G-9 Diamond - Unit One - History and Human Evolution PDF

**UNIT ONE** **Discipline of History and Human Evolution** 1.1Meaning of History and human Evolution Ω the term History, derived from the Greek Word Istoria, means \"Inquiry" or an account of One\'s inquiries\" - - - \* The Story of People begins in prehistory. \* Prehistory is the Stud...

**UNIT ONE** **Discipline of History and Human Evolution** 1.1Meaning of History and human Evolution Ω the term History, derived from the Greek Word Istoria, means \"Inquiry" or an account of One\'s inquiries\" - - - \* The Story of People begins in prehistory. \* Prehistory is the Study of distant past. \* was the time before People developed the art of Writing. - - - - - - - Opinion is what, a writer believes based on his or her Viewpoint. **\*History is the systematic study of recorded human past.** **\*Pre-history is the study of distant past** **\*Archaeology is the study of fossils** **\*Fossils are remains of human, animal and plants** 1.2.1 The importance of history **©to know the past, understand the present and to forecast the future.** **©to understand national and international issuesand nationalism.** **©to develop research skill and critical skill.** **1.2.2 Historiography and historical interpretation** **Historiography is the study of how knowledge of the past is attained and transmitted.** - **The oldest written record come from China i.e. 1000BC** - **Herodotus (c.484-425) was the father of history.** - **Thucydides wrote critically and accurately.** - **Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886) father of modern historiography.** **\*Ethiopia had an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles.** **Historical interpretation** **\*is the process by which we describe, analyse, evluate, and create an explanation of past events.** - Historians are expected to avoid bias. **[Sources of History ]** 1. **Primary Sources** **-They had direct relation with the event they describe** **Ex. Monuments, tools, coins, ornaments, fossils, codes of law** - **Primary sources are more reliable than secondary sources** 2. **Secondary sources** - **They do not have direct relation with the event they describe.** **Example, History books, oral tradition, novel.** - Oral traditions **are information's transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation.** [Dating in History] **Dating is figures or numerical statements that express the time of historical events or process.** - **It determine the exact time when events occurred** - **Example battle of Adwa took place on march 1,1896** - **Ethiopia Renaissance dam was initiated on April 2,2011** **\*Dating in history is expressed in numerical statement such as;-** - Decade\-\-\--10 year - **Century\-\-\--100 year** - **Millennium\-\--1000 year** **\*Organize past events according to their sequence of time is called chronology** **The two widely used calanders are:-** **1. [GregorianCalendar]** - **counts the time before and after the birth of Jesus Christ** - **BC\-\-\-\-\--Before Christ** - **AD\-\-\-\-\--Anno Domini** **2. [IslamicCalendar]** - **counts the time before and after Hejira** - **BH\-\-\-\--Before Hejira** - **AH\-\-\-\--After Hejira** **\*Hejira was the flight of Prophet Mohammed from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD.** **Steps in Writing History** **1) Select the topic** **2) Gather different sources** **3) Interpret the source** **4) Write true history** **The Evolution of Human Beings** - **There are two opposing theories about the origin of human being that are;-** 1. **Creationist View** - **human beings were created by God** **2. Scientific View** - **Human beings were evolved from lower being through slow and gradual process naturally called evolution.** - **This theory was described by English Charles Drawin (1809-1882)** **Africa and Human Evolution** [Hominids] - **were the ancestor of human beings** - **appeared 25-40 million years ago** - **One group of hominids is called australopithecine.