outlines the problems or describe the managerial, the problems and issues the principal problems issues of the case, or financial, marketing, legal, central to the case; and issues in the identifies problems ethical, economic, provides a well-focused case; demonstrates and issues that are international, and social diagnosis of strategic an acceptable not based on facts of responsibility/sustainability issues and key problems understanding of the the case; displays issues relevant to the that demonstrates an company’s issues, little understanding of case. The section should excellent grasp of the current situation, and the issues, key also include an executive company’s present strategic challenges; problems, and the summary that provides an situation and strategic executive summary company’s present overview of the key issues challenges; descriptions provides an adequate situation and strategic and problems that are are compelling and overview of the case challenges; executive central to the case. insightful; provides a issues and problems; summary does not thorough and effective summary is missing a present a clear executive summary. few minor points, but overview of the case meets expectations. issues; main points are not outlined, or cannot be understood. Links to Course Makes appropriate and Makes appropriate but Makes inappropriate Readings and Additional powerful connections somewhat vague or little connection Research: This section between identified issues/ connections between between issues should describe the ways problems and the identified identified and the in which theoretical and strategic concepts issues/problems and concepts studied in empirical research are studied in the course concepts studied in the readings; related and can be readings and lectures; readings and lectures; supplements case applied to the central supplements case study demonstrates limited study, if at all, with issues and problems in with relevant and command of the incomplete research the case. thoughtful research and analytical tools and documentation. documents all sources of studied; supplements information. case study with limited research. 7|Page  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Analysis and Presents a balanced, in- Provides an Simply repeats facts Evaluation: This section depth, and critical acceptable analysis of identified in the case should present an assessment of the facts most of the issues and and does not discuss analysis of the central of the case in light of problems in the case; the relevance of these issues and problems in relevant empirical and in most instances, facts; fails to draw the case. This analysis theoretical research; analysis is adequately conclusions, or should be informed by develops insightful and supported by theory conclusions are not relevant theory and well-supported and empirical data; justified or supported; empirical data and should conclusions using appropriate does not present lead to a set of reasoned, sound, and conclusions are relevant research or conclusions that are informed judgments. outlined and data; shows no critical supported by appropriate summarized. examination of case evidence. issues. Writing Mechanics and Demonstrates clarity, Occasional grammar Writing is unfocused, Formatting Guidelines: conciseness and or spelling errors, but rambling, or contains Writing mechanics and correctness; formatting is still a clear serious errors; poorly formatting are observed. appropriate and writing is presentation of ideas; organized and does free of grammar and lacks organization. not follow specified spelling errors. guidelines Learning Evidence: LE2: Two-Minute TED Inspired Talk//Two-Minute Informative Short Beyond Expected Satisfactory Acceptable Unacceptable Area to Assess Expectation (4) (3) (2) (1) (5) The content The content of The content The content The content of of the the speech of the speech of the the speech speech covers the covers the speech covers the covers the topic includes topic includes covers the topic is topic in essential facts most topic severely depth and essential includes lacking in despite the information; facts and some information time Subject information; essential and detail; constraints; knowledge Subject facts and Subject Subject appears to be knowledge information; knowledge Content and knowledge is good, appears to be Subject appears to be Organization excellent, organized in a good, knowledge clearly lacking, organized in manner that is organized in a appears to organized is a manner understandabl manner that be haphazard and that it not e. is acceptable, confusing to only understandab organized in the audience. understanda le. a manner ble but that is captures understanda audience ble. attention and inspiration. The content The content of The content The content The content of of the the speech is of the speech of the the speech is speech is well-thought is moderately speech is mediocre and well-thought out and has thought out thought out is not thought out and has high and has a although a out well. It has a very high informative good little lacking. very little or no informative and informative It has informative Informative and and educational and informative and Educational Value educational value. It is very educational and educational value. It is interesting to value. It is educational value. It does highly the audience. interesting to value. It is not appear interesting to the audience. somewhat interesting to the interesting to the audience. audience. the audience. Speaking Quality and The speech The speech The speech There are The student Delivery was very was was moment made no 8|Page  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD interesting, interesting, interesting, when the attempt at delivered delivered delivered speech was speaking; smoothly generally generally uninteresting and smoothly, smoothly, , and flawlessly, keeping the keeping the distracting; keeping the audience audience the speakers audience relatively relatively was able to focused on focused on the focused on establish the speaker speaker for the speaker some from start to most of the for most of rapport with finish; time; the the time; the the rapport with speakers was speakers was audience. the audience able to able to was establish establish excellent rapport with rapport with the audience the audience for the most for the most part part. The student The student The student The student The student exhibited exhibited exhibited exhibited made no comprehensi preparation some some attempt at ve and practice preparation preparation speaking; preparation for the speech; and practice and practice and practice exhibiting for the for the for the confidence and speech; there speech; speech; stage were 1 or two exhibiting Presence/Confidence exhibiting presence for moments in exemplary exemplary majority of the the speech confidence confidence speech were anxiety and stage and stage was evident presence. presence. but did not distract the overall performance of the speech. The video is The video is of The video is The video The video has of excellent very good of good audio needs poor audio and audio and audio and and video improvement video quality video quality video quality quality and on audio and and did not and made and made use made use of video quality make use of use of of effective graphics and and made effective Audio and Video effective graphics and transitions. use of little graphics and Quality graphics and transitions. graphics and transitions. transitions. transitions or has ineffective use of graphics and transitions. 