FVENG102425 Handouts - Edgar Allan Poe's The Raven PDF

READING Reading I: The Raven Edgar Allan Poe — “Master of Macabre” Biography ○ He was born January 19, 1809 to actors David and Eliza Poe ○ Orphaned at age 2, he was raised by John and Frances Allan ○ The Allan family lived in England when Poe was aged 6-11. His p...

READING Reading I: The Raven Edgar Allan Poe — “Master of Macabre” Biography ○ He was born January 19, 1809 to actors David and Eliza Poe ○ Orphaned at age 2, he was raised by John and Frances Allan ○ The Allan family lived in England when Poe was aged 6-11. His primary education was there. Then, they returned to Richmond. ○ Because of this, Poe felt his level of English was superior to his American peers. Education ○ He studied at University of Virginia, but Allan cut off his funds for studies. ○ To address this problem, he gambled, but instead generated debt. ○ He then enrolled in the US Military Academy (West Point) because tuition was free for those enlisted in the US Army. ○ But he hated Army life, and got himself dishonorably discharged after his studies. Women ○ When he studied in university, Poe left behind his fiancé Elmira Royster ○ Elmira got engaged to another man while he was in university ○ Later on, he moved with his aunt Maria Clemm and cousin Virginia Clemm ○ He fell in love with his Virginia with whom he married. Virginia was 13, Edgar was 27. ○ Virginia died of tuberculosis at age 24. Death ○ He was found in a tavern delirious, wearing someone else’s clothes. ○ Doctors said he died of phrenitis or inflammation of the brain (This is commonly used when the true cause of death is unknown). Literary Legacy ○ “master of the macabre” ○ a central figure of Dark Romanticism ○ one of the originators of the horror and detective fiction genre ○ a forerunner to the “art for art’s sake” movement The Raven Biographical Context ○ Poe wrote this poem while his wife, Virginia, was ill with tuberculosis. ○ “The Raven” made Poe a household name, yet he remained impoverished. ○ Poe battled with loss, alcoholism, and drug addiction Themes ○ Death ○ Grief ○ Loss ○ Despair ○ Rationality/Irrationality Form ○ ABCBBB ○ Rhymes Internal Rhymes (“dreary” and “weary”, “napping” and “tapping”) Beginning Rhymes (“quaint” and “curious”, “weak” and “weary”) End Rhymes (“lore,” “door,” and “more”) Identical Rhymes (“door” and “door”) ○ Sound Devices Consonance (“quaint” and “curious” and “weak” and “weary”) Assonance (“napping” and “tapping” and “dreary” and “weary”) Euphony (“Lenore,” “evermore,” “nevermore,” and “door”) Meter trochaic octameter: Once u/pon a /midnight/ dreary except 6th verse, tetrameter: only/ this and/ nothing/ more ○ Diction “chamber” vs “bedroom”  “dreary,” “sorrow,” “gloomy,” “weary” vs “sad” “ember,” “midnight,” “ebony” vs “dark” ○ Symbols Raven harbinger of death, evil, supernatural messengers (Odin’s ravens: Huggin and Mumin) In Norse mythology, Hugin (from Old Norse huginn meaning “thought” or “spirit”) and Munin (from Old Norse muninn meaning “memory”) are the two messenger crows that accompany Odin. At dawn, they leave and roam the nine worlds and return the next morning to report to the god what they have seen and heard, whispering it in his ear. They are seen as bearer of bad news Symbolizes mournful, never-ending remembrance Through its limited vocab, Raven makes the speaker realize that his lover will return “nevermore.” Bust of Athena Greek goddess of wisdom and battle strategy knowledge and reason Athena’s bust - Pallas Athene Represents interest in learning, scholarship, rationality/Speaker values rational thought and education Raven landing on the bust of Pallas means threat to the speaker’s reason/madness and grief clouding sanity Figurative Language Allusion is a figure of speech that refers to a person, place or event external to the text. Allusions ○ The bust of Pallas the raven sits on refers to Pallas Athena, the ancient Greek goddess of wisdom. (mythological allusion) ○ Nepenthe is a drug mentioned in Homer's ancient epic The Odyssey, and it is purported to erase memories. (mythological allusion) ○ The Balm of Gilead is a reference to a healing cream mentioned in the Book of Jeremiah in the Bible. (biblical)  ○ Aidenn refers to the Garden of Eden, although the narrator likely uses it to mean "heaven" in general, as he wants to know if that's where he and Lenore will reunite. (biblical) ○ Ravens themselves are mentioned in many stories, including Norse mythology and Ovid's epic poem Metamorphoses. (mythological allusion) Reading II: Rashomon “Moral dilemmas are situations in which the decision-maker must consider two or more moral values or duties but can only honor one of them” (Kvalnes, 2019). Heian Period (794-1184 C.E.) ○ “GOLDEN AGE OF JAPANESE HISTORY” Aristocrats were considered the political and cultural leaders of Japan at the time. They led the flourishing of culture where new forms of literature, art, music, dance, and drama were developed. They prized beauty, elegance, and correct manners. ○ Writing and Literature Writing was the most valued form of expression. “The Tale of Genji,” written by Murasaki Shikibu, is a Heian masterpiece now regarded as one of the great works in world literature. “The Tale of Genji“ describes the life of Japanese nobles during the Heian period. ○ RAJOMON/RASHOMON This was the main gate of the Heian-kyo (now Kyoto) It represented the dignified attitude of Heian when ambassadors from foreign countries visited Japan It has the same size as the Suzakumon Gate, the entrance to Dadairi (Imperial residence of the Emperor) ○ Social positions Rank was very important during this period It was determined almost completely by a person’s birth family rank They prized beauty, elegance, and correct manners. ○ THE END OF THE HEIAN PERIOD  The wealthy nobles ignored the problems of poor people in Japan’s rural areas. Due to poverty, people