** - **Characterized by what is known as bi-Pedalism (walking on two feet with an upright position**). +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | **Aust | **Age* | **Year | **Plac | | | | | | ralopi | * | s | e | | | | | | thecin | | of** | of | | | | | | e** | | | Discov | | | | | | | | **Disc | ery** | | | | | | | | overy* | | | | | | | | | * | | | | | +========+========+========+========+========+========+========+========+ | **1** | **Sahe | **6-7 | **2001 | **Nort | | | | | | lan | M** | ** | h | | | | | | chadns | | | Chad** | | | | | | is** | | | | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | **2** | **Rami | **4.7 | **1994 | **Afar | | | | | | dus** | M** | ** | ** | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | **3** | **Afar | **3.18 | **1974 | **Afar | | | | | | ensis( | M** | ** | (Hadar | | | | | | Lucy)o | | | ) | | | | | | r | | | by** | | | | | | dinkin | | | | | | | | | esh** | | | | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | **4** | **Afri | **2.5 | **1924 | **Taun | | | | | | canus* | M** | ** | g(RSA) | | | | | | * | | | ** | | | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ **[Stone Age ]** - It refers to the time when tools were made of stone. - The Stone Age is divided into three periods:- **[1) Paleolithic (Old Stone Age):-]** it was the longest of the stone ages that lasted until about 11,000 years ago (around 9,000 BC). - Early human beings made the first crude stone tools known as hand-axes lived in caves and discovered fire. They also began to use language. **[2) Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age):-]** a transitional period between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. - It lasted from 9000 BC to 8000 BC years ago. **[3) Neolithic (New Stone Age):-]** started around 8,000 BC & lasted until about 4,000 BC. \- Neolithic Revolution was the shift from the hunting of animals and gathering food to keeping animals and growing crops regularly. **-** Human beings began to produce food, a sedentary way of life and a complex social organization, Stone houses were built, Religious places & granaries were constructed. **-** New and better tools (the hoe, the yoke, and the wheel) appeared and the use of animals in farming helped human beings to produce more food. **-** Neolithic Revolution made human beings food producers and community dwellers. - The earliest evidence of the Neolithic revolution comes from the Middle East before 11,000 years ago. - The major archaeological sites of Neolithic revolution are found in Palestine, Mesopotamia, the Nile valley in Egypt, Tropical Africa, the Yangtze Kiang valley in China, the Indus valley in India, and parts of the Americas. - Neolithic age took place in parts of Ethiopia about 7000 years ago. - Agriculture began and among the domesticated plants were Teff, Dagussa, Nug and Enset. - People started making and using pottery. - Archaeological sites of Neolithic age in Ethiopia were found in Aksum, Lalibela, Hararghe (Chercher) and Metehara. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **The three different species that belongs to the Genus Homo are;-** | | | | **1. Homo Habiles** | | | | **-Handy human being** | | | | **-appeared 2 million years ago** | | | | **-found in --Olduvai Gorge-Tanzania** | | | | **-Lake Lurkana-Kenya** | | | | **-Omo Valley- Ethiopia** | | | | **2. Homo Erectus** | | | | **-up right human being** | | | | **-1 million years ago** | | | | **-Found in-Omo Basin** | | | | **- Melka --Kunture** | | | | **- Konso-Gadual** | | | | **-Middle-Awash** | | | | **- Java-Indonesia** | | | | **- Peking-China** | | | | **3.Homo sapiens** | | | | **-wise human being** | | | | **-100,000 years ago** | | | | **-found in- Awash Valley** | | | | **-Omo Valley** | | | | **- Dire Dawa** | | | | - **Modern human being** | | | | **-appeared 40,000 years ago** | | | | **-Had - largebrain** | | | | **-bipedal** | | | | **- small jaw** | | | | **- use language and culture** | | | | **-The East African Rift valley seems to have been the home of human | | evolution.** | | | | **-Hominids moved toAfricaAsiaEuropeAmerica** | | | | **The Neolithic Revolution** | | | | **-the life of human being passed through two periods** | | | | **1.period of hunting and gathering and** | | | | **2. period of civilization** | | | | **-in the 2^nd^ period people begun** | | | | **- farming** | | | | **-permanent settlement** | | | | **-division of labor** | | | | **-urbanization** | | | | **Stone Age** | | | | **-this period lies between the period of hunting and gathering and | | civilization.