9|Page  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Learning Evidence: LE2: Script Dialogue Expected Satisfactory Acceptable Unacceptable Area to Assess (4) (3) (2) (1) Writing shows high Writing is coherent Writing is coherent Writing lacks degree of attention to and logically and logically logical logic and reasoning organized with organized. Some organization. It of points. Unity transitions used points remain shows some clearly leads the between ideas and misplaced and coherence but Organization reader to the paragraphs to create stray from the ideas lack unity. conclusion and stirs coherence. Overall topic. Transitions Serious errors. thought regarding the unity of ideas is evident but not topic. present. used throughout essay. Content indicates Content indicates Content indicates Shows some synthesis of ideas, in- original thinking and thinking and thinking and Level of depth analysis and develops ideas with reasoning applied reasoning but most Content evidences original sufficient and firm with original ideas are thought and support evidence. thought on a few underdeveloped for the topic. ideas. and unoriginal. Main points well Main points well Main points are Main points lack developed with high developed with present with limited detailed quality and quantity quality supporting detail and development. Development support. Reveals details and quantity. development. Ideas are vague high degree of critical Critical thinking is Some critical with little evidence thinking. weaved into points thinking is present. of critical thinking. Essay is free of Essay has few Most spelling, Spelling, distracting spelling, spelling, punctuation, punctuation, and punctuation, and punctuation, and and grammatical grammar correct grammatical errors grammatical errors; errors allowing allowing reader to create distraction, Grammar and absent of fragments, reader to follow ideas progress though making reading Mechanics comma splices, and clearly. Very few essay. Some difficult; fragments, run-ons. fragments or run-ons. errors remain. comma splices, run-ons evident. Errors are frequent. Shows outstanding Attains college level Approaches Mostly in style going beyond style; tone is college level usage elementary form usual college level; appropriate and of some variety in with little or no rhetorical devices rhetorical devices sentence patterns, variety in sentence Style and tone used used to enhance diction, and structure, diction, effectively; creative content; sentence rhetorical devices. rhetorical devices use of sentence variety used or emphasis. structure and effectively. coordination Meets all formal and Meets format and Meets format and Fails to follow assignment assignment assignment format and requirements and requirements; requirements; assignment evidences attention margins, spacing, generally correct requirements; to detail; all margins, and indentations are margins, spacing, incorrect margins, Format spacing and correct; essay is neat and indentations; spacing and indentations are and correctly essay is neat but indentation; correct; essay is neat assembled. may have some neatness of essay and correctly assembly errors. needs attention. assembled with professional look. 10 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Other Requirements and Assessment Activities (AA) Aside from the final output, the student will be assessed at other times during the term by the following: Course Assessment Description and other Details Outcomes it Activity represents AA1 Quizzes Quizzes will be given after each CO1, CO2, topic. Types of quizzes will vary CO3, CO4 depending on the topic. AA2 Critique Papers Activities may be bring home or in CO1, CO2, class. This is to be given after each CO3, CO4 topic. Grading System The final grade in this course will be composed of the following items and their weights in the final grade computation: Assessment Grade Source (Score or Rubric Percentage of Final Item Grade) Grade AA1 Score 25% AA2 Score 25% LE1 Rubric Grade 25% LE2 Rubric Grade 25% 100% Passing Grade 3.0 Passing Grade conditions: Submission of complete requirements 11 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD The Course Map CONTEMPORARY WORLD Module 4 Module 3 Module 1 Module 2 Global Population A World of Regions Introduction to Structures of and Mobility, and and A World of Ideas Globalization Globalization Sustainable Development Lesson 1: Definition and Lesson 1: The Global Lesson 1: Global Lesson 1: The Global Concepts of globalization Economy Divides: The North and City South Lesson 2: Globalization Lesson 2: Market Lesson 2: The Global and its impact on political Integration Lesson 2: Asian Demography and economic world Regionalism Lesson 3: The Global Lesson 3: Global Interstate System and Lesson 3: Global Media Migration Global Governance Cultures Lesson 4: Sustainable Lesson 4: The Development Goals Globalization of Religion Lesson 5: Global Food Security and Global Citizenship OUTCOME: A student who is OUTCOME: A student who OUTCOME: A student who is able to reflect critically on shared is able to personally able to communicate concerns and think innovative, interpret the human proficiently and effectively creative solutions guided by experience ethical standards. OUTCOME: A student who is able to apply different analytical modes (qualitative and quantitative, artistic and scientific, textual and visual, experimental, observation, etc.) in tackling problem methodically. 12 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Module 1 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBALIZATION Module Overview The phrases of Arthur C. Clarke; “good things come in small packages,” “it’s a small world after all,” “the world has shrunk” describes our global conditions. The concept of the shrinking world actually has to do with how much technology has impacted the world we live in today. It has taken place because of the combination of human feats including modern transportation, information and communication technology, medical advancement, and technological innovations. Experiences of people hundred years ago scoff at stories of how they had to walk to the destination they wished to go or travel by stage coach; no one could travel very far, which made the world seem so big. In either case, it took a lot of time and required unusual effort to get to one’s place of destination. All these discomforts related to travelling have disappeared in the modern era. Nowadays, if someone wanted to travel anywhere in the world, they can simply fly in an airplane. In a number of hours, you have arrived at the destination you are trying to reach. Similarly, since people take their phones with them wherever they go, they have the whole world at their fingertips. Technology is the foundation of our world. In effect, the world appears smaller today than it actually is. This module is largely devoted in establishing firmly the concept of globalization. The phenomenon and practice associated with the concept of globalization shall be discussed. This is imperative to understand better the related concepts, topics and principles which shall be discussed in the succeeding modules. Module Outcomes By the end of this module, we hope to achieve the following objectives:  Define what Globalization is and what it stands for in our contemporary world;  Differentiate the competing conceptions of globalization and undermine the various schools of thought and paradigms on Globalization;  Equip students with 21st century learning and develop higher order thinking skills that will lead towards a deeper understanding of Globalization and its role in the world; in the Philippine society as well as its role in the individual formation of the students in relation to their future respective professions. 13 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Lesson 1 Introduction to Globalization Learning Outcomes By the end of this lesson you should be able to:  Define what Globalization is and what it stands for in our contemporary world;  Differentiate the competing conceptions of globalization and undermine the various schools of thought and paradigms on Globalization, and;  Understand the raison d’être of Globalization, its goals and aspirations; Time Frame: 1 Week Overview In today’s constantly changing world, societies are becoming increasingly interdependent and have more social, economic, political and cultural relationships. Similarly, the problems and issues that characterize the contemporary world are interconnected and multidimensional. As a result, the various actors—states, organizations, and citizens—are called upon to work together to find global solutions. To study these problems and issues, one must see them from both geographic and historical perspectives, and consider the economic and political dimensions. This module is largely devoted in establishing firmly the concept of globalization. In this chapter, the phenomenon and practice associated with the concept of globalization will be discussed. This is imperative to understand better the related concepts, topics and principles which shall be discussed in the succeeding lessons of this module. Activity (Let’s Get Started!) Think of words or phrases that comes in your mind when we say of Globalization.  