G 10 2016 Short Notes PDF

G 10 civic note Mass media Freedom of the media is essential in a democracy. Mass media refers to an institution and to the methods of communication which can reach large number of people at the same time. It includes newspapers, television, radio, books, posters, magazines...

G 10 civic note Mass media Freedom of the media is essential in a democracy. Mass media refers to an institution and to the methods of communication which can reach large number of people at the same time. It includes newspapers, television, radio, books, posters, magazines, cinema, etc. Media plays a role in the political training of citizens and in building democratic culture by informing the people about the scope of public policies, the management and conduct of affairs by those responsible at both state and grass-roots level, and by providing and offering the members of the community the means of communicating with each other. But, if the media is to perform those functions, it must be free and independent; it must have sufficient material and human resources to deal with all the important problems of the society. The importance of the mass media in a country is not dependent on the number of newspapers or private radio and television stations but on the quality of the information provided to the public.  G 11 civic note Institutionalizing Democracy Definitions of democratic institution Democratic institutions are important to develop and protect democracy. These institutions must serve the entire population of a country with equality under the law. Autocratic and oligarchic governments might have the rule of law but do not qualify for democracy because they fail to fully ensure equality under the law. Institutions provide the framework for individuals and systems to function. Their breakdown leads to a breakdown of societal functioning, i.e., democracy is weakened, the sense of justice is eroded and opposition is required to be suppressed. If democratic institutions are strong, they are respected and it becomes difficult to manipulate them. They enable the honest to survive. In strong institutions, corruption is an aberration but when they are weakened, it becomes generalized. Corruption leads to individualization, illegality becomes acceptable and the collective interest suffers.  G 10 civic note Democratic institutions and their functions We need institutions because institutions take decisions and make rules and regulations for proper administration. They provide an opportunity to wider set of people to be consulted to reach at any decisions. The institutions not only take decisions but also they implement them to get the required purposes. Democratic institutions are institutions that facilitate and promote the operations of democracy. They are those institutions that make democracy to work. Some of the democratic institutions include independent national electoral commission, political parties, pressure groups, arms of government, human right commission, press institutions, police commission, ombudsman  A. Independent National Electoral Commission(INEC). G 10 civic note Independent national electoral commission is a corporate body charged with the responsibility of organizing, conducting and supervising elections into electoral offices in the country. The Independent national electoral commission serves the following functions  Conduct election  Conducts referendums and plebiscites  Registers voters  Delimits constituency (division of the country into constituency)  Registers political parties; monitor the organization and operation of political parties and campaign  Provides electoral officers and materials  Fixes date of election  Provides security at the polling stations  Educates the electorate  B. Political Parties Political parties are organized group of individuals who share same political ideologies, beliefs and interests and who seek to win elections and control the state power and machinery of government.  Serve as a forum for national unity and mutual understanding. This is possible because it brings together people from different ethnic and religious groups.  Educate members and the general public  Serve as machinery for recruitment /appointment  Serve as a link between the people and the government  Ensure political stability in the government  Allow for harmonization of sectional and diversified interest  Provide social amenities and infrastructure  Help to sensitize the electorate on crucial national issues, governmental policies and programmers  Ensure that the party in power is accountable to the electorate through constructive criticism.  C. Pressure Group A pressure group is an organized body of people seeking to influence government policy, and to promote the interest of their members. A pressure group is also called interest group. A pressure group serves the following functions:  Offers useful pieces of advice and suggestions  Helps to promote economic stability  Provides and promotes certain general welfare services to the public  Educates members and the public on national issues and fundamental human rights  Acts as a link between the people and the government  Acts as watchdog over public policies  Supports candidates and political parties to win election  Acts as a manpower bank from where government can draw experts to serve in the government  D. Branches Of Government : For democracy to work or thrive, the functions, activities and personnel of arms of government, i.e., the executive, the legislature and the judiciary must be separated. The Role Of Democracy For Social Transformation  Social transformation has two broad definitions. One definition of social transformation is the process by which an individual alters the socially ascribed social status of his/her parents into a socially achieved status for him/herself (status transformation).  Another definition refers to a large-scale social change as in cultural reforms or transformations (societal transformation). The first one applies to an individual, while the second applies to the social system.  Social transformation is also the restructuring of all aspects of life; from culture to social relations; from politics to economy; from the way we think to the way we live. Through time, societies have transformed from small associations of individuals tied together by instincts, need, and fear, to small communities tied together by circumstances, kinship, traditions, and religious beliefs, to nations tied together by history, politics, ideology, culture, and laws.  But for most of human history, the pace of change was very slow; no transformations in life conditions could be felt for several generations.  Therefore, democracy can play a significant role for social transformation.  The process of transformation may be manifested in the following ways:: Social change  The term social change encompasses a range of typical social and civic outcomes, from increased awareness and understanding, to attitudinal change, increased civic participation, and the building of public will, to policy change that corrects injustice.  Acknowledging that social change must start with the individual, social justice.  Social justice is a structural change that increases opportunity for those who are least well- off politically, economically, and socially.  Social justice is grounded in the values and ideals of equity, access, and inclusion for all members of the society, particularly for poor communities and communities of color that historically and structurally have experienced social inequities. Those who work for social justice push to uncover the underlying causes of inequity and seek systemic change in institutions and policies as well as socially upheld behavioral norms that foster fair treatment and share of benefits.  Social justice encourages change to come from those communities that  Social Activism Social activism refers to actions taken to make change that ensures inclusion, equity, fairness, and justice. It is intentional action to bring about social, political, economic, or environmental change. Civic Engagement  Civic engagement refers to the many ways in which people participate in civic, community, and political life and, by doing so, express their engaged citizenship.  It ranges from proactively becoming better informed to participating in public dialogue on issues, from volunteering to voting and community organizing to political advocacy. The defining characteristic of active civic engagement is commitment to participate and contribute to the improvement of one’s community, neighborhood, and nation.  Civic engagement may be either a measure or a means of social change, depending on the context and intent of efforts. Civic dialogue Community building has been defined in various ways. It may refer to the process of building relationships that helps to form coherent community members around common purpose, identity, and a sense of belonging which may lead to social or community capital  Community Development In community development, the economic, social, and physical dimensions of community are considered. Community development agencies often focus on ensuring low and mixed-income housing, job training or workforce development, commercial real estate development, and small business start-up. In broader definitions, such as one offered by useful-community-development. Organizations, they may also aim to advance youth development, health, recreation, human service, cultural, and other community goals. Community development seeks to empower individuals and groups of people by providing these groups with the skills and resources they need to effect change in their own communities Cultural Vitality Cultural vitality is the evidence of creating, disseminating, validating, and supporting arts and culture as a dimension of everyday life in communities. Cultural vitality is an important dimension of civic life, but culture is not often considered for its civic value. Negotiation of cultural priorities, especially for disenfranchised cultural groups wanting to stake claim in the public sphere, its importance not only for these groups, but also for the community at large. Issues of cultural preservation, equity, and representation are not only important but also are of concern to growth and development, economics, tourism, public funding, and other civic issues.  Cultural Democracy The concept of cultural democracy as a set of related commitments: protecting and promoting cultural diversity, and the right to culture for everyone in our society and around the world; encouraging active participation in community cultural life; enabling people to participate in cultural policy decisions that affect the quality of our cultural lives; and assuring fair and equitable access to cultural resources and support.  Democratic values There are three core values that are central in the discussion of the concept of democracy. These are values of liberty/freedom, justice and equality. Let us now briefly look at what each of them means. Liberty: This value includes:  Personal freedom (to mean that Individuals should be free from arbitrary arrest and detention and also their homes/ property should be secured from unreasonable searches and seizures).  