** | | | | **1. Neolithic Age** | | | | **-until 9000BC** | | | | **-People used -language** | | | | **- crude stone tool** | | | | **-discovered fire** | | | | **-lived in cave** | | | | **2. Mesolithic Age /9000BC-8000BC/** | | | | **-nothing indeed** | | | | **3. Neolithic Age /8000BC-4000BC/** | | | | **-beginning of domestication of plant and animal** | | | | **-people built -stone house** | | | | **-religious house** | | | | **-granaries** | | | | **\*6000 years ago domestication of plants begun in Ethiopia in Axum | | and Lalibela** | | | | **Ex. teff, dagussa, nug and enset** | | | | **\*archaeological sites outside Ethiopia** | | | | **-Palestine, Mesepotamia, Egypt, China India and America** | | | | **Emergence of States** | | | | **-Before state emerged, human beings exist in some form of | | organization** | | | | **-But state differ from these states in that it had** | | | | **\*definite territory** | | | | **\*large group of people** | | | | **\*chief /government/** | | | | **\*military force** | | | | **-One of the theories about the emergence of state is related with | | the concept of religion.** | | | | **-As religion developed priests appeared.** | | | | **-The role of priests** | | | | **\*priests play spiritual and administrative role** | | | | **\*performing fertility prayer** | | | | **\*healing sick people** | | | | **\*supervised the construction of canals** | | | | **\*predicted the rise and fall of water levels** | | | | **\*devised calendars** | | | | **\*collected tribute in the name of temple** | | | | **-As early society divided economically in to higher and lower | | classes, priests occupied key position.** | | | | **-States ruled by priests were known as Theocratic States** | | | | **-However, with the emergence of markets village chiefs replaced | | priests.** | | | | **-these chiefs had the power of collecting tribute and keeping the | | security of the villages and markets around them.** | | | | **-Hence, the factors for the emergence of state were** | | | | - **religion** | | | | - **agriculture** | | | | - **trade** | | | | - **division of labour** | | | | **Early States in Ethiopia and the Horn** | | | | 1. **Punt:-emerged in the 3^rd^ millennium BC** | | | | **-the exact location is not clearly known** | | | | **-but scholars suggest as it was founded South Egypt** | | | | **-or today of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia** | | | | **2. D'amat:-emerged in the 5^th^ century BC** | | | | **-founded South of Axum** | | | | **-rulers used South Arabian religious and political title known as | | *Mukarib*** | | | | **-they also used Adulis as port** | | | | **Peoples and Languages of Ethiopia and Africa** | | | | **UNIT TWO** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Ancient and Classical World Civilization** **III. Europe** **1. Greece** **-Founded in 1250BC** **-Greek city states were known as Polis** **-Famous city states-Athens and Sparta** **-The Greeks called for themselves-Hellen and their land as Hellas** **-They made great deeds in Philosophy, Architecture, Drama, Democracy, Psychology and Olympic Marathon.** **2. Rome** **-Founded in 753BC** **-By Latin people** **-The Latin Language was the basis of Italy, French and Spanish and a little English.** **-Up to 509BC, Rome was ruled by series of kings** **-But in this period it becomes a Republic** **-The gov't was headed by two organs Senate&Consul.** **-The Senate served for life and the Consul served for a year.** **-In 27BC, Rome becomes an Empire and it fell down in 476AD.** **The Rise and Spread of Christianity** **-Christianity was begun in Palestine in the 1^st^ century AD.** **-It was based on the teaching of Jesus Christ** **-At first Christianity was seen as a threat for development and unity as well as a religion of the Jewish people by the Roman Emperors.** **-This was because of the belief that the Roman Emperors were seen as a Lord and now Jesus Christ began to be seen as Lord.** **-As a result for about 300 years, the Christians were persecuted.** **-The persecution was very sever during the reign of two Roman Emperors Nero (54-68AD) &Diocletian (245-313AD)** **-Many people were attracted by the ideas of "Equality of Men before God"** **-In the 4^th^ century, Emperor Constantine ordered religious toleration in what was called "Edict of Milan"** **-In 392AD, Emperor Theodosius (374-395) proclaimed Christianity as official state religion.** **-During the Middle Age Christianity replaced Roman Empire as a unifying force in Western Europe.** **-Also, the Catholic Church under took many unreligious functions beyond the weak feudal governments.** **-During the early Christian era Rome and Constantinople compete for religious domination.** **-They had conflicting views on church language and rituals.** **-In 1054, the church split in to two** **.Roman Catholic Church-Rome** **.Greek OrthodoxChurch-Constantinople** **-In 1517, a movement called Reformation was begun and the Western Christianity was divided in to Roman Catholic Church and Protestantism.