What is meant by globalization? 14 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Analysis (Let’s Think About it!) Now think about the questions below:  Why are theories on globalization important?  What are some challenges faced by the contemporary world? Abstraction (Let’s Explore!) Globalization and its meaning The term “globalization” has several contending meanings. We can rundown some of the widely accepted definitions of globalization to prove this point. For instance, the definition of Giddens explains the term as the “intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happening is shaped by events stirring many miles away and vice versa” (1990:64). The interconnectedness of every human-person brought about by technological changes seems to be a common understanding of globalization. Also, the understanding of globalization as defined by Robertson contributed to a concept that “refers both to the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole…” (Robertson, 1992: 8). Similarly, Harvey (1989) introduced globalization as the compression of time of space and the eradication of distance. The Sunny Levin Institute looks at globalization as a process of interaction and integration among the people, communities, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. The said process has then effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development, and on every human well-being in societies around the world (Steger, 2005). On the other hand, a group of globalization scholars does not subscribe to the sociological viewpoint. Instead, they argue that internationalization and multi- nationalization are phases that precede globalization because of the latter heralds the end of the state system as the nucleus of human activities (Grupo de Lisboa, 1994, quoted in DeSoussa Santos, 2002:68). They explain that the activities and developments in globalization have taken place outside the formal structures of the nation-state. Globalization marks the increasing irrelevance of the nation-state, whose status as the dominant political organization was acknowledge by the Treaty of Westphalia. In short, accordingly to this group scholars, we might witness the end of the nation-state. Others explain globalization from the economic viewpoints; they think that the phenomenon is dominated by global economic activities like the neoliberal, the reduction of tariffs, the creation of transnational corporations, and improvement of multilateral trade organization. The existence of these several definitions of globalization clearly point out that there can be as many definitions as there are scholars studying it. What can explain the existence of competing definition of globalization? Primarily, this can be attributed to the diversity of disciplines that have studied the phenomenon. Globalization was first used as a term in the academic circles in the 15 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD decades of 1960s and 1970s (Nederveen Peterse, 2012; Steger, 2005) but had gained wide interest in the 1990s. Scholars from the traditional disciples of political science, economics, history, sociology, and philosophy have examined globalization using the analytical tools and methods provided by their respective discipline. Apparently, their ideas and analyses can only shed light on certain aspects of globalization. Historians, for instance, are more interested in determining whether globalization is really a modern phenomenon. Economists, on the other hand, look into the changing patterns of international trade and commerce as well as the unequal distribution of wealth. Meanwhile, political scientists focus more on the impact of the forces of globalization, such as the international non- governmental organizations and international organizations, on the state and vice versa. These diverse focal points and research interests across disciplines have resulted in competing definitions of globalizations. Globalization as a process, condition, and ideology In the absence of a generally accepted definition, Steger (2005) explains that globalization has been commonly understood either as a process, a condition, or an ideology. Globalization as a process. It is viewed as a multidimensional set of social processes that generate and increase “worldwide social interdependencies and exchanges while at the same time fostering in people a growing awareness of deepening connections between the local and the distant” (Steger, 2005:13). This view argues that globalization is about the compression of time and space brought about the changes in technology and political, cultural, and economic aspects of human existence. If globalization is viewed as a process, which denotes happening over a stretch of time, can we trace its beginning? In short, when did globalization start? Again, looking for an answer to this question is a difficult task since globalization scholars disagree on an answer. Scholars specializing in international relations, political science, media studies, and economics date globalization from the 1970s, with the formation of global value chains and accelerated communication (Nederveen Pieterse, 2012). Another variant of this periodization refers to the neoliberal globalization, 1980-2000. In sociology, the timeline stretches wider since the point of interest is modernity, which began the period of Renaissance, followed by the Enlightenment, then the French Revolution and lasted up until the period of Industrialization in the late 1700s and throughout the 1800s. In political economy, as well as the Marxist perspective, the origin of globalization can be traced back to the 150s, following Marx’s dictum “the conquest of the world market marks the birth of modern capitalism” (Ibid: 3). Therefore, the historic moments of globalization are 1500s and 1800s, considered by political economists as the birth of modern capitalism. However, critics of these alternatives of contemporary periodization, which focus on modernity, raise the issues of “Eurocentrism” and “intellectual apartheid” (Hobson, 2004). Another issue raised is that by using modern capitalism (1500s) as a cut-off is equivalent to ignoring earlier forms and infrastructures of capitalism (Nederveen, Pieterse, 2012). 16 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Disciplines Time Agency/Domain Keywords Political Science, 1980 “Internationalization of the Competitor states, post- International Relations State”, INGO’s international politics, Global civil society Development Studies IMF, World Bank Debt crisis, structural adjustment policies Geography Space, Place Local Global interaction, Glocalization Economics 1970 Multinational corporations, Global corporations, world technologies, banks, finance product, global value chains, hedge funds new economy, sovereign wealth funds Cultural studies Media, film, advertising, ICT Global village, McDonaliation, Disneyfication, hyrbidization Philosophy 1950 Ethics Global problems, global ethics Sociology 1800 Modernity Capitalism, industrialism, Political Economy 1500 Modern Capitalism urbanization, nation-states Conquest of the World Market Table 1: Globalization according to Social Science and Humanities Disciplines A different way of tracing the roots of globalization is by looking for signs of globality, which is explained earlier as the thickening of social linkages between people from different parts of the world. What we should look for are historical evidence of growing worldwide connectivity. It implies a longer timeline because increasing connectivity is not a recent trend (Nederveen Pieterse, 2012). Viewed as such, globalization has no definite exact beginning. From the perspective, globalization is spurred by innovations in transportation and communication technologies, and creation of institutions of commerce. Figure 1 Globalization from an economic perspective 17 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD In this sense, economists emphasize that the beginning of globalization was in the 1820s when commodity prices across continents converged (O’Rourke and Williamson, 2002, 2004). For Flynn