began to attack and rob each other. The government was too weak to enforce the law. A civil war broke and military leaders took over Japan. ○ Rajomon/Rashomon Today Located in Hanazono Children’s Park, Kyoto 54 Karahashi Rajomoncho, Minami Ward, Kyoto, 601-9453, Japan Ryonusuke Akutagawa - “Father of Modern Japanese Literature” ○ March 1, 1892 - July 24, 1927 ○ Studied English literature in Tokyo Imperial University, now the University of Tokyo ○ Drew inspiration from modern psychology and foreign literature ○ Died at age 35 by overdose of sleeping medication ○ “Though he died by his own hand at the age of 35, novelist Ryunosuke Akutagawa’s accomplishments were such that, even after so brief a writing career, Japan’s most prestigious literary accolade — the Akutagawa Prize — now bears his name“ (Arita, 2012). Internal Conflict ○ This is the struggle experienced by a character in his own mind. ○ It is usually an ethical or psychological question. Signs of Decay ○ Peeling Paint ○ Natural Disasters ○ Crows ○ Neglect of Religion ○ Weeds on the steps ○ Crow’s Droppings Akutagawa’s Atitude in Rashomon ○ The gate’s crumbling state foreshadows the city’s decay ○ The protagonist’s moral struggles show his fight for survival ○ The rain and other signs of decay magnify the protagonist’s internal conflict. How to determine author’s attitude? ○ Read background information about the text  ○ Analyze their word choice Reading III: A Room of One’s Own Virginia Woolf ○ Personal Life born Adeline Virginia Stephen on January 25, 1882 in London to a privileged household daughter to Leslie Stephen (literary figure and first editor of the Dictionary of National Biography) and Julia Jackson one of the key figures of the modernist literary movement notable works include "Mrs. Dalloway," "To the Lighthouse," and "Orlando" ○ Education “But as a woman, she was denied the systematized public-school and Oxbridge intellectual training that was the entitlement of the male members of her family and class” (Schwarz, 2012). She later on studied German, Greek, Latin and history at the Ladies’ Department of King’s College London A Room of One’s Own (1929) ○ extended essay ○ derived from Virginia's 1928 lectures on women and fiction at women's colleges Newnham College and Girton College ○ "one of the basic beginning texts of feminist criticism" ○ LOOKING BACK AT HISTORY: WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT In 1928, women voters were placed on an equal footing with male voters (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.) "Being allowed to vote was something very remarkable for women because this action let them to become integrated within public life and enabled them to promote their basic rights as women" (Pernas Parapar, 2015). "Although newspapers, radio broadcasts, entrepreneurs and politicians proclaimed that women had been liberated and many believed it, the reality is [the] same as before... By the end of the  1920s, the basic living conditions of women had not changed radically. The power of government departments is still in the hands of a small number of men, and in some places, women’s ministries are unwilling or unable to use the right to vote. For thousands of years, patriarchal social norms like a pair of invisible shackles, bound the general consciousness of the society, bound the physical and mental development of women" (Xia & Zhang, 2023). ○ VIRGINIA WOOLF AND FEMINISM "A Room of One's Own" is considered as among the "most important early text of feminist theory" "Herein, Woolf finds the cause of the problems of the development of the women's literary tradition. These are the socio-cultural restrictions of women, established in a patriarchal society, which continue for centuries and deprive women of the chance to achieve equal positions with men" (Salamova, 2023). ○ Main Points Virginia Woolf's main idea in "A Room of One's Own" is to explore the historical and societal limitations that have hindered women's creative expression and intellectual development throughout history. Her central purpose is to advocate for the importance of financial independence and a physical space for women in order to foster their artistic and intellectual potential. 1. The speaker sits on the river bank at "Oxbridge" (a fictional university meant to suggest Oxford and Cambridge). She was wondering about women and fiction. She compares her thinking to a fish that drifts in the current and waits for the tug of an idea. But as soon as the idea gets a bite, she was interrupted by a Beadle, a university security guard, who enforces that women are not allowed to walk on the grass. “The only charge I could bring against the Fellows and Scholars of whatever the college might happen to be was that in protection of their turf. which has been rolled for 300 years in succession they had sent my little fish into hiding.” (p. 211)  2. The speaker remembers an essay by Charles Lamb about revisiting Oxbridge. She is inspired to view the manuscript in the library, only to be told that “ladies are only admitted to the library if accompanied by a Fellow of the College or furnished with a letter of introduction.” Oxbridge – a male educational institution with unlimited financial possibilities, keeping under its walls “whole treasures” granted by kings, bishops and entrepreneurs Furnham – a college, the money for the construction of which was collected by women “slowly, overcoming resistance, spending forces, health, time…”. Wolfe builds thereby up her theory that history and literature are created by men, and the importance of women in them is traditionally belittled According to the narrator, the very fact that pre-war poetry inspires one to feel such rapture and abandonment is because “it celebrates some feeling that one used to have” which does not take much effort to understand. However, after the war, individuals have a peculiar