Political freedom ( to imply that people of a nation have the right to participate freely in the political process such as elections without being subject to arbitrary arrest, harassment and electoral corruption such as buying votes, intimidation and obstruction of voter).  Economic freedom ( to mean that citizens should have the right to acquire, use, transfer and dispose of private property without unreasonable governmental interference and more over to enjoy right to seek employment wherever one pleases, to change employment at will and to engage in any lawful labor unions or business corporations).  Justice: This value of democracy can be understood in three general senses of fairness. These are:  Distributive Justice (the sense of distributing benefits and burdens in society via agreed up on standards of fairness).  Corrective Justice (the sense that a proportional response should be in place to correct wrongs and injuries).  Procedural Justice (the idea that procedures used for gathering information and making decisions should be guided by such principles as impartiality and openness of proceedings). Equality: Three notions of equality are of particular significance here for our discussion.  Political equality (implying that all people who attain the status of adult hood have equal political rights or in short one man-one vote- one value).  Social equality (implying that there should be no social hierarchy at individual and collective level or no discrimination what so ever).  Economic equality (implying that all peoples of a country deserve equal and fair assessment to the national resources services).  Aspects Of Democracy Democracy has three aspects. These are the social, economic and political aspects Social Aspects Of Democracy  It is meant the removal of any discrimination on the basis of class, caste, creed, color, sex, ethnicity, race, etc.  All men and women, rich or poor, regardless of any class or caste prejudices are socially equal, and should be treated as equals. Economic Aspect Of Democracy  It is meant that the equitable and just distribution of wealth and resources in society and abolition of glaring disparities or polarization on the basis of wealth.  Economic democracy recognizes the right to work, leisure, fair wages, and unrestricted right to the enjoyment of life. Political Aspect Of Democracy  Signifies the provision of political rights namely the right to vote, the right to contest during elections, the right to hold public office, the right to movement, thought, association, the right to freedom of conscience, the right to speak, etc.  In order to enable citizens to exercise these and other political rights effectively and persistently, citizens have to be asserted freedom of speech, association and publication.  Democracy is, therefore, a social balance, and the dominant ideas of the purpose of democracy at any particular time represent the balance of interest. UNIT 2: Citizens In The Digital Technology Age LESSON 1: Implications Of Digital Technology On Citizens  Digital technologies have advanced more rapidly than ever before in human history- reaching many people of the world and creates positive and negative impacts on citizen's’ emotions, social life and ethical values. A good and moderate use of digital technology leads citizens to positive effects where as, extremely excessive and addictive use of digital technology leads citizens to negative effects. Positive Impacts Of Digital Technology On Citizens Ethical impacts  Developing critical thinking  Developing universal moral values  Self-regulation of good habits  Social Impacts Emotional Impacts speedy communication  Self-control Advancing education  Regulating emotion Transportation  Fostering socializing Increased social  Maintaining emotional communication balance Banking and finance  Supporting well being Health care and happiness Economic growth  Providing a sense of security  Increased emotional satisfaction  Digital technologies have not only positive effects on citizens, they also have negative effects on the emotions, ethical values and social wellbeing of people. They can threaten privacy, erode ethical and cultural values, erode security, and fuel inequality. Negative Impacts Of Digital Technology On Citizens Ethical Impacts Emotional Impacts  Eroding people norm of freedom  Isolation  Ethical dilemma  Anonymity & fake personality  Increasing uncertainty  Second hand living  Creating unhappiness  Addiction  Untruthfulness  Induction of negative emotions  Depression & anxiety  Social Impacts  Social Alienation  Eroding Privacy  Job Insecurity  Data Insecurity  Crime & Terrorism  Physical Health Effect  Positive Implications Of Digital Technology On The Emotions Of Citizens Self-control  Digital technology enables people to control, express and manage their emotions.  In workplace, for example, workers in some jobs often have a loveless relationship with their managers.  In such relationships, face-to-face communications may lead to uncontrolled emotional aggression between the worker and the manager.  Digital technology enables workers and managers not to meet face- to- face, since technologies provide new arrangements between work and personal time and space.  For example, internet enabled arrangements, such as working at home and mobile office, being on call, and being able to monitor and check work related information away from the office are all praised as solutions.  These arrangements help people to shape emotions, enable people to control their anger. Since affection has a bodily foundation and it is more difficult to control emotions in the face- to-face interaction, the absence of both factors might lead one to believe that digital realm is emotional colder, and that it impairs or restricts the expression of emotions.  When digital interactions are through videos mutual facial recognition, expression and interpretation of emotions become at least easier.  Technologies have even transferred certain common behaviors people want to acquire.  Fostering socialization  The presence of technologies in human behaviors enables some individuals to communicate and foster beneficial interpersonal relationships and improve wellbeing.  Engaging with others online may involve social interactions rather than social comparison. By reaching out to others, engaging in meaningful social interactions and strengthening our social bonds, we are likely to improve our wellbeing.  Computer systems have altered human interactions. It allows people to stay closer to their loved ones when they are physically far apart. Technologies have even transferred certain common behaviors people want to acquire.  Maintaining emotional balance  The domestication of digital technologies at home allows the family culture around rules of use to be negotiated among the different family members and friends more easily.  It is a useful resource for maintaining emotional balance, to cope with every day stress, for the coordination of everyday activities, and for articulation of intimacy between peoples Supporting happiness and wellbeing  When people make video calls to talk to people all over the world, it gives a sense of purpose, joy or excitement. Social media, for example, is a place where people can connect socially and engage in kind and helpful behavior - activities that have been shown to boost health and wellbeing.  For example, sending message on social media, people can express a kind of word or share people gratitude. For the young with symptoms of depression, social media is very important in helping them express themselves creatively, get inspiration from others, and even feel less depressed. Comparing ourselves to the seemingly perfect lives of friends and people we follow, social media seems to be beneficial  Regulating emotions  Technology has given people access to lots of health and wellness resources making it easier than ever to build and practice skills like gratitude, mindfulness and regulating emotions online.  Good applications can teach us the skills we need to optimize our wellbeing, help people stay motivated to do so, and even benefit their mental health.  For example, computer based training in emotion regulation improved anxiety and wellbeing among those who had trouble regulating their emotions, suggesting that skills that promote happiness can be learned.  Since technologies allow a remarkably accelerating accumulation of thoughts, people can learn and respect fundamental behavioral principles with great responsibility.  Providing a sense of security  Technologies, for example, mobile phones, give people a sense of security when they are in a public space.  It’s potential to access known others like the police means that the device is viewed as a more effective weapon of self-confidence. Increased emotional satisfaction(self-conception)  The more people link to others, the more they like each other. For example, mobile phones enabled people to communicate with others and gathering information from many.  People who receive many calls and message from others may get a sense of proud and feelings of satisfaction by which these people believed that we are known by many people and we are the sources of information  1. Negative Implications Of Digital Technology On The Emotions Of Citizens Isolation  Technologies, such as social media are designed to bring people together, yet they may have the opposite effects in some cases.  People with higher social media use are more likely to feel socially isolated than those who do not use social media often. Secondhand living  Many people no longer experience real-life events directly.  On the internet people create imaginary identities in virtual worlds and spend hours playing out parallel lives. People are increasingly preoccupied with the virtual realities. People in chat rooms blur the boundaries between their on-lives and off-lives, and there is every indication that the future will include robots that seem to express feelings and moods. All these change human identities from real life to artificial life.  Music concerts or live shows are videoed on mobile phones, events are photographed, and audio is recorded.  Media is uploaded on to social sites.  Life becomes something that is experienced through the prism of digital media rather than first hand.  Depression and anxiety  There is a link between social network and mental health issues such as depression and anxiety.  Many studies found out that people who had restricted social interactions and who are more involved in social media and online interactions are more prone to higher level of depression and anxiety than those who are more involved in social interactions with other people. Anonymity and fake personality  Digital technology provides wide scope for users to hide their identities.  People are much more likely to behave anti-socially if they do not think that there will be any consequences.  Bullying, trolling, stalking, threatening, and insulting behavior have all increased dramatically with the rise of the internet.  