and Giraldez (2006), globalization is synonymous to permanent global trade, which began when all the major regions of the world “exchange products continuously…and on a scale that generated deep and lasting impacts on all trading partners” (Ibid: 244). Following the line of thinking of economists, some scholars argue that the emergence of world economy should be taken as a threshold of globalization. Globalization as a Condition. Is also referred to by scholars as globality. Scholte (2008) refers to globality as social condition characterized by trans-planetary connectivity and supra-territoriality. In terms of trans-planetary relations, globality is about the establishment of social links between people located at different places of our planet. Here our planet is not treated as a collection of geographical units but as a social space or an arena of social life. Meanwhile, supra-territorial relations are “social connections that transcend territorial geography” (Scholte, 2018: 1480). In other words, globalization as a social condition is characterized by thick economic, political and cultural inrterconnections and global flows that render political borders and economic barriers irrelevant (Steger, 2008). The experience of Bara’a and her family fled their home in Syria and are currently living with her three children in a refugee camp in Bekaa Valley, Lebanon. Her story was shared by Global One, which supports mothers and children through hygiene and health supplies as well as training local women as midwives to support long term development. Bara’a still experiences trauma surrounding the birth of her youngest child, Rouba, five years ago. Her hands shake as she recalls the memory. Unable to breastfeed her daughter due to mental exhaustion, Bara’a had to rely on donations to buy formula milk to feed Rouba. But once the donations ran out after a week, Bara’a had no choice but to feed her newborn a mixture of sugar and water. Alongside this, she had to take out loans to provide nappies for all of her children, who still wet themselves due to mental trauma. The uncertainty of their future makes life even more difficult for Bara’a, but this doesn’t stop her from dreaming: “My only dream is to send my children to school… I am so worried about their future.” 18 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Figure 2 Source: https://www.globalgiving.org/projects/box-for-life/?rf=learn This photo of Bara’a and her children, which was spread in various social media networks, is a fine example of globalization as a process and condition as it moved people from across the world to express their concern over the plight of the Syrian refugees. Globalization as an ideology. Steger (2005), following the line of reasoning of globalization scholar Michael Freeden, explains that globalization exists in peple’s consciences because it consists of a set of coherent and complementary ideas and beliefs about the global order. In other words, globalization is a political belief system that benefits a certain class. He argues that globalization as an ideology is defined by six (6) core claims. As such, for Globalization as a process, condition, and ideology, please refer to the file attached (re: Ideologies of Globalization.pdf) 19 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Application (Let’s Do It!) Learner Worksheet 1 #Hash – tag this! Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________ Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________ Below are photos that depict the various negative facets associated with Globalization. Each student must present a hash tag for each of the selected photos. Student must focus on the following key questions. 1. How is Globalization depicted in the photo; how does this apply to the Philippines? 2. If this is a perceived issue or problem, what do you think should be done to address or solve them? Using the selected photo; be able to craft/draw an illustration of your own depicting a more constructive/positive version of the picture, and explains why you come up with such illustration. Hash-tag your new picture illustration. A B C D E F 20 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Submitting Your Work. If you do not have Internet Connectivity, neatly detach this page from your module and submit via University Drop Box or by courier/ mail together with your other Learner Activity Worksheets once you reach the prescribed Learning Checkpoint. If you have Internet connectivity, you may answer directly on the online version of this worksheet through the University Virtual Environment. Closure Well done! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module. If you have questions or need to make clarifications take note of them in the space provided below to ask your Course Professor through direct messaging or through the University Virtual Environment (UVE). Notes from this Lesson Now that you have completed Lesson 1, let us move on to the next lesson in this module. 21 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Lesson 2 Globalization and its Impact on Political and Economic world Learning Outcomes Now let us move on to a closer examination on the theoretical paradigms associated with globalization. By the end of this lesson you should be able to:  Identify the underlying philosophies of the varying definitions of globalization;  Evaluate the impact of globalization on political and economic world;  Equip students with 21st century learning and develop higher order thinking skills that will lead towards a deeper understanding of Globalization and its role in the world; in the Philippine society as well as its role in the individual formation of the students in relation to their future respective professions. Time Frame: 1 Week Introduction The advent of globalization in the 1970s had affected greatly the academic world as it immediately gained the interest and attention of most social scientists, who were occupied with social phenomena related to globalization. The impact can be seen in the surge of scholarly works about globalization. Over the years, the literature on globalization has been enhanced with the inclusion of new research areas and topics, such as studies on transnational sexualities, global tourism, and evolution of state institutions, the restructuring of work and the improvement of working conditions, transnational care-giving, and the global media to name a few. Clearly, the wide array of globalization-related research topics that scholars can choose from points to the ubiquity of the effects of globalization (Appelbaum and Robinson, 2005). By way of reiteration, the increasing literature on globalization reflects the enormity of human activities that can be studied. Also, it shows the extent of globalization’s impact on human lives; it shows how different we have become compared to our predecessors in terms of the level of superiority, sophistication and cosmopolitanism. The globalization literature suggests that there are two major branches of research: (1) those studying specific problems or issues as they relate to globalization; (2) those studying the concept of globalization itself – theorizing the very nature of the process. Both areas entail a great deal of theorizing in order to make sense of the various phenomena comprising globalization. How do we theorize on this phenomenon that we call globalization? What types of theories have been developed to explain social change in the 21 st century? Are the major theories of the traditional social science disciplines adequate to explain the various phenomena within globalization? Or, do we need new theoretical models? 22 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Activity (Let’s Get Started!) Create an image showing your connections to the rest of the world based on the music you listen to, using the following questions. 1. Is the core of the process economic, political or cultural? Is there an underlying material or an ideational determinacy? Are there multiple determinacy and how would they be ordered? 2. What is the relationship between globalization and the nation-state? Is the nation-state being undermined or has it retained its primacy and relevance? Or, has the nation-state experienced unprecedented transformation due to globalization? Does globalization involved internationalization or transnationalization? 