and frightened feeling since modern writers distance the poem from reality (Xia & Zhong, 2023). “She speculates about the change in the kind of conversations people had before World War I, and the kind of poetry they wrote, and observes that a drastic change has taken place. The romantic views of a Tennyson or a Rosetti no longer seem possible in the post-war era; the difference being that that earlier poetry "celebrates some feeling that one used to have (at luncheon parties before the war perhaps)." The new poetry, however, expresses thoughts and emotions so gut- wrenchingly new that readers cannot respond to them with the same familiarity or comfortable recognition” (SparkNotes, n.d.). “When the guns fired in August 1914, did the faces of men and women show so plain in each other’s eyes that romance was killed?” (p. 216) Women must bear and care for children, and doing so takes so much time and energy that there simply is no way for women to have the time to build the same intellectual and financial tradition as men. And then the narrator adds the kicker: not only do women not have the time because  of their domestic duties, society doesn't allow them to occupy roles that make money. Even if Mary Seton's mother had wanted to forgo having a family and focus on building a legacy, she couldn't—because she has no way to make enough money to earn the money needed to allow the independence required for such legacy-building work (LitCharts, n.d.). “At the thought of all those women working year after year and finding it hard to get two thousand pounds together, and as much as they could do to get thirty thousand pounds, we burst out in scorn at the reprehensible poverty of our sex.” (p. 219) “Moreover, it is equally useless to ask what might have happened if Mrs. Seton and her mother and her mother before her had amassed great wealth and laid it under the foundations of college and library, because, in the first place, to earn money was impossible for them, and in the second, had it been possible, the law denied them the right to possess what money they earned.” (p. 220) Money: Grants freedom to pursue artistic and intellectual endeavors without being dependent on others Allows them access to books and education Room: Provides physical and mental space free from external distractions, interruptions, and social expectations Allows them to think, reflect, and create using their unique voices without pressure from patriarchy Analyzing an Audience ○ Analyzing an audience involves "identifying the audience and adapting a speech to their interests, level of understanding, attitudes, and beliefs" (University of Pittsburgh, n.d.) ○ “In public speaking, you are speaking to and for your audience; thus, understanding the audience is a major part of the speech-making process. In audience-centered speaking, getting to know your target audience is one of the most important tasks that you face. You want to learn about the major demographics of the audience, such as general age, gender, education, religion, and culture, as well as to what groups the audience members belong.  Additionally, learning about the values, attitudes, and beliefs of the members of your audience will allow you to anticipate and plan your message. ○ You want to analyze your audience prior to your speech so that during the speech you can create a link between you, the speaker, and the audience. You want to be able to figuratively step inside the minds of audience members to understand the world from their perspectives. Through this process, you can find common ground with your audience, which allows you to align your message with what the audience already knows or believes (Lumen Learning, n.d.).” Reading IV: A Modest Proposal Poverty in Ireland ○ Historical Context: The British Invasion (1649) “By 1653, when the last formal surrenders of the war took place, the country had been devastated, the population decimated, the economic infrastructure destroyed. The English had effectively created a blank slate in Ireland onto which they now sought to project a new plantation society.” (The Cromwellian Conquest, n.d.) Forced Irish families to work the farms and only collected rent. Those who could not pay were evicted and had nowhere to go. Farmlands became the property of English landlords. The landlords would force multiple families to live on one piece of property to charge more rent. This overcrowding resulted in hunger, as the crop yields could not sustain multiple families and still provide income for rent. England limited Ireland’s abilities to trade with other countries. Ireland can only trade products from England at an expensive price. “Great Famine, also called Irish Potato Famine, Great Irish Famine, or Famine of 1845–49, famine that occurred in Ireland in 1845–49 when the potato crop failed in successive years. The crop failures were caused by late blight, a disease that destroys both the leaves and the edible roots, or tubers, of the potato plant.” (Mokyr, 2022) Jonathan Swift ○ an Anglo-Irish poet, satirist, essayist, and political pamphleteer  ○ born in Dublin, Ireland but spent much of his early adult life in England before returning to Dublin to serve as Dean of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, Dublin for the last 30 years of his life. ○ Swift is widely acknowledged as the greatest prose satirist in the history of English literature. A Modest Proposal ○ Pretender in Spain - James Edward Stuart was a claimant to the English throne. He was a Roman Catholic, so the Irish common folk were loyal to him. ○ Barbados - “To escape from extreme poverty, some Irish migrated to the West Indies, obtaining money for their passage by agreeing to work in servitude on plantations there for a set time.” Satire ○ “a genre of literature which is often found in audio, graphic, and performance arts. It aims to ridicule individuals, society, or governments to achieve social change.” ○ Horatian - “At the Horatian end of the spectrum, satire merges imperceptibly into comedy, which has an abiding interest in human follies but has not satire’s reforming intent” (Elliot, 2022). ○ Juvenalian - “any bitter and ironic criticism of contemporary persons and institutions that is filled with personal invective, angry moral indignation, and pessimism” (T. Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1998) ○ Menippean - “seriocomic genre, chiefly in ancient Greek literature and Latin literature, in which contemporary institutions, conventions, and ideas were criticized in a mocking satiric style that mingled prose and verse” (T. Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2006 ○ Greed of the Wealthy “I grant this food will be somewhat dear and therefore very proper for landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of their parents, seem to have the best title to the children.” ○ Tyranny of the English Government “The markets will be more glutted than usual because the number of infants is at least three to one in this kingdom, and therefore it will have collateral advantage by lessening the number of Papist among us.”  “Therefore let no man talk to me of other expedients: of taxing our absentees at five shillings a pound: of using neither clothes, nor household furniture, except what is of our own growth and manufacture: of utterly rejecting the materials and instruments that promote foreign luxury.” ○ Squalor of Degradation “These mothers, instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood, are forced to employ all their time in strolling to beg sustenance for their helpless infants who as they grow up, either turn thieves for want of work or leave their native country to fight for the Pretender in Spain or sell themselves to Barbadoes.” ○ Fragility of the Family “Men would become as fond of their wives during the time of their pregnancy as they are now of their mares in foal, their cows in calf, their sows when they are ready to farrow; nor offer to beat or kick them (as is too frequent a practice) for fear of a miscarriage.” ○ Economic Utilitarianism and Commodification of Humans “I have already computed the charge of nursing a beggar's child (in which list I reckon all cottagers, laborers, and four-fifths of the farmers) to be about two shillings per annum, rags included.” WRITING Writing I : Writing the Introduction Elements of an Argument ○ Claim A claim is any sentence that asserts that something may be true or false and so needs support. A main claim is the sentence that your whole report supports. Some call this thesis. Conceptual Claim - the kind whose solutions asks readers to believe something Practical Claim - the kind whose solutions asks readers to do something  Specific Language VS Specific Logic ○ Reason A reason is a sentence [or clause] that supports your claim, main or not. Reasons state why readers should accept a claim. Researchers can think up reasons; they don’t think up evidence (or at least they do so at their own risk). ○ Evidence An evidence is something you can see, touch, taste, smell, or hear. Evidence is what readers accept as fact, at least for the moment. They think of evidence as “hard” reality, evident to anyone able to observe it. A responsible researcher supports a claim with reason based on evidence. But thoughtful readers don’t just accept a claim because you backed it up with your reasons and your evidence. ○ Acknowledgement and response ○ Warrant Think of a warrant as a principle claiming that a general set of circumstance predictably allows us to draw a general consequence. Writing II: Theory and Research Methods METHODS ○ The specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information about a topic. In a research paper, this section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall reliability and validity. ○ Reliability n. the quality of being trustworthy or of performing consistently well. “how consistently a method measures something”  ○ Validity n. the quality of being logically or factually sound; soundness or cogency. “how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure” Reliability Validity What does it tell you? The extent to which the The extent to which the results can be reproduced results really measure what when the research is they are supposed to repeated under the same measure. conditions. e.g. e.g. You get the same results You use a well-functioning every time you measure the thermometer to measure the temperature of a liquid under temperature of a liquid. similar conditions. How is it assessed? By checking the consistency By checking how well the of results across time, across results correspond to different observers, and established theories and across parts of the test itself. other measures of the same concept. How do they relate? A reliable measurement is A valid measurement is not always valid: the results generally reliable: if a test might be reproducible, but produces accurate results, they’re not necessarily they should be reproducible. correct.  ○ Praxis Reliability ✔ Create or choose a standardized procedure. ✔ Give the participants the same information. ✔ Collect data in the same conditions. Validity ✔ Create or choose an instrument that measures the intended content. Use theories, concepts, or standardized questionnaire. e.g. Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale for self-esteem measurement ✔ Target the content you aim to discover in your research. ✔ Choose the appropriate sample group. Structure ○ RESEARCH DESIGN OVERVIEW Qualitative Approach Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.  Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc. Grounded Researchers collect rich data on a topic of theory interest and develop theories inductively. Ethnography Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their cultures. Action Researchers and participants collaboratively research link theory to practice to drive social change. Phenomenologi Researchers investigate a phenomenon or cal research event by describing and interpreting participants’ lived experiences. Narrative Researchers examine how stories are told to research understand how participants perceive and make sense of their experiences. Qualitative Gathering Methods ○ Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes. ○ Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations. ○ Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people. ○ Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions. ○ Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc. Quantitative Approach Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.  Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research, which involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio). Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc. Experiment Control or manipulate an independent variable to measure its effect on a dependent variable. Survey Ask questions of a group of people in-person, over-the-phone or online. (Systematic) Identify a behavior or occurrence of interest and observation monitor it in its natural setting. Secondary Collect data that has been gathered for other research purposes e.g., national surveys or historical records. Mixed Methods Approach ○ PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT Participant or subject characteristics Report major demographic characteristics (e.g., age, sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic status) and important topic-specific characteristics (e.g., achievement level in studies of educational interventions). Sampling procedures  ○ In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population. To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance. ○ Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals ○ Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample. To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role). Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup. ○ Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups. Non-Probability Sampling Methods ○ A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher. This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalizable results.  Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias. ○ Purposive Sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research. It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your arguments. ○ If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in contact with more people. The downside here is also representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how representative your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead to sampling bias. ○ Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or proportion of units. This is called a quota. You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample. ○ Data Collection Data collection methods (e.g., interview, survey, observation, or experimentation) Data collection is a systematic process of gathering observations or measurements. Whether you are performing research for business,  governmental or academic purposes, data collection allows you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem. Questionnaire When to use - “To understand the general characteristics or opinions of a group of people” How to collect data - “Distribute a list of questions to a sample online, in person or over-the-phone.” ○ Closed-ended questionnaires - answers will be based on predetermined responses; to generate quantitative data ○ Open-ended questionnaires - answers will be freely written; to generate qualitative data ○ Mixed questionnaires - a combination of open- and close-ended questions Interview When to use - “To gain an in-depth understanding of perceptions or opinions on a topic.” How to collect data - “Verbally ask participants open-ended questions in individual interviews or focus group discussions.” ○ Structured “a data collection method that relies on asking questions in a set order to collect data on a topic” ○ Unstructured “non-directive interviewing [wherein] unstructured interviews do not have a set pattern and questions are not arranged in advance.” ○ Semi-structured “a data collection method that relies on asking questions within a predetermined thematic framework;” “a few questions are predetermined, the others aren’t planned.” ○ Data Analysis Data analysis strategy (e.g., comparison or regression tests)  “the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data” Qualitative Data Analysis Content analysis To describe and categorize common words, phrases, and ideas in qualitative data. Thematic analysis To identify and interpret patterns and themes in qualitative data. Textual analysis To examine the content, structure, and design of texts. Discourse analysis To study communication and how language is used to achieve effects in specific contexts. Quantitative Data Analysis Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analyzed. For example, survey and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers. Then, you can use statistical analysis to answer your research questions. Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of averages and variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to visualize your data and check for any trends or outliers. Using inferential statistics, you can make predictions or generalizations based on your data. You can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population parameter. Theory ○ A theory not only explains known facts; it also allows scientists to make predictions of what they should observe if a theory is true. Scientific theories are testable. New evidence should be compatible with a theory. If it isn't, the theory is refined or rejected (American Museum of Natural History, n.d.). ○ A theoretical framework is a foundational review of existing theories that serves as a roadmap for developing the arguments you will use in your own work. ○ Theories are developed by researchers to explain phenomena, draw connections, and make predictions. In a theoretical framework, you explain the existing  theories that support your research, showing that your paper or dissertation topic is relevant and grounded in established ideas. In other words, your theoretical framework justifies and contextualizes your later research, and it’s a crucial first step for your research paper, thesis, or dissertation. A well-rounded theoretical framework sets you up for success later on in your research and writing process. ○ The same research topic can be approached very differently depending on which theoretical approach you take, even within the same field. For example: In literature, a scholar using postmodernist literary theory would analyze The Great Gatsby differently than a scholar using Marxist literary theory. In psychology, a behaviorist approach to depression would involve different research methods and assumptions than a psychoanalytic approach. In economics, wealth inequality would be explained and interpreted differently based on a classical economics approach than based on a Keynesian economics one. In each of these cases, you would explain the theory you’re using in order to support your interpretations and explanations of the data you collected. ○ Writing Theoretical Framework Identify your key concepts The first step is to pick out the key terms from your problem statement and research questions. Concepts often have multiple definitions, so your theoretical framework should also clearly define what you mean by each term. Evaluate and explain relevant theories By conducting a thorough literature review, you can determine how other researchers have defined these key concepts and drawn connections between them. As you write your theoretical framework, your aim is to compare and critically evaluate the approaches that different authors have taken. 3. Show how your research fits into existing research  Apart from summarizing and discussing existing theories, your theoretical framework should show how your project will make use of these ideas and take them a step further. You might aim to do one or more of the following: ○ Test whether a theory holds in a specific, previously unexamined context ○ Use an existing theory as a basis for interpreting your results ○ Critique or challenge a theory ○ Combine different theories in a new or unique way Writing III: Designing Research Instrument Principles of Questionnaire Construction Principle 1 ○ Make sure the questionnaire ○ items match your research objectives ✔ include all variables and concepts in the study ✔ ensure all the answers needed will be extracted from the questionnaire Principle 2 ○ Use natural and familiar language ✔ add definitions for jargons (discipline-specific words or expressions) Principle 3 ○ Write items that are clear, ○ Precise, and relatively short ✔ remember the GIGO principle: “garbage in, garbage out.” Principle 4 ○ Do not use “leading” or “loaded” questions ✔ avoid questions with emotionally-charged words (loaded questions) ✔ avoid questions that suggest an answer (leading question) Principle 4 ○ Avoid double-barreled questions ✔ example:  Do you think that teachers should have more contact with parents and school administrators? Vs. Do you think that teachers should have more contact with parents? Do you think that teachers should have more contact with school administrators? Principle 5 ○ Consider the different types of response categories available for closed-ended questionnaire items Numerical Rating Scale Fully Anchored Rating Scale Dichotomy Questions can be answered in two ways Multiple Choice Questions Principle 6 ○ Remember that appearance matters ✔ professional looking ✔ presentable, readable, and clear Principle 7 ○ Create sections and give them titles Principle 8 ○ Provide clear instructions ✔ add instructions to clarify the nature of a rating scale or whether a single response or multiple responses are allowed Principle 9 ○ Always pilot test your questionnaire ✔ conduct a preliminary test of your questionnaire Pilot Testing A pilot test of a questionnaire or interview survey is a procedure in which a researcher makes changes in an instrument based on feedback from a small number of individuals who complete and evaluate the instrument.  The participants in the pilot test provide written comments directly on the survey, and the researcher modifies or changes the survey to reflect those concerns. The pilot group will be excluded from the sample. GRAMMAR Grammar I: Uses of Dashes and Hyphens, Parentheses and Brackets, Ellipses and Slashes Uses of Dashes and Hyphens Dashes “A dash is longer than a hyphen and is commonly used to indicate a range or a pause. The most common types of dashes are the en dash (–) and the em dash (—)” (Grammarly, n.d.). ○ EN DASH (–) As wide as an uppercase N Used to indicate ranges of numbers, such as times, page numbers, or scores Please read pages 30–45 for your assignment. The online course is self-paced and can take 10–15 hours to complete. The Denver Nuggets defeated the Miami Heat 4–1 in the NBA ○ EM DASH (—) To draw attention to parenthetical information All of the ingredients in the recipe—except for the vanilla bean pod— were available in the local market. Romance—the kind you see in Korean dramas—is rarely accurate. To prepare for changes in tone They were good friends—until they weren't. Water. Earth. Fire. Air. Long ago, the four nations lived together in harmony. Then—everything changed when the Fire Nation attacked.  