People assume fake personas for the purpose of scamming and defrauding. Addiction  Social media, computer games, messaging, and dating websites can all be addictive.  Games want you to play so that you will buy the next version.  Websites want you to interact so that they can bring in advertising money.  Users end up wasting vast amount of time and hemorrhaging money for low return.  2. Effects on social life  Social effects of digital technologies on citizens can be seen from positive and negative perspectives.  The effects on social life in this context refer to the effects digital technology has on the economy, demography, employment, education, social interactions, social networking, social welfare, health, culture, and other conditions of individuals, families or communities. For example, increased use of technologies is one possible effect on social life that is reflected in productivity within the society. When such changes continue for long-term, the effect of increasing productivity moves beyond having social effects to one having a sustained social impact. Positive Implications Of Digital Technology On The Social Life Of Citizens Increased Social Connectivity  Digital technology makes social connectivity easy with friends and families. Digital technology plat forms, for instance, social media (Face book, YouTube, Twitter, etc.), mobile phones, etc. allow people to make new connections and strengthen friendly relations with others using words, videos, audios, messaging, and texting.  Websites, applications and software have all been created to help users to socialize. Social media platforms use technological devices such as laptops, tablets, and mobile phones means that nobody needs to feel isolated in the digital world.  Users can get regularly updated information on local, regional and international events and social happenings. Social media and other digital technological innovations enable people to make their voices heard and talk to people across the world. Speedy communication  Ever faster broadband enables the transfer of large amount of information across the world, making it possible to video and audio in real time, and send large data files and access data from virtually anywhere in the world.  Advancing education  Education content has also been affected by internet due to digital technologies and has become an inseparable part of it.  Social networking sites allow students, researchers, and teachers to share academic information and education related issues, follow the latest developments in various fields, search scientific studies, and exchange ideas, and utilize them for academic achievement. Courses and lessons can now be delivered virtually online.  Because of advancement in communication technologies people can now directly learn from the sources easily.  Using digital technology, people can improve their logical reasoning, generate information regarding various concepts, improve communication skills, and render efficient academic performance.  Simulations such as virtual online laboratories, provide access to experiential learning.  Understanding education industries in a better way would assist more established relationship with different organizations. Transportations  Many transportation infrastructure like train, ships and airplanes rely on digital technology.  Accessing time tables as well as booking planes often take place online.  Passports contain digital chips that hold information enabling self-service machines to speed up the process of checking in and passing through customs.  Road vehicles such as cars, trucks and trains can now be booked online via various applications which make people to get services faster.  Banking and finance There is no doubt that digitalization has led to a radical change in financial matters. Online banking is now done either through a laptop, tablet, or phone applications. Bank users now check their incoming and outgoing payments remotely and arrange money transfers and bill payments. Outside of the banking, other financial matters, such as, buying and selling currency and shares can be dealt with online. Transferring money between accounts both locally and internationally are conducted using digital technology.  Health care  Digital technology positively impacts health care.  Digital technologies have brought about a massive and welcome change to the healthcare sector.  Patients now have access to some of the best diagnostic tools, new and cutting-edge treatments and less painful and quicker healings Patients not only have access to quick and accurate medical information using their handheld devices, but they can also use applications to keep track of doctor’s appointments, and get remainder to take their medications.  Technology has placed at the disposal of the healthcare community various potent tools to improve patient care.  Since medical information or data are easily available to physicians, they can access complete medical histories of patients and make the well-considered medical decisions.  Digital technology also helps enhance patient care by providing information about the patient’s vital signs, and temperature.  Digital technology has enabled patients get medical treatment with specialists in any part of the world.  Generally, digital technological advancements such as health applications in the healthcare have provided doctors with the opportunity to treat patients in a virtual environment by using medium like video conferencing; tracking chronic illness and communicate vital information to doctors, helping people to track diet, exercise and mental health information and online medical records that give people access to test results and allow people to fill prescriptions.  Economic Growth  The faster development of technology allows the economic sector to increase its productivity through facilitating communication, improving skills, providing new business opportunities, and creating new entrepreneurships.  Increased productivity as a result of the introduction of more efficient business processes, excessive markets and business processing supported by technologies.  Digital technologies have brought about economic growth through the introduction of new innovations and infrastructures, large amount of investments, strengthening information and communication services in the global market.  Moreover, they increase the volume of transit freight because of the decrease in transit time in all transportation sectors.  New technologies that have been adopted in the agriculture sector, for example, satellite technologies and mobile phones significantly increased agricultural productivity by enabling the weather conditions and updating information on agricultural knowledge.  The highest- level computing, broadband, and mobile telephone networks have also been instrumental in relaxing scalability constraints thereby allowing the economic sector to grow more rapidly.  Digitalization based on mature technologies provided a way to allow business to scale further. The use of digital technologies in day- to-day activities dramatically increases the amount of goods and services produced in different parts of the world, the automation of business operations and operational effectiveness.  Negative implications of digital technology on the social life of citizens Some of the negative effects on the social life are discussed below: Social alienation  There is an increasing tendency for people to socialize and communicate via digital devices rather than through real life contact. Society is continuing to become more and more impersonal as digitalized machines replaced humans. For example. People shop online, and do their banking online. Lack of contact with others can easily result in a sense of disconnectedness and isolation.  Since human beings have evolved over thousands of years to have real contact the decrease of such contacts affects them in all sorts of negative ways which we are only beginning to understand.  Although social media enable people to contact all over the world, they can also reinforce prejudices, and sow lack of agreement by giving hate speech and misinformation and by amplifying echo chambers. Digital technology, particularly social media can fuel the fragmentation of society around the world in this way. Eroding privacy  It has become much harder to have personal privacy in the digital world. There is also a danger that your personal data can be stolen or sold.  For instance, everybody has the ability to take photos and video footage on their mobile phone, and then post it online. Employers can search for people online and may find unflattering photographs, or see those expressing controversial opinions in social media or blogs. Digital cameras watch and record our movements in public places. Minor indiscretions can now haunt an individual for life when they are posted on the internet.  Controlling personal information is very difficult and sometimes impossible  Job insecurity  It is used to be that you had to be physically present at a workplace to do a job, but now many work tasks are performed remotely via digital technology.  That means a poor country worker in a low wage economy can undercut workers and take his or her job. Increasingly, humans are not needed at all for many tasks, as computers gradually replace them. Driving and delivery jobs, for instance, will disappear soon as vehicles become automated. Data insecurity  Digital technology means that huge amount of data can be collected and stored. This can be private information concerning individuals or organizations.  It can be very difficult to keep this data safe. Just a single breach can mean vast amount of private information is going in to the hands of criminals, terrorists, business rivals, foreign adversaries, or other harmful entities.  Crime and Terrorism o The internet is the fertile territory for malevolent forces to operate internationally, and on vast scales. Examples of this include terrorist who use social media to promote them and encourage others; drug dealers who use the dark web to trade, etc. Effects on physical health o Social media and mobile devices lead to physical health problems. Technologies such as computers, smart phones and hand held tablets, can hold a person’s attention for long periods. This may lead to eyestrains. o Symptoms of digital eyestrain can include blurred vision, and dry eyes. Eyestrain may also lead to pain in other areas of the body such as the head, neck or shoulder. The way people use mobile devices and computers may also contribute to incorrect posture. Overtime, this may leads to musculoskeletal problems.  3. Effects On Ethical Values Positive Implications Of Digital Technology On The Ethical Values Of Citizens Developing critical thinking: proper and accurate use of technology is one of the most powerful tools for developing critical thinking of young citizens.  Digital technology allows people to think and look beyond their spheres and perspectives. This means that they no longer see things from specific sources of information. While people access information from diversified sources, they are enable to analyze, check facts, and challenge the information rather than passively accept the dictums of others.  