3. Lastly, to what extent is the relationship between social structure and territoriality being redefined by globalization? What is the relationship between the local and the global? Analysis (Let’s Think About it!)  What are factors that are having a major impact on the environment? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________  What impact are economic development and rapid population growth having on the environment? ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ 23 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Abstraction (Let’s Explore!) The questions mentioned in the activity and analysis shall form the backbone of the discussion on the theoretical paradigms associated with globalization. 1. World Systems Paradigm. As discussed by Immanuel Wallerstein, globalization viewed not as a recent phenomenon but virtually synonymous with the birth and spread of world capitalism. For him the appropriate unit of analysis for macro-social inquiry in the modern world is neither class, nor state/society, or country, but the larger historical system, in which these categories are located. This paradigm adheres to the ideas that capitalism has created a global enterprise that swept the 19th century leading to the present time. That is why the followers of this paradigm argue that globalization is not at all a new process but something that is just continuing and evolving. A key structure of the capitalist world-system is the division of the world into three great regions, or geographically based and hierarchical organized tiers. The first is the core, or the powerful and developed centers of the system, originally comprised of Western Europe and later expanded to include North America and japan. The second is the periphery, those regions that have been forcibly subordinated to the core through colonialism or other means, and in the formative years of the capitalist world-system would include Latin America, Africa, Asia, the Middle East and Eastern Europe. Third is the semi-periphery, compromised of those states and regions that were previously in the periphery and are moving up. Another key feature of this world-system is the centrality and immanence of the inter-state system and inter-state rivalry to the maintenance and reproduction of the world-system. The world-system paradigm does not see any transcendence of the nation-state system or the centrality of nation-states as the principal component units of a larger global system. 2. Global Capitalism Paradigm. The theories under this school of thought treat globalization as a novel stage in the evolving system of world capitalism. As such, globalization has its own unique features that distinguish it from earlier periods. They focus on new global production and financial system; both are seen to have superseded earlier national forms of capitalism. They also emphasize the rise of processes that cannot be framed within the nation- state/inter-state system, which lies at the core of the world-system theory and most traditional macro-social theories. The seminal studies of Sklair (2000, 2002) have showcased the theory of the global system which espoused the transnational phenomena. His theory argues that the TCC has emerged as a new class that brings together several social groups who see their own interest in an expanding global capitalist system: the executives of transnational corporations; globalizing bureaucrats, politicians, and professionals, and consumerist elites in the media and the commercial sector (Sklair, 2000). Meanwhile, the major students Robinson (2003, 2004) have advanced a related theory of global capitalism involving three planks: transnational production, transnational capitalists and a transnational state. For him, globalization creates new forms of transnational class relations across borders 24 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD and local communities, in ways quite distinct from the old national class structures and international class conflicts and alliances. 3. The Network Society School of Thought. In its simplest explanation this paradigm of globalization does not describe to the contention that capitalism fuels globalization. Instead, it puts forth the premise that technology and technological change are the underlying causes of the several processes that comprise globalization. In fact, this idea is articulated in the important works of Manuel Castells called “The Rise of the Network Society (1996, 1997, 1998), which features his technologistic approach to globalization. He advanced the notion of the “new economy” as (1) informational, knowledge- based; (2) global, in that production is organized on a global scale; and (3) networked in that productivity is generated through global networks of interaction. In Castells’ view, (1996:188), the concept of the network society is closely associated with interpretation of the social implications of globalization and the role of electronic communications technologies in society. The definition of a network society given by Castells (2004 p. 3) is that it is 'a society whose social structure is made up of networks powered by micro-electronics-based information and communications technologies.' As Castells shows in his book, historically, there have always been social networks: the key factor that distinguishes the network society is that the use of ICTs helps to create and sustain far-flung networks in which new kinds of social relationships are created. Castells' analysis provides three processes in a broad historical context for the development paradigms. (1) The significance of economic restructuring that created the conditions for the emergence of the open market development paradigm; (2) weakening the nation state and deepening processes of social inclusion, and; (3) exclusion between and within countries. The cultural movements were significant because they created the conditions for emergence of an opposing 'human-capabilities centred' development paradigm that focuses on human rights. The values of individual autonomy and freedom espoused by this cultural change shaped the open network structure for communication. As Castells concludes, 'the culture of freedom was decisive in inducing network technologies which, in turn, were the essential infrastructure for business to operate its restructuring in terms of globalization' (Castells 2004 p. 22). 4. Space, Time and Globalization. For Anthony Giddens, the conceptual essence of globalization is ‘time-space distanciation’. Giddens (1990:64) defines time-space distanciation ‘as the intensification of worldwide social relations which occurring many miles away and vice versa’ – social relations are ‘lifted out’ from local contexts of interaction and restructured across time and space. For him, the debate is about the consequences of globalization, not about the reality of globalization, thus, “globalization is fundamentally social, cultural, (and) political, not just economic" (Giddens, 2000). Thus, globalization is about macro-systemic changes in the global marketplace and the nature of sovereignty, but it is also about the here and now, about transformations that affect our daily and emotional lives. 