** **The Axumite State** **-Pre-Axumite States: - Punt, D'amat, Yeha, Coloe, Matara, Hawalti, Malazo, Adi-Saglaman etc.** **-The exact date when Axum was emerged as a state is not clearly known.** **-But, according to the document known as "Periplus of Erythrean Sea" which was written by unanimousGreek merchant, Axum was founded between the 1^st^ Century BC & the 1^st^ Century AD.** **-King Zoskalas was the King of Axum who could communicate with Greek.** **-The Axumite economy was based on agriculture and trade.** **-The Axumite kings issued coins which bear their image.** **-Axum earned high income from the internal & external trade** **-With this income, they built magnificent stelae, palace and church which are the sign of advanced technology of Axum.** **-Axum had strong armyand used** **-to protect the trade route from rival** **-to expand their territory** **-Axumite territorial limit was up to** **-North-North tip of Eritrea** **-South-North Shewa** **-East-Red Sea** **-West-Abay River** **-A book entitled "*The Christian Topography*" written by Greek traveler called Cosmos Indicoplustus stated that the Axumite merchants visited Abay River to buy gold for the ruling class.** **-Axum was exposed to the Greeco-Roman World.** **-In the 4^th^ Century AD, Christianity was introduced during the reign of Ezana by AbunaSelama/Fremnatos/** **-Following this Nine Saints come to Axum.** **.to preach the society** **.Built churches & Monasteries** **.translate the Bible in to Ge'ez** **-The introduction of Christianity in to Axum brought a long lasting relationship with Egypt.** **Factors for the Decline of Axum** **-The Arab competition in the Red Sea Trade** **-The rise of Islam in the 7^th^ century** **-The rebellion of Agaw and Bejja people** **The Legacy of Axum** **-Unlike the pre-Axumite states, Axumite state was revived.** **-This can be attested from the ruins of** **.Temple. Iron tools. Coins. Tombs** **Oblisk.Pottery.Ornament. Bricks** **-Ship building was famous in Axum.** **-Inscriptions in Ge'ez, Sabean& Greek.** **The Rise and Expansion ofIslam** **-Islam rose in the 7^th^ century AD by Arab.** **-Titular head of the Arabs was called Shiekh** **-Early Arabs were Polytheists** **-The founder of Islam was Prophet Mohammed.** **-He was born in 570 AD in Mecca from the Quarysh.** **-He was married to a widow woman called Khedija.** **-In 610, he began to preach Islam at the age of 40.** **-Islam means "surrender or submission to the willof Allah"** **-Arabic name of God is Allah.** **-According to Islam Prophet Mohammed is the messenger.** **-All Muslim belong to community called Umma.** **-Islamic holy book-Quran** **-Mohammed attacked the Idolatry.** **-But, he faced an opposition from the Quarysh. Why** **-In 622, he emigrated from Mecca to Yatrib/Medina: means city of prophet/.** **-This flight is called Hejira which is designed as the beginning of Islamic calander.** **-At Medina he got acceptance and later returned to Mecca to destroy the Idols but retained the black stone called Ka'aba.** **-Mohammed died in 632 and succeeded by four Caliphs.** **.Abu Bakr (632-634)** **.Umar (634-644)** **.Othman (644-656)** **.Ali (656-661)** **-Islamic Holy War -- Jihad** **-With in 100 year after the death of Mohammed; Islam expanded to** **.636-Byzantine and Syria** **.642-Egypt** **.650-Persia** **.8^th^ c to North Africa (Berber) and Spain** **-But, they were defeated in 732 AD in France at the Battle of Tour.** **[The CHCK(Central Highland Christian Kingdom)Under YekunoAmlak]** **-the legend of Queen Sheba and King Solomon was not a major for the success of YekunoAmlak.** **-he had strong military force.** **-this helped him to control the trade route of Zeila.** **-the church-state relationship reached its peak.** **-large scale territorial expansion was the key development of this period.** **-in order to effectively administer this vast territory, the CHCK has consolidated a feudal administration known as "Gult System"** **\*Gult Right- a right given for officials to collect tribute** **\*Bale Gult-Officials who has this right** **\*Rest-claim to the hereditary ownership of land** **-birth right to land** **\*Peasants-paid tribute in kind** **-work as corveelabour** **-In return the Bale Gult maintain law and order** **-Gult right was not hereditary** **-During this period, the CHCK had no permanent capital like Axum and Lalibela** **-they ruled from mobile capital for centuries** **-ExamplesHayq, Tegulet, Yerer, Menz, Bulga, Ziqualaetc** **-why they rule from mobile mobile capital?