People who have limited sources of information and knowledge have no choice to ignore. Rather they accept what they get as ultimate truth and fact.  People using digital purposefully would acquire, enhance and develop the power, the skill and knowledge to identify and critically evaluate what is fact and what is individual’s opinion. Later they could gain new perspectives.  So, technology rich environments foster self-regulated learning. That means, people can develop the capacity to monitor, evaluate, and control thinking while completing new tasks which help critical thinking and transfer of knowledge.  Developing universal moral values: people come from diversified society with diversified moral norm participating in philosophical debates and discourses with others through different technologies is important to develop a universally guiding moral principles. People who live in isolated environment always believe their moral norms are best, but the moral norms of others are worst. When they start to communicate with others, and begin to learn more about other people, they compare and contrast the good and evil norms of the world society. Through time, such good moral norms got acceptance and become universal moral principles.  Self-learning Of Good Habits: good moral characters may not be always acquired from family and peers. The way people make moral decisions and become good may have been shaped by other persons who have good ethical behaviors. Digital technologies allow people to learn ways of acquiring good moral values from the experiences of others. For example, reading the life experiences of philosophers from different sources may help a person to learn what kind of person she/he should be and what kind of behaviors she/ he should acquire. When people start to interact with others, they begin to reconsider their conceptions about what is good or bad, right or wrong, just or unjust and become aware of the broader society, its values, norms, and expectations Negative Implications Of Digital Technology On The Ethical Values Of Citizens  Ethical Dilemma: The move from one set of dominant information to another through digital technology is always morally/ ethically contentious. People who access different philosophical thoughts from various digital sources may experience ethical dilemma when something at work goes against their personal ethics, morals and values. Such dilemma may force people, for example, to choose between being honest and dishonest, or between what they know is right and what they know is wrong. These dilemmas may lead people to lose or change their norms and values established in their own socio-cultural spheres.  Increasing uncertainty: In this digital world, many ethical issues are raised and discussed through internet. Different people engage in conversations and debates and transform to others through webs about how to behave well or have right characters or how to lead our lives properly. For such questions, philosophers have no well-articulated answers till now. Hence, people may confront with the lives they really live, which leads them to confusion and uncertainty of their future.  Creating Unhappiness: Technologies can encourage unethical practices in a number of ways. Today, the media can reflect some very vulgar and offending messages. Especially via computer, the perpetrators of these messages can offend people within their own culture and in other cultures, through e-mail, instant messages or unsuspecting software. Imagine that a message from unknown address comes to you.When you read the e-mail, there is a very offending joke about your culture. The e-mail, obviously, was unethical and it distracted you from your duties.  Untruthfulness: All information disseminated through digital technologies always possess the issue of truthfulness. Truthfulness as a norm of ethics is one of the significant values of people. Transfer of fake information, messages and news to others has become a norm for some people in this digital era. Now many young citizens are affected by such misconduct to get likes, subscribes and shares on you tube, face book, and other social media.  Eroding people’s norms of freedom: Digital technologies have become a place in which users express their hates against their opponents. Many people have lost their freedoms of writing and speech using different media because of fear of insult by people who refuse their views or opinions.  Induction of negative emotions: People are experiencing negative emotions, such as fear, disgust, and anger. These emotions become routine for some people when they watch a sad film, war and disastrous videos, etc. Such emotions disrupt and dislocate the thinking and attention of human beings. That has profound effects on people’s ability to think.  LESSONN: 2 The Ethics Of Using Digital Technology  Ethical and acceptable behavior is important in utilizing digital technology such as internet, cellular phones and laptops.  In today’s digital world, there is increasing trends of misuse and abuse of emerging technologies.  Some examples include using internet to intimidate or threaten students, using cellular phones during class time, and playing games on laptops.  As ever-smarter technologies proliferate, so too does the potential for its misuse, for example, a flawed algorithm may lead to a wrongful deportation of many people, harvesting others without their consent, and unchecked use of technology that can lead to negative consequences. So, how can we address these issues? This shows us as to why digital ethics matters more than anything. Some of the common ethical and social codes students should be aware of while using digital technology include:  Understanding the ethical, cultural, and societal issues related to technology.  Practicing responsible use of technology system, information and software.  Developing positive attitudes towards technology applications that support lifelong learning, collaboration, personal pursuits and productivity.  These codes of conduct are important to guide student’s behavior in and out of school in using technology. What Is Digital Citizenship? Digital citizenship can be defined as the norms of behavior with regard to technology use. It is the appropriate and responsible use of the internet, computers and digital devices. As a way of understanding the complexity of digital citizenship and the issue of technology use, abuse and misuse, we have identified general areas of behavior that make up digital citizenship. Etiquette: electronic standard of conduct or procedure Responsibility: electronic responsibility for action and deeds Safety: physical well-being in digital technology Security (self-protection): electronic precautions to guarantee safety. Now let us discuss these general areas of ethical behavior with examples: Etiquette: digital behavior makes everyone a role model for students. The problem with teaching digital technology is not all the rules that have been written about uses of these devices. As new technologies emerge, users do not have the opportunity to “catch up” with all of their uses. Moreover, when students see adults using technologies inappropriately, they can assume it is the norm. This leads to inappropriate technology behavior on the part of students. Example of inappropriate etiquette; Students use cell phones to send non-class related messages back and forth in class. Responsibility: at any early age you may find it easy to locate and download material from the Internet. Technology users must think twice about what is appropriate or ethical and legal to download materials from the internet. Examples of inappropriate responsibility.  Students copy materials of the internet for class projects without giving credit to the author.  Students download illegal materials from the internet sites. Safety: students need to be aware of the physical dangers that are inherent in using technology. Carpal tunnel syndrome is one (though not the only) of such dangers. Eyestrain and poor posture are common problems in technology- related activities. You should use technology in a responsible way to prevent various physical injuries. Example, using technology in rooms that are not well lit. Security: as more and more sensitive information is stored electronically, a corresponding strategy to protect that information must be created. Students must learn how to protect electronic data (example, virus protection, firewall, offsite storage). Protecting one’s equipment is not only a matter of personal responsibility but also necessary for protecting the community (example, keeping one’s virus software up to date). However, digital security goes beyond protecting equipment. It includes protecting ourselves and others from outside influences that would do us physical harm. Example of inappropriate security:  Failure to protect your identity while using e-mail, chat, or instant messaging.  Failure to protect electronic data.  Failure to maintain current software updates on other computers so as to protect from computer virus. Confidentiality: internet users consider privacy or security to be one of the important issues. A lot of internet users are not aware of the fact that personal information may be revealed when they go online. Examples of inappropriate confidentiality:  when people tell their email, Facebook and other passwords to others. Accuracy/ trust worthiness: although there is a wide realm of information available on the internet, there is no agency monitoring truth or accuracy of information. There is no restriction on false information. Teachers should inform their students about the situation to protect them from citing or reading incorrect information. Inaccurate information can cause confusion in society, and medical and legal issues. In sum, with the rise of technology use at home and in the class rooms, developing digital citizenship has been a priority in countries of the world. Ensuring children and the young people are active, engaged and respectful online users are essential to fostering digital skill development and inclusion of the non-skillful children. The reality of being online is that children and the young people despite their digital skill levels, will be exposed to risks. 3. Opportunities Digital Technology Provides For Young Citizens In the ever-globalized world, the change in the use and advancement of digital technology offers opportunities for young citizens. This section is intended to present some of the opportunities of digital technologies for young citizens including information access, connectivity, digital learning, innovation and versatile working.  Information access  digital technology is a window of opportunity for young citizens to easily access information about what is going in their own country and around the world.  Hence, digital technology favored an open access to information which would enable young citizens to engage in collaborative activities and to become part of the world people  Social connectivity  digital technology facilitates conditions to the young to connect socially in spite of time and space. Therefore, it creates the opportunity of empowering the young generation to fully participate in today’s digital world.  