To introduce or emphasize information Cilantro, ginger, and dill—these are three of my least favorite flavors. My friends—well, my former friends—disappeared when I moved abroad. To signal a sudden interruption, especially in a dialogue “You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view—” “Sir?” “—until you climb into his skin and walk around in it.” "I was just about to tell you the exciting news, but then—" the phone rang, interrupting her sentence. Hyphens “A hyphen (-) is a punctuation mark that’s used to join words or parts of words. It’s not interchangeable with other types of dashes” (Grammarly, n.d.). ○ To indicate the end of lines where a word has been split The poems center on the current political dis- putes in the country. I have always been interested in writing poe- try so I finally decided to join the competition. Note: Never divide a one-syllable word Incorrect: After taking the workshop on proofreading, it really se- ems that I am better at editing my own papers. Correct: After taking the workshop on proofreading, I have im- proved at editing my own papers. To indicate that two or three words are joined together as one compound word She keeps herself up-to-date by regularly reading the news. The pharmacist only dispenses over-the-counter drugs; antibiotics need prescriptions. In spelling out compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine ○ NOTE: Don’t use a hyphen for hundreds, thousands, millions and billions.  The streets in barangay Laging Handa, Quezon City were named after the twenty-four Filipino boy scouts who perished in a plane crash. When a number forms part of a compound adjective Inflation in the Philippines accelerated to a new 14-year high of 8.7% in January 2023, driven by rising utility, housing and food costs. Standard working conditions permit a 35 to 40-hour workweek. We need hyphens because working twenty four-hour shifts is not the same as working twenty-four-hour shifts. DASHES HYPHENS To draw attention to parenthetical To indicate the end of lines where a word has information been split To prepare for changes in tone To indicate that two or three words are joined together as one compound word To introduce or emphasize information In spelling out compound numbers from To signal a sudden interruption, especially in a twenty-one to ninety-nine dialogue When a number forms part of a compound adjective Uses of Parentheses and Brackets Parentheses Parentheses ( ) are the “symbols put around a word, phrase, or sentence in a piece of writing to show that what is inside them should be considered as separate from the main part” (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.). ○ To introduce acronyms Note: In succeeding paragraphs, the acronym does not require parentheses.  Monitoring updates from the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) is crucial especially during typhoon season from June to September. ○ To separate digressions The Lone Ranger (a hero of early radio and TV drama) had a sidekick named Tonto. Her arrival (she was never invited) at the party came as a surprise to me. ○ To make distinct afterthoughts The use of citations in your previous essay (which was beautifully written, by the way) offered a good example of how to avoid plagiarism. He had to quit his job (despite being a top performer) because of the low pay. ○ To set off dates and numbers in a list Jose Rizal (1860-1896) is our national hero. My favorite parts of the Philippine Star are (1) the crossword, (2) the sudoku, and (3) the jumble. Brackets Brackets [ ] are “a pair of marks used to enclose words or figures so as to separate them from the context” (Oxford Languages, n.d.). ○ To enclose words added to a direct quotation “I will bring the suspect [Tom Robinson] to justice!” "Books used [in classes] show methods of finding information but not much information in preparation of the review" (Libutti & Kopala, 1995). ○ If an error is found in the original quotation, include the word sic in brackets [sic] after the word containing the error. NOTE: Latin term "sic" is short for "sic erat scriptum," which means "thus was it written." I was attacked by a wild gote [sic] but I got away. Bad puns make me sic [sic]. Uses of Ellipses and Slashes Ellipses Ellipses (...) are made up of three periods and are used to indicate that there is missing material within a sentence of passage. ○ To indicate a material has been omitted from a direct quotation NOTE: In these circumstances, you insert a space before and after the ellipses. “I have a lot to say today … that’s it, thank you and goodbye.” Original: “The happiness of your life depends upon the quality of your thoughts.” With ellipsis: “The happiness of your life depends upon … your thoughts.” ○ To indicate a pause, hesitation, or unfinished thought from a quoted speaker NOTE: In these circumstances, you insert a space before and after the ellipses. "If only she had... Oh, it doesn’t matter now." ○ To indicate an end of a partial quote. However, if the material you omit from the quote completes the sentence, use a period right after the last word quoted, followed by an ellipsis with no space. This is called the four-period ellipsis. Original: “The politician had lots to say, but no one wanted to listen to him anymore.” With four-period ellipsis: “The politician had lots to say, but no one wanted to listen to him …. ” Slashes The slash (/) shows a partition between paired terms or lines of poetry. It is one of the least used punctuations due to the rare necessity of its function. ○ To group multiple related terms My mom, the original multitasker, was a great cook/cleaner/laundry person/kid hugger. I am acting as the secretary/treasurer/chairman since there are only two of us on the board. Note: Do not use a slash to replace coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS). The only exception is and/or. I’m going to buy food and/or other necessities at the grocery store.  ○ To show the break in lines when quoting poetry “I think that I shall never see/A guy nearly as buff as he.” “I took the one less traveled by/And that has made all the difference.” Grammar 2: Verb Tenses in the Research Report 1 Simple Present Tense Commonly, SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE is used to describe a current action or one that occurs regularly: ○ Mylene reviews her notes in English. ○ I walk to school every morning. It can also describe a fact or general truth: ○ The freezing point of water is zero degrees Celsius. or describe or interpret events in a work of literary fiction: ○ In The Odyssey, Odysseus tries to get home from Troy. ○ Odysseus represents the archetypal hero.  In the Research Report, the Simple Present Tense has special uses that may be outside the norm. For instance, use it to make general statements about the findings of other research scholars: ○ Every day, Metro Manila generates six thousand tons of solid waste. (Duyanen and Heasley, 2002) Further, use it to describe the implications of research results that are relevant in the present: ○ The results suggest that junk food contributes to weight gain in children. Or to present any graphics used in your paper: ○ Table 1 shows items now commonly bought online. Simple Past Tense The SIMPLE PAST TENSE is used to describe an action that occurred in the past: ○ We played basketball in the barangay court yesterday. Or to describe facts that are no longer valid: ○ The early Romans thought the tomato was poisonous. In the Research Report, the Simple Past Tense is always used to write your Methodology:  ○ For our Research Methods, our group employed survey, interview, and observation. And to present the results of your research: ○ The survey showed that students are thrilled to be back in the classroom. Simple Future Tense Use the SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE to describe an action that will take place at a certain time in the future: ○ One day, all of us will be back in the classroom daily. The Research Report uses the Simple Future Tense to write your assumptions or predictions in the analysis: ○ Unless we find ways to lessen our garbage, we will find ourselves inundated with heaps of our own waste. Present Progressive Tense  The PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE is used to describe an ongoing action: ○ We are having our English classes right now. ○ Brett is doing his assignment (finally!) Past Progressive Tense  The PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE is used to describe a past action that was happening when another action occurred: ○ Christina was cleaning her room when the doorbell rang. Future Progressive Tense The FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE is primarily used to describe the duration of a specific action that will take place in the future: ○ They will be vacationing in Paris for the next two weeks. Grammar 3: Verb Tenses in the Research Report 2 The six types of the Perfect Tense act like a bridge. Use it whenever you want to go from one time period to another: From one time in the past to a more recent time in the past From the past to the present  From the present to the future From one time in the future to a time further into the future With the perfect tense, past, present, or future is determined by the words “have” (present plural), “has” (present singular) or “had” (past) The main verb is always in the participle form, which is often, but not always, the same as the past tense form. Freddie has watched every episode of “Friends” at least a dozen times. Hobart and Lyrah have washed all the dishes. By the time she was twenty-five, Maribel had passed the bar. Perfect Tense Commonly, the PRESENT PERFECT TENSE is used to describe actions that began in the past and continue until the present Structure of present perfect tense: have/has + past participle of the verb ○ I have taken Pilates lessons at that gym since it opened. ○ Additionally, the PRESENT PERFECT TENSE is used to talk about a past experience: Tommy has seen that movie eight times. ○ Or to talk about a change or new situation: I have asked Darlene to marry me. ○ In the research report, the PRESENT PERFECT TENSE is used to make general statements about an ongoing research that started in the past Various groups have researched the claims of indigenous peoples. The PAST PERFECT TENSE is used to describe a past action that happened before another action that also occurred in the past. Structure of past perfect tense: had + past participle of the verb ○ The quiz had finished when Ruel finally got onto the platform. The FUTURE PERFECT TENSE is used to describe a state or accomplishment that will be completed in the future before another future time. Structure of future perfect tense: will have + past participle of the verb  ○ When the next rankings are released they will have topped the charts for twenty straight weeks. Perfect Progressive The PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE is used to describe an action that is continuing up to now: Structure of the present perfect progressive tense: Have/has + been + ing form of the verb (aka present participle) ○ Mylene has been studying her lessons for three hours. The PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE is used to describe a past action that was interrupted by another action in the past: Structure of the past perfect progressive tense: Had + been + ing form of the verb (aka present participle) ○ Eugene had been growing tomatoes, but Rolly destroyed the crop. The FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE is used to describe an action that is happening in the present and will continue to happen in the future: Structure of the future perfect progressive tense: Will + have + been + ing form of the verb (aka present participle) ○ By the time the bus arrives, we will have been waiting for six hours.