** **1. to check rebellion** **2. to control security** **3. to get daily food and fire woods** **-during this period the CHCK's relation was expanded to** **\*Egypt \*Persia \*Vatican** **\*Syria \*Italy \* and mainly to Spain&Portugal** **[Peoples and States in the Ethiopian Region and Horn of Africa up to 1529]** I. **[The Muslim Sultanates ]** A. **Dahlak** **-emerged in the beginning of 10^th^ century** **B. Shewa** **-emerged in 896 and was the earliest of all** **-the founder was claimed a descent to Makhzumite clan of South Arabia. Hence, has Makhzumite Dynasty.** **-founded left of Awash River** **-declined due to internal power struggle and destroyed by Ifat in 1285.** **C. Ifat** **-founded south of Shewa by Umar Walasma** **-Hence, has Walasma dynasty** **-controlled Zeila trade route** **-become strong rival of the CHCK** **-1270, the CHCK regain and controlled Zeila** **-so, the need to control Zeila was the main source of conflict between Ifat and CHCK.** **-lastly, CHCK under Made Tsion (r.1314-1344) defeated Ifat in 1332.** **D. Fatagar** **-founded south of Bulga around Shenkora** **E. Dawro** **-founded between Middle Awash River and Upper Wabi Shebelle.** **F. Bali** **-founded south of Wabi Shebelle** **G. Dara** **-founded between Bali and Dawro** **H. Arbabini** **-founded Dawro and Hadya (Near Arsi)** **I. Hadya** **-founded west of Dawro and Bali** **\*the economy of these Muslim Sultanates was based agriculture and trade.** **-more or less, they had similar administrative system with the CHCK.** **-rulers exercised both religious and political power.** **-1332 Made Tsion defeated all of the above sultanates and turned them in to tributary states.** **-however, beginning from the late 14^th^ century Muslim resistance to CHCK become strong** **-this was created with the emergence of Adal Sultanate.** **-ADAL- established on Harar plateau by Walasma ruling family.** **-it was headed by Ahmed Gragn** **-Christian kings married Muslim princes to win the loyality of Muslim** **-Example Zara Ya'eqob married a Hadya prince.** **[II. Southern States]** A. **Damot** **-earliest of Axum** **-its famous ruler Motalami** **-he was converted in to Christianity by AbunaTekleHaymanot** **-Made Tsion annexed it in 1316** **B. Bizamo** **-information about Bizamo is scant** **C. Enarya** **-founded north of Gojeb River** **-built several churches** **D. Kaffa** **-founded south of Enarya** **-emerged at the end of 14^th^ century** **-it was not mentioned in any Christian document. Why?** **-Because, it was independent from CHCK.** **E. Walayta** **-has WalaytaMalla dynasty** **-its first king was Motalami** **-pay tribute to king Yeshaq (r.1413-1430)** **[III. Central States]** A. **Kamabata** **-we have little information about this state** **B. Gurage** **-founded west of Lake Zeway and Dawaro** **-rulers used the title of Azmach, Abegaz and Nigus** **C. Agaw** **-founded south of Lake Tana** **-Though AmdeTsion incorporate it, local rulers maintain the title of "King of Gojjam"** **-Christianity was introduced since the conquest** **\*the economy of the southern and central states was based on agriculture and trade** **-among the trade items were-slaves, ivory, civet cat etc** **-slaves were demanded in Arabia, Persia, and India** **-the Muslims were the main conductor of slave trade** **-slaves were collected as captive of war** **[IV. Unorganized States]** A. **Peoples found along the Red Sea Coast and South East Ethiopia** **-led pastoral way of life** **-spoke Cushitic language** **Example- Afar & Somali** **B. Peoples found along the Ethio-Kenya border** **-led pastoral way of life** **-spoke Cushitic language** **-Example- Oromo** **C.Peoples found along the Ethio-Sudan border** **-were hunter and gatherer** **-spoke Nilo-Saharan language** **-Example- BenishangulGumuz, Gambella, Kunama** **[The Dominance of the CHCK over the Ethiopian Region and the Horn of Africa]** **-between 1270-1529, the CHCK conquered many places** **-this was done particularly during the period of *AmdeTsion*** **-the church also played a great role in promoting Christianity** **-but, only Shewa andGojjam were deeply Christianized** **-especially the Walasma rulers did not accept the Christian domination** **-beginning from the last quarter of 14^th^ century the center of resistance was shifted from Ifat to Harar** **-this was led by Haqadin II &Sa'adadin** **-they used guerrilla warfare** **-Adal coordinated the whole Muslim against the CHCK** **-King Dawit (1380-1412) made unsuccessful campaign against these Muslim States.