This would be an advantage for them to be informed citizens. In addition, it is an opportunity for the young people to be familiar with the tools and codes of their ever-digitalizing world.  Learning opportunities  anybody with access to the internet now has an access to a huge proportion of the world’s knowledge over the web.  Lessons and courses can now be delivered virtually online.  Communication advances mean that the young people can now easily communicate with most of the world’s population and learn directly from sources without the need of face- to-face contact or going abroad.  For example, people trying to understand foreign events, or to learn new language, thanks to digital technology, they can easily learn and acquire knowledge and skills.  Digital technology enables the young to acquire short term trainings on different disciplines.  Even people can develop their skills by watching videos, listening audios and searching relevant internet information regarding what they want.  Versatile working opportunities  due to the advancement of digital technology, the nature of work has been transformed. Increased connectivity options means that many young people now have far more opportunities for working from home as remote working has become increasingly common.  Many jobs can now be done from hundreds, or thousands of miles away without difficulty. Digital technologies also provide opportunities for the young to easily search and apply online job opportunities.  Innovation and creative opportunities  the advancement of digital technology is a fertile ground for the young generation to be creative and innovative.  The opportunities in terms of information access, connectivity and digital learning are the enabling factors for the young citizens to be innovative in different aspects of life.  In addition, digital technologies enable young citizens to be exposed to new ideas and technologies which equally contributed to creativity and innovation. 4. Impacts of unethical use of digital technology on young citizens some of the impacts of unethical use of technology on young citizens. Academic dishonesty  Academic dishonesty - cheating and internet plagiarism - is a serious unethical use of digital technologies which affect the academic performance of the young.  Academic dishonesty, like cheating includes copying from another’s work or allowing one’s own work to be copied, submitting another person’s work as one’s own , fabrication of data, consultation with an authorized person during the examination, or use of un authorized aids.  Plagiarism- is the act of presenting the ideas, words, or other intellectual property of other persons as one’s own.  Such kinds of digital cheating could be less effortful, particularly with the ease of using copy and paste functions to incorporate others ‘digital text in to one’s own. So, when one’s work and intellectual property are simply copied, and plagiarized by others without adding their efforts, it leads to dependence on others’ work and property.  When young citizen become dependent on others’ work, they become dependent and unanalytical in their academy.  This unethical conduct affects not only the academic performance of people who copied, but also of those people whose work is plagiarized and copied by others, because plagiarism leads to the erosion of authors morality, which again results in academicians leave out the academic circle and research contribution. This affects the future generation who could benefit from the work of others and who want to contribute to their people by writing books, and articles and conducting researches. Digital media piracy: this is a leading unethical practice in the use of computers. Piracy is regarded as illegal circulation and distribution of music, movies, books and other intellectual property. Such unethical acts affect the young in many ways. First, it violates the property rights of those whose music, movies, books etc... are distributed and circulated to others without payment. Secondly, such conducts affect the production industries and hinders young generation from their commitment to hardworking. For example, musicians and academicians, and film makers lose their property rights because their properties are stolen and distributed without payment. Identity theft: digital technologies provide wide scopes for users to hide their identities.People are much more likely to behave anti-socially if they think that there will be no consequences. Unfriendly and revenge sex: the irresponsible and unethical use of digital technology poses risks for the young in their relationships with their sexual friends. Digital technologies enable young people to share, create and forward suggestive aggressive sex videos. When the young practice like what they watch in the videos, it leads them to separate from their friends or to be addicted. Youngsters who have access of downloading and watching sex videos are prone to early sexual experiences which bring about many problems for them (effect of education, engaging in sexual relationships early, family crisis, etc.).  U N I T THREE UNDERSTANDING GOOD GOVERNANCE 3.1. The concepts of governance The word governance has been understood differently by different people. The common and general definitions of the term governance is defined as follows:  Governance refers to the exercise of political and administrative authority at all levels to manage a country's affairs.  It comprises the mechanisms, processes and institutions, through which citizens, groups, civil societies, community members and private sectors articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences.  It is the manner in which the government is working together with other stakeholders in society, exercises its authority and influence in promoting the collective welfare of society and the long-term interests of the state. 3.2. The concept of good governance What is good governance?  Good governance is a way of measuring how public institutions conduct public affairs and manage public resources in a better way at which a public service is efficient, a judicial system is reliable and an administration is accountable to its public.  It signifies a participative manner of governing that functions in a responsible, accountable, and transparent manner based on the principles of efficiency, legitimacy and consensus for the purpose of promoting the rights of individual, and public interest.  Good governance assures that political, social and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the allocation of development resources.  Good governance occurs when societal norms and practices empower and encourage people to take increasingly greater control over their own development in a manner that does not impinge upon the accepted rights of others. 3.3. Elements of good governance Elements of good governance may vary according to the nature and functions of institutions. However, the following elements are commonly practiced by all institutions and organizations for realization of their purposes. 1. Accountability: is a principle which requires elected and appointed government officials to be answerable for the decisions and acts they undertake. Officials must make decisions and perform their duties according to the will and wishes of the people, not for themselves. For government to be accountable the people must be aware of what is happening in the country. 2. Participation  every citizen has a role in the process of decision making. Participation by both men and women area corner stone of good governance.  All men and women should have voice in decision-making, either directly or through legitimate intermediate institutions that represent their interests.  Society should be allowed to express their concerns in the policy making influencing them without any fear and discriminations.  Such broad participation is built on freedom of association and speech, as well as capacities participate constructively. 3. Rule of law  good governance requires legal frame works to be fair and been enforced impartially It means that everyone must obey the law and be held accountable if he/she violates it.  Impartial implementation of laws requires an independent judiciary and impartial and incorruptible police force.  It also involves provision of free legal aid to the poor and needy people who cannot afford to pay to legal practitioners. 4. Transparency  refers to the availability of information of the general public and clarity about government rules, regulations and decisions and those decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules and regulations. Transparency is also means that information is freely available, known and directly accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement. Transparency in government decision making and public policy implementation reduces uncertainty and can help inhibit corruption among public official. 5. Equity and Inclusiveness: a society’s well-being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires all groups, but particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being. 6. Responsiveness: good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable time frame. By being responsive, government and non- government institutions gain legitimacy in public realm which will ensure their wider acceptance. 7. Consensus Oriented Good governance requires:  Mediation of the different interests in society to reach abroad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved;  Abroad and long- term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve the goals of such development;  A broad and long-term perspective on what is needed for the society and how to achieve the goals.  This can only result from an understanding of the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community. 