25 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Giddens (2000) argued that the driving force behind globalization is the information revolution. "Instantaneous communication changes almost everything. It invades the texture of everyday life, but it also provides for the restructuring of other institutions." The outcome is a highly complex set of processes that often take contradictory shapes, but one can simplify the concept with a three-fold image. Globalization pulls away from the nation- state, removing control from national governments in such areas as economic and trade policy. But globalization also pushes down from the state, allocating new resources for local economies, facilitating the emergence of local cultural identities, and strengthening sub-national units of governance. Finally, globalization squeezes sideways, creating new cultural, economic, and political regions that cut across national boundaries. Another key figure in the globalization theories involving space and time is Saskia Sassen’s The Global City (1991), which has had an exceptionally broad impact across the disciplines and left an indelible mark on the emergent field of globalization studies. His study is grounded in a larger body of literature on world cities that view world-class cities as sites of a major production, finances, or coordinating of the world economy within an international division of labor, and more recent research on ‘globalizing cities’. Sassen proposes that a new spatial order is emerging under globalization based on a network of global cities. These cities are sites of specialized services for transnationally mobile capital that is so central to the global economy. Another concept introduced and popularized by Roland Robertson is the term ‘glocalization’. This catchy term means that the ideas about home, locality and community have been extensively spread around the world for the local be globalized. And, the stress upon the significance of the local can be viewed as one ingredient of the overall globalization process (Robertson, 1995). He suggests replacing the concept of globalization with the concept of "glocalization". In using "glocalization" rather than globalization, Robertson wishes to blur the boundaries between the local and the global. Former views in sociology saw globalization as a contrast between the local and the global as theorized it in terms of action-reaction patterns (Robertson, 2014). Robertson offers instead to see the local itself as one of the aspects of globalization. For example, the search for "home" and "roots" are a counter reaction to globalization but rather a need structured by it. One of the ramifications of using the term glocalization instead of globalization is that claims of homogeneity of culture under globalization lose ground. Even though intercultural ties are increasingly fastened throughout the world, Robertson believes that we are definitely not heading for a united human culture. The reason is that in glocaliztion these ties and influences are selected, processed and consumed according to the local culture's needs, taste and social structure (Robertson 2014, 447-459). 26 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD 5. Transnationality and Transnationalism. In the globalization literature, transnationalism generally refers to an umbrella concept encompassing a wide variety of transformative processes, practices and developments that take place simultaneously at the local level and global level. Transnational processes and practices are defined broadly as the multiple ties and interactions – economic, political, social and cultural – that link people, communities and institutions across the borders of nation-states. As stated by William Robinsons in his paper on the ‘Theory of Globalization’, scholars such as Levitt (2001), Smith and Guarnizo (1998) and Portes and his colleagues (1999) point to the novel character of transnational links in the era of globalization. Transnational ties among recent immigrants are more intense than those of their historical counterparts due to the spread and relatively inexpensive character of travel and communications and that the impact of these ties are increased by the local and national context in which they occur (Levitt, 2001: Portes, 1995; Portes et al, 1999). Robinson (1998) states that, just as “social structure is becoming transnationalized; an epistemic shift is required in concurrence with this ontological shift.” The major topics addressed by transnational studies include: economic globalization, the transnationalization of the state, classes, political processes, and culture, and the current integration processes taking place around the world through formal organizations such as NAFTA and the European Union (Robinson 1998). Transnational perspectives provide deeper understanding into a number of globally contingent social, economic, and political processes including social movements, governance and politics, terrorism, political violence, and organized crime among others. Example: One of the most fruitful areas of study has been transnational migration. Research in this area looks at issues such as the salient interaction with the receiving society’s institutions, the migration policies of states, the role of discrimination in limiting access to the institutions of the receiving society’s civil society, access to computers within the home and receiving societies, and the costs and other hardships that affect groups of migrants (Kivisto 2001). A growing research agenda concerns the emergence of civil society, state, and non-state organizations, developed in order to respond to issues of transnational immigration. Identity is continually challenged by the fluid legal and social characterizations of migrants created and adapted to local, national, and international organizations. 6. Global Culture paradigm. Stresses its definition as a group of human beings whose members identify with each other, on the basis of distinctiveness measured by combinations of cultural, linguistic, religious, behavioral and/or biological traits. This definition borrows from the UNESCO (2005) philosophy, which reaffirmed their famous ’15 points’, namely: “National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups: and the cultural traits of such groups have no demonstrated genetic connection with racial traits.” (UNESCO, 1950, p. 6). Such theory emphasize the rapid growth of the mass media and 27 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD resultant global cultural flows and images in recent decades, evoking the image famously put forth by Marshall McLuhan of ‘the global village’. Cultural theories of globalization have focused on such phenomena as globalization and religion, nations and ethnicity, global consumerism, global communications and the globalization of tourism. For instance, Ritzer (1993, 2002) coined the now popularized term ‘McDonalization’ to describe the sociocultural processes by which the principle of the fast-food restaurant came to dominate more and more sectors of US and later world society. Ritzer, in this particular homogenization approach, suggest that Weber’s process of rationalization became epitomized in the late 20th century in the organization of McDonald’s restaurants along seemingly efficient, predictable and standardized lines – an instrumental rationality (the most efficient means to a given end) – yet results in an ever deeper substantive irrationality, such as alienation, waste, low nutritional value and the risk of health problems, and so forth. These mentioned approaches are just some of the major theoretical underpinnings that seek to provide a clear conceptualization of globalization. While it cannot be denied that the formulation of these theories have resulted in seemingly endless academic debates centered on the correct way of interpreting globalization, they have also helped us in correcting some of the wrong notions and misconceptions about globalization. The discussion that follows is focused on these misconceptions. NOTE: for theoretical paradigms please refer to the file attached (re: Theories of Globalization.pdf) Misconceptions about globalization Scholte (2008) in his attempt to clarify the meaning of globalization, criticizes the several flawed analyses of globalization pointing out that they end in failure to produce new knowledge. In other words, he defines globalization by telling us what it is not. Below are the misconceptions of globalization. a. Globalization as internationalization Although the terms internationalization and globalization are interchangeable there is a big difference in their meanings. Internationalization includes activities by entities such as corporation, states, international organizations, private organizations and even individuals with reference to national borders and national governments. Globalization, on the other hand, includes a gamut of human activities that do not require reference to a state’s national borders. For instance, exchanges of romantic words in social media platform such as Facebook between a Filipino located in the Philippines and a German residing in the country fall within globalization do not need their respective government’s permission to do so. 28 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Globalization occurs in this “Facebook era”, where social networking sites have drawn people closer more than ever. Facebook is a social networking site with at over 2.7 billion active users in the second quarter of 2020, and there were 73 170 000 Facebook users in Philippines in January 2020, which accounted for 65.9% of its entire population. The majority of them were women - 53%. Figure 3 Source: https://www.facebook.com/ People aged 18 to 24 were the largest user group (24 000 000). The highest difference between men and women occurs within people aged 18 to 24, where women lead by 2 000 000. 