** **-His successor King Yeshaq (1413-1430) lost his life while fighting** **-Zara Ya'eqob (1434-1468) defeated and killed Adal ruler Sultan Ahmed Badlay in 1445** **-During this period the CHCK took the upper hand** **-CHCK dominance continued up to Emperor LibneDingil (1508-1540)** **-LibneDingil was defeated by Ahmed Ibn-Ibrahim Aligaz (Ahmed Gragn) in 1529 at the BattleofShimbraKure** **-By then the balance of power was shifted in favour of the Muslim States.** **[UNIT FOUR]** **Medieval Europe and Development of Capitalism** **4.1 Medieval Europe** **-also called Middle Age** **-covers from 500-1500 AD** **\*500-was the fall of Western Roman Empire** **-the rise of Feudalism** **\*1500-the rise of Capitalism** **[The Dark Age]** **-Covers from 500-1000 AD. Why dark?** **-Because, civilization in Western Europe declined.** **-Western Roman Empire was destroyed by** **1. Internal factor** **-internal division and decay** **2. External factor** **-invasion of the Anglo-Saxons and Franks from the Germanic tribes &the Huns and Magyars from the Asiatic tribes** **\*The Invasion Brought** **\#Negative Changes** **-Greco-Roman civilization declined** **-societies become rural** **-decline in population and wealth of cities** **-emergence of feudalism** **\#Positive changes** **-church men kept old record and learning** **-churches, castles and palaces were built** **-chivalry was practiced by knights** **\*Two large empires were created** **1. Carolingian Empire (481-882)** **-centered on France** **2. Holy Roman Empire (962-1806)** **-centered on Germany and Italy** **-founded by German Emperor Otto the Great (912-973)** **\*During the Dark Age the only unifying institution in Western Europe was Roman Catholic Church** **-the church had authority over the rulers and commons** **-West Europe was invaded by Arab from North Africa in the direction of Spain in 711.** **-In Spain the Arab established Omayyad Caliphate of Cordova.** **-But, the Arab were defeated at the Battle of Tours in 732 by the Carolingian Empire** **[Feudal Society]** **-Feudalism was the political, economic, and social system of Western Europe from 500-1500 AD** **\*Social classes** **1. Ruling class-kings, nobles, knights and higher clergy** **-they owned the land** **-the relationship between higher and lower lords was called Vassalage** **\*feud-land** **\*knight-soldier** **\*manor-village** **\*serf-peasant** **-real power was exercised by the lowest lords called *[Manorial Lords]*** **2. Masses-peasant, craft men, trader** **\*the serfs-rented a land** **-pay tribute** **-gave free labor services** **-couldn't leave the land** **[Manorial System]** **-basis of life for the Western feudal society** **-West European feudal system was oppressive** **-the Roman Catholic Church also owned lands** **[The Byzantine Empire]** **-also called Eastern Roman Empire** **-its capital was Constantinople since 330** **-after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist for another 1000 years** **-the name Byzantine come from Byzantium (old name of Constantinople)** **-Byzantine Orthodox Church was separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1054** **\*Byzantine was** **-Greco-Roman and Christian in character** **-use Greek language** **-good at architecture [EX. Church of St. Sophia]** **-headed by emperor** **-plots and murder of emperors were common** **-its economy was based-agriculture, craft & trade** **-since 1071, the Byzantine was attacked by Normans and Seljuk Turks.** **-Byzantine asked Western Europe for military assistance** **-the help come in the form of Crusades** **[Crusade]** **-was the war of Christian Europe against Muslim Seljuk Turks who occupied the Christian holy lands.** **-begun in 1096 and lasted for 200 years** **-of the seven wars, the 1^st^ and 3^rd^ were most important** **[Consequences of the Crusades]** **-saved Byzantine from the hand of the Muslim up to 1453** **-introduced new crops like sugar, rice and apricot** **-encourage commerce** **-weaken the nobility** **-strengthen the Catholic Church** ***[European States and the Ottoman Turkish Empire]*** **-the Seljuk Turks come to power in Asia Minor, Palestine and Arabia before the Ottomans** **-they were nomadic people** **-come from the desert of Turkistan** **-they control-Persia in 1040** **-Asia Minor and Syria in 1071** **-the Ottomans were another Muslim rose at the end of 13^th^ century** **-they were named after their chief known as Osman or Othman** **-they centered on Turkey** **-1453, an Ottoman army of 150,000 troops led by Mohammad II captured Constantinople.