8. Effectiveness and efficiency: Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment. 3.4. The Role Of Good Governance The explicit commitment to principles of good governance has provides the following roles: Economic development: good governance is the most important factor in promoting economic development. The important roles that good governance has to address economic problems is through ensuring the rule of law, improving the efficiency and accountability of the public and private sector, better allocation and distribution of resources, allowing the community access to government institutions and markets and increasing growth and ensuring the development outcomes that are redistributed to all of the population. Good governance promotes inclusive growth through effective implementations of government policies and the existence of impartial institutions that make possible a fair distribution of the benefits from the economy and by protecting property rights and supporting an equitable enforcement of law for all individuals. Good governance also calls for a decentralized development and administration, which ensured the society’s participation in their own affairs. This form of governance would ensure that citizens are not just objects of development but subjects who take responsibility of their lives and their development. In good governance - the common mass are the central focus of all development. Social development: development does not just involve increase in income/ or economic growth, but also include sustainable improvements in the living standard of the society and social well-being. Good governance ensures a better today and a brighter future for all the citizens and generate a great deal of interest among the people that represent the aspirations and hopes, culture of the people. Good governance is enhancing the ability of the people to gain better and dignified life, greater options to choose from and ensuring transparency in administration etc. Good governance brings positive change in the quality and span of life of the people through: Access to better living conditions; The ability to feed, cloth, and shelter oneself resulting from more income in one’s means of livelihood; Ability to live longer life as a result of the provision of health and medical facilities and, prevention of diseases through better sanitation; The ability to read, write and understand through the provision of education; The ability to participate meaningfully in public affairs. Strengthen social cohesion and unity: good governance ensures that the people at large have a stake in the affairs of the state and do not feel excluded. It also ensures social and economic priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the allocation of development resources. Good governance promotes that diversified opinions are mediated in a society to develop consensus on what is practical, beneficial and in the larger interest. The desire for strong social cohesion and unity will be best served through; the promotion of democratic principles, popular participation, human rights and rule of the law, enhancing the ability of people to gain better and dignified life, and ensuring transparency in administration. Good governance along with education helps how to achieve peaceful transformation and conflict resolution. Promoting peace: good governance is a key instrument for promoting peace by providing pathways for citizens to feel that their issues and identity is represented in the decision-making structures. It also allows diversified social, political, and economic groups to engage in the decision-making process and provide for the equitable receipt of benefits and resources and offer mechanisms for all people to voice their concerns and grievances, and protecting their rights and guarantying security. When the governance system is not participatory, accountable and transparent, it is a fact that some groups feel to be excluded, which in turn contribute to instability. A country, which is democratic in its polity, is well governed if its government can simultaneously sustain legitimacy, promote socio-economic development and maintain order without coercion.  Ensuring social justice: encourages judicial flexibility and creativity, opening legal systems to new justice claims and to the values espoused by political and social minorities. Good governance and social justice are interrelated terms. The creation of social justice means the creation of an environment in which every individual gets unreserved and unhindered opportunity for all development. Access to justice is based upon the basic principle that people should be able to rely upon the correct application of law. Impartial enforcement of rule of law as a basic attribute of good governance enables people to be treated equally by institutions that administer the law, the courts, the police and civil services. Guaranting government stability: good governance seeks to improve the capacity of the state, and increase efficiency and effectiveness of government performance. This implies that accountability, transparency and responsiveness on the part of government and its officials are the hallmark of good governance in any society. Ensuring respect of human rights: There is no doubt that nurturing good governance is essential to ensuring respect for human rights. Without rule of law, courts and other institutions, the enforcement and respect for human rights would be impossible. Transparent, responsible, accountable and participatory governance is a prerequisite to enduring respect for human dignity and the defense of human rights. 3.5. Challenges of good governance Major obstacle to the successful implementation of economic reforms. The entrenchment of political corruption and clientelism as the principal means of economic advancement aggravates conflicts, by raising the premium on control of the state and rendering politics a more desperate, zero-sum struggle for control of economic opportunity. The weakness of the rule of law makes it easier for leaders of different groups to mobilize violence at the grassroots as part of their efforts to win power for themselves. It also facilitates electoral fraud and violence. Citizens would have low levels of trust in one another and in the future. People in developing countries are now facing many governance challenges. Their government institutions are not effective and responsive. Officials are unaccountable, courts are not independent, and resources are not efficiently utilized. Some of the major challenges facing developing countries are discussed below: Poverty: poverty affects societies in many ways, including undermining good governance and democracy. Good governance principles could not be realized in a condition where people are poor. Poverty does not provide a fertile ground for the promotion of rights and participation. When people are starved they are concerned about where they can get meal. They do not worry about their participation in the decision-making process. Effective governance cannot be achieved while extreme poverty exists because it creates results in exclusion, isolation and loneliness and exacerbates a sense of stigma and shame. This in turn creates a sense of not being able to join in the society or play any part in it. Poverty is the negation of all social existence due to the impossibility of full enjoyment of fundamental human rights, social, economic and cultural rights as well as civil and political rights. Effective governance is difficult to attain when those affected by poverty have trouble getting their voices heard and their interests taken in to account by service providers and decision makers. Hence, good governance cannot be achieved since citizens are unable to attain full and effective enjoyment of all fundamental rights  Corruption: rampant corruption causes discrimination, injustice and disregard to human self-respect. It imperils the stability of democratic institutions by making these institutions inefficient and ineffective in delivering public services. Corruption is considered a failure of institutions in particular those in charge of investigation, prosecution, and enforcement. Corruption damages the development process in many ways. First, it distorts economic systems by creating consistent budget deficit, which leads to persistent inflation reducing the real purchasing power of consumers. Secondly, it undermines social confidence and capacity in the public institutions to fulfill their obligations to the people and it reinforces existing power relationships that are themselves part of the development problem. Thirdly, highly visible corruption accentuates the sense of injustice and grievance associated with poverty, unemployment, and economic hardship. Corruption has also been a obstacle to the successful implementation of economic reforms. The entrenchment of political corruption and clientelism as the principal means of economic advancement aggravates conflicts, by raising the premium on control of the state and rendering politics a more desperate, zero-sum struggle for control of economic opportunity. The weakness of the rule of law makes it easier for leaders of different groups to mobilize violence at the grassroots as part of their efforts to win power for themselves. It also facilitates electoral fraud and violence. Citizens would have low levels of trust in one another and in the future. 3.6. Impacts of lack of good governance  Political Instability: governments that implement public decisions, policies, and laws driven by the intention and interest of some groups and those in power without the participation and interests of the public always experience political instability. Inability of rule of law: the concept of good governance is undoubtedly linked with citizen’s right to life, liberty, property, and pursuit of happiness. Such rights of citizens could be secured only through the rule of law. Rule of law ensures the operation of power and stands against the arbitrariness of absolute rule. When the political structure of a country becomes weak, every political leader is tempted to manipulate laws, break the law related to security, properties, life, money etc... Inability to secure justice: injustice comes from lack of proper distribution of essential resources and not getting their fair share of the deliverable promised by the government. Lack of transparency: the government practices have to be always been questioned. The simple reason for this is that there is no information how government performs its works until and unless some disgrace comes up. Lack of empowerment: the common people do not get chance to voice their needs while policies are formulated. This could be due to lack of desire on parts of the governments to know public opinion or to do timely consultation or due to lack of awareness among the public regarding policies that are being implemented.  