29 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Structurally, globalization is made both possible and necessary by the development of two transforming technologies – transportation and communication (Boyd & Mitchell, 2005). Simultaneously, communication technologies carrying hundreds of simultaneous high-fidelity, real-time, voice and video channels by satellites and over the internet are giving global reach to political ideas, competitive price/value comparisons, instant news, social organization networks and dozens of other innovations in the way people access events, ideas, information and opinions. Transportation and communication technology innovations are no longer optional attributes to be used primarily by cultural or political elites. Ordinary citizens have nearly universal access to these technologies and are reaping substantial social, political, cultural and economic benefits. Virtually all important social institutions, as well as entrepreneurs, intellectual, political and cultural leaders, ignore the global reach of ideas and material things now available to nearly everyone at their peril. Another example, from the social process transformation perspective, globalization is having a transformative effect on the core functions of institutions of higher education. Under the influence of social interaction globalization, higher educational institutions are developing a consumerist mentality which transforms education into a product exchangeable in an open market (Marginson & Considine, 2000; Altbach, 2004, Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004). Slaughter and Leslie argue that “the academy has shifted from a liberal arts core to an entrepreneurial periphery,” in which “marketization” of the academics leads to the rise of “research and development with commercial purpose” (1997, p. 208). This commercial purpose allows higher education institutions to compete for the monetary or human resources available globally to benefit their institutions (Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004). Economic globalization is also turning knowledge into a commodity; a commodity whose value depends on the ease and security with which it is created, stored and transferred from producers to users, as well on its utility in the production of other goods and services. As knowledge is being commodified, however, social, political and cultural globalization turn knowledge production and distribution into symbolic status and power resources with significant consequences. Seeking the power and prestige of symbolic knowledge, higher education institutions are encouraged to pursue internationalization of recruitment faculty and students and to secure recognition for knowledge production. Importantly, the Nielsen (2011) study shows, however, that the faculty and administrators pursuing this internationalization remain largely unconscious of how this activity is reinforcing the very globalization forces that are reshaping their work force and productive processes. Globalization in academy also constitutes of a wide variety of components including higher education institutions, the academic fields, scholars, and students as contributing factors. These components each hold a different position in the identification of globalization in higher education. In sum, this brief analysis of globalization reveals that wide-ranging interconnectedness trends are evident, and they directly have an influence on higher education institutions (Altbach, 2004). Many of these institutions, however, struggle as they have to respond to an ever- increasing set of global challenges such as competition or handling increasing 30 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD international populations while remaining confined by institutional structural principles passed on from an earlier, more state-centered world. On the other hand, as distinguished from globalization with its emphasis on worldwide conditions that influence perceptions of space, mobility of actions, the nature of communication and orientations to social interaction, internationalization focuses attention on the intentional actions of individual, groups and social institutions as they actively seek to cross national borders in pursuit of social, economic, political or cultural benefits. Looking at higher education institutions, Knight (1999) offers a working definition of internationalization in this domain. She sees internationalization as a matter of integrating transnational elements into the, “purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education” (p. 2). That is, colleges and universities are internationalizing their behavior when they reshape their purposes to attract international students, to deploy their programs across national borders, concentrate on internationally advantageous educational program niches, restructure work roles or compensation systems to recruit, retain or manage employees, etc. Internationalization has become more complex and comprehensive in recent decades. As noted during Congressional hearings on the International Education Act (IEA) there is now a broad consensus that internationalization of education encompasses three major areas: a) movement of scholars and students seeking training and research, b) convergence in curricular content, and c) structural arrangements that provide cross-border technical assistance and educational cooperation programs (IEA, 1966). In 1994, Kerr, Gate & Kawaoka gave less emphasis to the structural components of international cooperation, but otherwise reaffirmed these components of internationalization, In research reports prepared for ACE (2002) and the International Association of Universities (IAU) (2003) the mobility of students and faculty were seen as the primary mechanisms of internationalization (Knight, 2003). b. Globalization as liberalization Another misconception in the analyses of globalization is treating it as synonymous to liberalization. Liberalization is commonly understood as the removal of barriers and restrictions imposed by national governments so as to create an open and borderless world economy. In this sense, according to Scholte (2008:1475) globalization is realized when national governments “reduce or abolish” regulatory measures like trade barriers foreign exchange restrictions, capital controls and visa requirements”. Let us talk of the impact of trade on employment level and structure in the Philippines as example of this analysis. While globalization is regarded as a key to economic development, it is also argued that it increases concerns on poverty, threatens employment and living standards of the poor. Similar to many other developing countries, Philippines also attempted to integrate its economy in the global economy through liberalizing its investment and trade regime within the framework of the World Bank and the IMF. A review of literature specifies that although a number of cross-country studies have shown a positive association 31 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD between trade openness and economic growth, the recent work suggests that openness has robust link with long-term growth from the 1990s to 2010s globalization indicators. Thus, constructive effects of liberalization on growth remain controversial. Evidence shows that numerous highly attractive incentives offered to foreign investors, Philippines' performance in attracting the foreign investment has been improved. Also, despite the intensive trade liberalization, the trade performance has been sufficient, though the stabilization initially proved to be short-lived due to the slippages in reform procedure transpired in the form of range of tax exemption and concession leading to the execution and implementation of further stabilization methods. The recurrent efforts to stabilize the