** **-they Turks renamed the city *[Istanbul]*** **-Sulieman I (the magnificent) ruled Ottoman Empire from 1520-1566** **-Europeans defended Vienna the capital of Austria in 1529** **-1571, the Europeans defeated the Turkish at the *[Battle of Lepanto]* near Greece.** **-Ottoman soldiers were called Janissaries** **-they controlled the trade route from Europe to Asia** **[Development of Early Capitalism]** **-transitional period from medieval to modern period** **-took place in Western Europe** **-covers the period from 1500-1700** **1. [New Developments]** **1. Exploration and Discoveries** **-during the Middle Age the Geographical knowledge of Europeans was limited to** **-Europe** **-North Africa** **-West Asia** **-But in the 15^th^ C, they discovered new regions in** **-Africa** **-Far East** **-America** **-the factors for the beginning of exploration and discoveries was European:-** **-interest in long distance trade** **-taste for luxury goods of the Far East** **\*Since the old route to Far East was blocked by OttomanTurks, Europeans looked for new sea route** **-they were also interested in geographical knowledge** **-new inventions like --compass** **-better ships** **-maps** **\*all these made the voyages possible** **-Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal and Queen Isabella of Spain supported the explorers** **-in the 15^th^& 16^th^ C, Spain and Portugal were leaders of the exploration** **-Portuguese, Vasco Dagama discovered the new sea route to India in 1498.** **-Italian explorer Christopher Colombus discovered America in 1492. But, he was died without knowing that he had found new lands.** **-this new land comes to be known as America from the Italian map maker Amerigo Vespucci** **-the new land also known as "New World"** **-Ferdinand Magellan circumnavigated the world between 1519 and 1522. But he has died in the Philippines before he finished the journey.** **1. Spain and Portugal lead in building colonies in the 15^th^ and 16^th^ C** **2. British, France and Holland followed in the 17^th^ C** **3. British and France in the 18^th^ C** **-Spain and Portugal destroyed the old American Indian Empire in America in the 16^th^ C.** **-Spain took Mexico and Peru** **-Portugal took Brazil and other territories in Asia** **-Holland -1623 trading colony of Amsterdam Manhattan Island in North East America.** **-British took the colony from Holland and renamed it New York and established totally 13 colonies** **-France established colonies along the Lawrence River, Gulf of Mexico and Mississippi river.** **-Britain and France fought "Seven Years War" (1756-1763) due to colonial rivalries.** **-1637, Russia occupied Alaska** **-But later sold to USA for \$7,200, 000 in 1867** **-USA found gold and recently oil in Alaska** **[2. The Long Distance Trade]** **\*One result of the Crusade was** **-revival of economic life in West Europe** **-Italians hired their vessels to the Crusaders succeed to control trade in Eastern Mediterranean Coast.** **-Merchants brought silk and spice from China and India to Europe.** **[3. The Beginning ofEarly Capitalist Relations ]** **\*elements of early capitalism** **-long distance trade** **-urbanization** **-Genoa, Florence, Venice, Milan, Barcelona, Paris and London were center of long distance trade** **-Bank of St. George in Genoa and Municipal Bank of Barcelona were founded in the 15^th^ C** **-workshops worked by hand produced textile and metal** **-society was divided in to social classes** **A. Bourgeoisie** **-factory owner** **-merchant** **-manufacturers employed wage laborers** **-urban population had increased** **-Paris, Florence, Genoa had the population of 100,000** **-the used of money, manufacturing and banking transformed the old feudalism in to new capitalism** **[4. The Renaissance]** **-intellectual movement** **-Rebirth of learning lasted from 14^th^ -17^th^ C** **-begun in Italy and expanded the whole Europe** **-had the following characters** **\*study of ancient Greece and Rome Empire** **\*support freedom of thought** **\*use of reason and questioning of mind** **\*use of vernacular like Italian or English rather than Latin in writing**