Inefficient service delivery: lack of good governance results in inefficiency in service provisions, and in some cases no service at all. For example, lack of good governance in education and health sectors results in not only lack of standards, information, incentives and accountability but also it leads to corruption due to which the resources allocated could be been used for private gain. Unresponsive and irresponsible health professionals sell medications and medical equipment allotted for public clinics. In the judicial system also lack of good governance also results in the delay of service delivery. Administrative Irregularities: when government offices do not work in accordance there will not be proper management of data. 3.7. Understanding and fighting corruption Definition and forms of corruption Corruption is defined as the misuse of public office or power for one’s own private gain or benefit. It is also the impairment of integrity, virtue, or moral principles applies to unethical behaviors on all levels of society’s power structure. Corruption is more common in an environment where the administration lacks independence and professionalism, weak legal framework and weak enforcement mechanisms, weak institutions, lack of accountability and transparency of officials, unpredictability of administrative procedures and bureaucratic complexities and so on. It erodes trust, weakens democracy, hampers economic development, and further exacerbates inequality, poverty, social division and instability. Corruption may takes place in the following forms: Bribery: the director indirect offer or provision of undue payment, gift or other advantage to an official in violation of his or her legal duties in order to obtain any other undue favor. Embezzlement: the theft or misappropriation of public resources by public officials. Fraud: crime that involves some kinds of trickery, swindle or deceit. Teaching with a license obtained on false ground is an example of fraud. Nepotism: a form of favoritism in which an office holder with the right to make appointments prefer to nominate her or his own relatives. Extortion: the extraction of money or other resources from somebody by the use of coercion, violence or other threats to use force. Ways of fighting the impacts of corruption Fighting the negative impacts of corruption is becoming the broader political, economic and social goals of world countries. Different ways/mechanisms of fighting corruption has been adopted by different countries. Some of the common ways are discussed below:  Creating public awareness: educating and awaring the public about the risks and damaging consequences that corruption creates in economic, political and social spheres through media, awareness campaign, training, workshops etc... is one of the key mechanism of fighting the costs of corruption. Creating awareness in the public enables everyone to know about what is allowed and what is not allowed with regarded to the execution of their government officials duties, and to be familiarize with the minimum standards required under law. It is also useful to the public to inform and know their rights and defend their interests. Creating awareness contributes in shaping societal attitudes regarding how corruption affects their wellbeing and their country in general.  Citizen participation: in order to facilitate accountability and transparency creating mechanisms in which citizens participate in government plays a key role in fighting corruption. Creating pathways that give citizen's relevant tools to engage and participate in their governments helps to identify citizens problems and prioritize their needs, control and evaluate the government's commitments and create opportunities to find solutions. It also leads to social trust, generating general consensus and producing a workable social contract up on which to base reform and development programs, provides input to anti-corruption process by reporting corrupt activities and reinforce healthy citizen-government relations. The participation of citizens in government used to increases the capacity to address government problems. For example, a participatory budgetary public hearing programs and systems enables citizens to become an integral parts of the decision making system. Citizens then decided the manner in which their government's expenditure are allocated and understand that putting an end to bribery frees up financial resources that could otherwise be allocated to essential social services.  Strengthening the civil service: One way to reduce the impacts of corruption is strengthening the civil services through: o Depoliticization and professionalization of officials and servants(employees)- proper attention should be given to activities that help to create attractive career paths in the civil service. The existence of non-political and professional civil service institutions has a key significance for reducing administrative corruption. The qualification level of officials and servants play a considerable role for establishing efficient civil service administrations. o Increasing accountability and transparency of civil service administrations: a vital condition for building accountability and transparency at all levels of government institutions can be achieved through the accessibility, availability, and simplifications of information, process, procedures, and regulations to the public. Transparency and accountability in civil service administrations increases empowerment for the general public and makes supervision easier  Simplifications of Administrative procedures : The complexity and unpredictability of administrative procedures and excessive bureaucratic complexities creates confusions and it is one of the main factors contribution to corruption. Developing and implementing standardized administrative procedures serve as an initial step in combating corruption because it improves coordination among offices, avoids duplication of duties, and reduce unjustified administrative discretions. Media: free and independent media with professional investigative capabilities can be played a great role for fighting corruption in. Regarding to fighting corruption media can play the following roles: o Raises public awareness about the causes, consequences and possible remedies of corruption and thus can foster a culture of integrity. o Inform and educate people about the effects of corruption. Successful action against corruption is dependent on knowledge and information which can be delivered by media. o Detecting, investigating exposing , uncovering and reporting incidents of corruption, bringing corruption cases in to the public sphere and instigating judicial involvement. o Enhance accountability. The media offers a key route for institutions about governmental, administrative, and business activities to be disseminated throughout society, and thus providing the public with a crucial capacity to hold those in power accountable. Strengthening the judicial system: reliable, independent and effective judicial systems are crucial to make sure laws and regulations are actually enforced. One of the ways that the judicial can contribute in fighting against corruption is by showing its independence in the dispensation of justice. For such purposes the judiciary can enjoy the greatest degree of independence and the judges and other investigating authorities must be professionals.  Unit Five Federalism in Ethiopia The meaning of federalism Federalism is a system of government where power is divided between federal and regional governments. Devolution, the principle of federalism means to transfer power of the region that constitutes the federation. The devolution of power makes neither the federal nor the regional governments supreme. Instead, power is coordinated between the center and the region. This arrangement could be one of mechanism to help to avoid a monopoly of power. Different scholars define the term federalism in different way some of them are: ‘Federalism is a political organization in which the activities of government are divided between regional governments and a central government in such a way that each kind of government has some activities on which it makes final decisions'. ‘Federalism refers to the advocacy of multi-tiered government combining elements of shared- rule and regional self-rule Within the genus of federal political systems, federations represent a particular species in which neither the federal nor the constituent units of government are constitutionally subordinate to the other, i.e. each has sovereign powers derived from the constitution rather than another level government, each is empowered to deal directly with its citizens in the exercise of its legislative, executive and taxing powers and each is directly elected by its citizens’. ‘Federalism is an institutional arrangement in which (a) public authority is divided between state governments and a central government, (b) each level of government has some issues on which it makes final decisions, and (c) a high federal court adjudicates disputes concerning federalism’.  Types of federalism Federal systems are usually known for dividing power between the federal government and the states. However, laws that are made by the states (regions) usually apply to the respective regions where as laws by federal legislatures apply to all states. In con-federal arrangements, the central government has no direct authority over citizens’ life. However, in federations the federal government has direct authority over citizens by legislating rules and laws. The issue is how federal governments execute their laws across the territory of their country (states). Enforcement and coordination of such laws throughout the territory is an essential aspect of building one political and economic community. Based on how federal governments execute their laws across their whole territory (states) federations can be classified as: Dual federalism and Cooperative federalism A) Dual federalism The term federalism refers to the political understanding or system where ultimate authority is shared between the state or regional governments and the central government. The definition of dual federalism primarily concerns the balance of power between the two governing. Dual federalism is a system that clearly divides government authority between state and national governments. Many refer to Dual Federalism as Layer Cake Federalism. Speaking informally, state governments will have their own powers where the central government could not intervene and the other way around as well. Earlier, state governments controlled almost all aspects of individual citizens. Whereas the national government had authority over internal improvements, international relations and regulations of those relations, determining commercial aspects between the states, etc.  Advantages of dual federalism 1. It allows protection of local jurisdictions from federal Government overreach. It prevents the federal government from having too much power in its hands. 2. It also allows local laws to develop and imply reflecting on the requirements and wants of the local constituents. Different states have varying laws regarding divorce, marriage, speed limits, etc. These laws were formed on the basis of the respective state’s requirements. For instance, a state that is less populated and congested might assign a higher speed limit than others. Disadvantages of dual federalism While dual federalism offers its fair share of pros, it does warrant a few cons. 1. It ensures that tension between state and federal government always stays at the brim. This rising tension between them isn’t favorable for the development and wellbeing of the state and the country as a whole. 2. The rising tension also leads to decreasing levels of cooperation between the federal and state governments. This then results in reduced efficiency of programs that require full cooperation from both governing bodies. 3. As the power at the hands of states increases, the unity between the different states tends to decrease.  B) Cooperative federalism Cooperative federalism requires state and national governments to share power and collaborate on overlapping functions. Cooperative federalism is the federal government giving tax revenue to the states in order to fund interstate highways; the states are allowed to govern the construction and maintenance process in accordance with goals set by the national government. Cooperative federalism, also known as marble-cake federalism, is a concept of federalism in which federal, state, and local governments interact cooperatively and collectively to solve common problems, rather than making policies separately but more or less equally. The advantages of cooperative federalism:  National and state governments work together to provide services in an efficient manner.  