economy together with liberalization and persistent devaluation of domestic currency pushed the economy in a good circle. These developments together with liberalization contributed to higher per capita GDP growth in the Philippines, reduction in income inequality, and lower unemployment, but has no significant impact on the reduction of poverty during the period of liberalization. This outcome is a consideration of the fact that Philippines was asked by the IMF to cut its tariff rates quickly before adopting to a new system of domestic taxation. The structural adjustment programs designed by the World Bank/IMF take the poverty as a residual issue. Hence, existing anti-poverty programs in Philippines reached a small fraction of the poor because of poor targeting. Thus, for future growth and poverty reduction strategies, the issue of achieving higher growth must be mutual with overall pattern of social progress and distribution. Please check: https://www.bis.org/publ/bppdf/bispap100_q.pdf The problem with this, Scholte explains that it confines the study of globalization within the debate concerning the neoliberal macroeconomic policies. On the other side of the discussion are the business executives, academics and policymakers that have supported neoliberal policies of liberalization, privatization, deregulation, and fiscal restraint would in time bring prosperity, freedom, peace and democracy for all. And on one side, the critics in the so-called anti-globalization movement have opposed neoliberal policies arguing that a laissez faire world economy produces greater poverty, social conflict, inequality, cultural destruction, democratic deficits and ecological damage (Ibid: 1475). In addition, this misconception carries with it a political implication – that neoliberalism is the only available policy framework for a truly global world. Finally, debates about the advantages and disadvantages of laissez faire economics have gone on for centuries without involving the language of globalization. c. Globalization as universalization and westernization In the case of international developments have different aspects in today’s world so that some terms like “Universalization,” “Westernization” find interferences in social sciences and humanities studies. But these terms can generally be distinguished by two different categories of study as some experts have emphasized that the above developments are in the process (Globalization) while the others considered them on the project (To Globalize). The main problem is that how we can find out the focal point of both studies through which the accuracy of these claims to be verified to know whether contemporary changes and evolutions are formed in a process or a project. It seems that the focal point in the sphere of 32 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD both claims (processes and projects) is the issue of “identity” since both spheres agree that the concept of “identity” has passed a series of changes and developments, although each one renders the path and goal of “identity” changes by its own specific interpretations. While some thinkers like Giddens (1991), Wallerstein (1999), Bhawuk (2002), Sklair (1994-1999), and others consider expanding communication and access to information as a modern phenomenon, Robertson (1992), Waters (1995), and Held (1999) believe that the history of this situation goes back to pre-modernity era. In this regard, it can be traced that various definitions and conflicting views have been insisted on massive expansion of communication along with the broad and rapid access to information. Universalization denotes a process of spreading various objects, practices, and experiences to the different parts of the planet. Hence, there is globalization when things, values, and practices have spread worldwide. This interpretation of globalization entails homogenization of culture, politics, economy, and laws. As homogenization progresses, globalization destroys several indigenous cultures and practices. If Western modernity spreads and destroys local cultures, this variant of universalization is known as Westernization, neo- colonialism, Americanization, or McDonalidazation. Scholte (2008) notes that there are issues arising from these misconceptions. First, universalization is not a new feature of world history. The migration of the human species that took place a million years ago is one great example of globalization in the ancient times. The continuous spread of the major religions like Christianity and Islam since their foundation constitutes another instance of globalization which is not confined to contemporary period. This is how Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels described in 1909 the modernization of industry, trade and consumption - in a word “civilization”, which they perceived as an expression of the progressive role of bourgeoisie in history: “The need of a constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over the entire surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, and establish connections everywhere. The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. To the great chagrin of Reactionists, it has drawn from under the feet of industry the national ground on which it stood. All old/established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes a life and death question for all civilized nations, by industries that no longer work up indigenous raw material, but raw material drawn from the remotest zones; industries whose products are consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the globe. In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production. The intellectual creations of individual nations become common property. National one/sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world literature. 33 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement of all instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilization. The cheap prices of commodities are the heavy artillery with which it batters down all Chinese walls, with which it forces the barbarians’ intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate. It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to introduce what it calls civilization into their midst, i.e., to become bourgeois themselves. In one word, it creates a world after its own image”. Second, westernization is not only path that can be taken by globalization as shown by the studies on oriental globalization. From the fact that the term of westernization was shaped by an American (the sociologist Daniel Lerner, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology), to the today’s explosion of Internet and of all services afferent thereto (that are used in English language and convey the values of the “American lifestyle”). The Westernization of the world unfolded in a constant rhythm and in spite of the Soviet opposition; as a matter of fact, the very denouement of the Cold War must be seen as a product of the “westernization of the world”. But many people prefer to talk about the “Americanization of the world”, leading to the anti-American reactions. Please check: Marx, Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party, ed. a IX-a, Political Publishing House, Bucharest,1969, p. 40-41. 34 | P a g e  GE 319 – THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Application (Let’s Do It!) Learner Worksheet 2 Student Name: ______________________________ Score: ____________ Course/ Year/ Section: _______________________________ Case in Point: Tweeting and War; a Child’s Voice from Aleppo https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-38073349 Bana Alabed was just three-years-old when the war started in Syria. She was living in Aleppo with her family when bombs started to drop around her. She says the worst moment for her is remembering when her best friend Yasmin died after an air attack in their neighbourhood. "They were digging and they held a body and it was Yasmin. She was like sleeping, but she wasn't. She was dead." In 2016, the city of Aleppo came under siege. The roads in and out were blocked cutting off food and supplies. The family had stockpiled some rice and macaroni and ate that every day as the bombs continued to fall around them. It was during this siege that Bana, with the help of her mom