It provided a more practical approach to intergovernmental relations, as more complex problems arose that could not be addressed at only one level of government.  Both the state and federal governments held their own set of powers and responsibilities. This gave the people a sense of participation in their government, and it also prevented either the state or the government from gaining an excessive amount of power.  States have an incentive to cooperate with the federal government.  States can influence how programs are implemented. The disadvantages of federalism:  A disadvantage of Cooperative Federalism was a decrease in the state’s powers. Instead of them being on their own, the federal government may intervene in policies once reserved to the states.  Key features of federalism There is admittedly difficulty in defining what we earlier noted vaguely as federations. Like many concepts and institutions, federations are in a process of change and the ways they manifest themselves in different polities are far from the same. Essential features characterizing federal state structure 1. Division of power  Federations are distinguished from other polities primarily by the fact that political power (commonly related to legislative, executive, judicial and financial functions) is constitutionally divided between the federal government and the states.  This is indirectly based on the dual principle implicit in every federation of the desire to be united and to be autonomous. A common feature among federations has been the existence of powerful motives to be united for certain purposes, on the one hand, and deep-rooted motives for autonomous states for other purposes, on the other.  The federal government is often empowered with those powers that are shared in common and the states are empowered with those powers considered relevant for the expression of regional identity. defines federations as shared rule through common institutions and self-rule for constituent units. Through the former, one of the cardinal values, unity is promoted, and through the second, the other cardinal value, diversity is equally promoted.  It is important to emphasize that in federations, the units are not only entitled to regional self-rule or administration by right but they also share in the process of common policy-making at the center. 2. Decentralized system of government  As opposed to confederations, in decentralized governments the units, often called local governments, are subordinate to the center. However wide the powers they may exercise, the local governments are merely creations of the center by a statute and, as a result, they may be wiped out by the center at any time.  The arrangement presupposes the existence of central authority, which may for one reason or another delegate a portion of its authority to the local governments but such delegation is subject to unilateral withdrawal, amendment or revocation by the center.  Thus, the delegation of power is at the mercy and unilateral discretion of the center and not as a matter of right of the local governments. Of course, in some cases absorbing the local government may be politically not sound even if it is legally possible.  But this does not change the theory that they are subject to unilateral revocation by the center. The center’s decision to end the local units merely requires the passage of legislation.  In some instances, the autonomy of local governments may be incorporated in a constitution, yet such clauses granting authority could be changed by the central legislature alone.  Besides, in decentralized systems, the emphasis is on self-rule rather than on shared rule. In a federation, on the other hand, the division of power is constitutionally guaranteed and the states are not creations of the federal government.  Both the federal government and the states derive their authority from the federal constitution and as a result neither level can change the terms of the compact as enshrined in the constitution. 3. Written and Supreme federal constitution  federations relates to the fact that the division of power between the federal government and the states is based on a written and supreme federal constitution to which both orders of government must submit.  Federations originate from particular bargains struck at a particular time designed to serve for generations.  Written constitutions are therefore, necessary records of the terms of the bargain. Indeed, to write and adopt a constitution is to agree to the bargain itself.  The terms of the agreement, which establish the federal government and the states and which distribute powers between them, must been shined in a supreme federal constitution, which is binding.  This is a logical necessity deriving from the nature of the federation itself.  If the federal government and the states are to remain autonomous within their respective spheres of jurisdiction, the authority of one should not depend on the other but must derive from something supreme to both of them.  Advantage and disadvantage of federalism Advantages of federalism 1. Division of powers  In a federal government the powers of administration are divided between the center and the units.  The powers may be distributed in two different ways. Either the constitution states what powers the federal authority shall have, and leaves the remainder to the federating units, or it states what powers the federating units shall possess and leave the remainder to the federal authority.  The remainder is generally known as residuary powers. The first method is employed in America and the second in Canada. The federal government in U.S.A., for example, is weak in relation to the states whereas the federal government in Canada is more powerful.  In a federation both the federal and state governments are independent and autonomous in the spheres of their powers.  One is not subordinate to the other. Both derive their powers from the constitution which is the supreme law of the land.  The powers enjoyed by the units are, therefore, original and not delegated by the center. 2. Separate government  In a federal form of government, both the center and the units have their separate set of governmental apparatus.  America is a federation of states. States have therefore separate legislatures and separate executives. 3. Written constitution  A federal government must have a written constitution.  As a federation is a political partnership of various states and consequently there must be a written agreement in the form of a written constitution. 4. Rigid constitution  The constitution of a federation should be more or less rigid. It is regarded as a sacred agreement, the spirit of which should not be easily violated.  A flexible constitution allows a scope to the central government to curtail the autonomy of the federating states.  5. Special judiciary  In a federation, there are possibilities of constitutional disputes arising between the federal /center and the units or between one unit and another.  All these disputes are to be adjudicated in the light of the constitution.  For this purpose a special judiciary with wide powers must be established.  It should act as the custodian and guardian of the constitution.  It should be vested with powers of declaring any law, national or local, if it is at variance with the articles of the constitution.  The constitution is thus the supreme law in a federation to which both the centric and the state must adhere to. 6. Better understanding of local issues and demands  The central government has no true way to understand what issues, demands and changes need to be made in every area of the country. This is why federalism is such a great advantage.  The smaller branches of the local governments are right in the middle of the local society. They are better suited to deal with the problems that may arise in grass root levels. 7. Increasing citizen participation  Due to the existence of dual level of governments federalism increases citizens level of participation in the government decision making at the grass root level. 8. protection against tyranny  Dividing the power between the national government and state governments and spreading the national government power among three branches that serve as a check and balance on each other is that it serves as a deterrent to tyranny and runaway power. 9. More efficiency  When some of the powers of the government are dispersed among the states, giving states the right to solve some of their own problems; it allows more efficiency within the system.  Trying to have a national solution to all problems, which could be referred to as a ‘cookie-cutter method’ of law and policy making, ends up with solutions that are more effective in some states, and less effective in others.  To allow states to create solutions to their own problems using policies and laws that work best in their states means that each state can come up with its own solution, making government/ governance more efficient.  Disadvantages of federalism 1. Conflict of authority o The biggest problem that arises when you have two bodies of government in power is the power struggle. o Both central and state governments intend to assert their power over the other which at times causes conflict between them. o Along term conflict between the central and state governments can even create hurdles in the national development and prosperity. 2. Regionalism over patriotism o The mark of a great country is just how patriotic and prideful the citizens is to be part of it. o Federalism, since it promotes smaller levels of government, promotes smaller levels of pride. o It can put one region against another and take away from the feeling of patriotism that should be present all over the entire country. 3. Lack of accountability o The responsibility of the government being shared, it becomes very easy for one sector to release responsibility for the other, and vice versa. o This can become a very large problem because if something goes wrong, both sides of the government can relinquish control for the responsibility. 4. Inequalities between states o The federal form of government allows for regional inequalities between different states. For example, instead of education funding throughout the country being the same, since it is a state issue, some states will spend more per caption education than other states, causing what could be considered a disparity. o The same goes for other things as well such as taxes, health care programs, and welfare programs which increases regional inequality amongst the different states. 5. Blockage of nationalist policies by states o States can fight against the existence of certain national laws by challenging them in court, or going out of their way to not enforce those national laws, or even deliberately obstructing enforcement of national laws.