fundamentals-of-physics-textbook.pdf

MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS* Quadratic Formula Derivatives and Integrals If ax2 # bx # c " 0, then x " $b % 1b2 $ 4ac...

MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS* Quadratic Formula Derivatives and Integrals If ax2 # bx # c " 0, then x " $b % 1b2 $ 4ac 2a d dx sin x " cos x " sin x dx " $cos x Binomial Theorem d dx cos x " $sin x " cos x dx " sin x nx n(n $ 1)x2 " (1 # x)n " 1 # # #... (x2 ( 1) 1! 2! d x e " ex ex dx " ex dx Products of Vectors Let u be the smaller of the two angles between a and b. : : " dx 2x2 # a2 " ln(x # 2x2 # a2) Then : : a ! b " b ! a " axbx # ayby # azbz " ab cos u : : " x dx (x2 # a2)3/2 "$ 2 1 (x # a2)1/2 " dx x ! ! " 2 2 î ĵ k̂ (x2 # a2)3/2 a (x # a2)1/2 : : a ' b " $b ' : : a " ax ay az bx by bz Cramer’s Rule Two simultaneous equations in unknowns x and y, " î!ay az by bz ! ! $ ĵ ax bx ! ! az bz # k̂ ax bx ay by ! a1x # b1 y " c1 and a2x # b2 y " c2, have the solutions " (aybz $ by az)î # (azbx $ bzax)ĵ # (axby $ bxay)k̂ : : |a ' b | " ab sin u x" ! c1 c2 b1 b2 ! " c1b2 $ c2b1 ! a1 a2 b1 b2 ! a1b2 $ a2b1 Trigonometric Identities and sin a % sin b " 2 sin 12(a % b) cos 12(a & b) y" ! a1 c1 a2 c2 ! " a1c2 $ a2c1. ! ! 1 1 cos a # cos b " 2 cos 2 (a # b) cos 2 (a $ b) a1 b1 a1b2 $ a2b1 a2 b2 *See Appendix E for a more complete list. SI PREFIXES* Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol 1024 yotta Y 10–1 deci d 1021 zetta Z 10–2 centi c 1018 exa E 10–3 milli m 1015 peta P 10–6 micro m 1012 tera T 10–9 nano n 109 giga G 10–12 pico p 106 mega M 10–15 femto f 103 kilo k 10–18 atto a 102 hecto h 10–21 zepto z 101 deka da 10–24 yocto y *In all cases, the first syllable is accented, as in ná-no-mé-ter.  E X T E N D E D FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS T E N T H E D I T I O N This page intentionally left blank  E X T E N D E D Halliday & Resnick FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICS T E N T H E D I T I O N J EAR L WALK E R CLEVELAND STATE UNIVERSITY EXECUTIVE EDITOR Stuart Johnson SENIOR PRODUCT DESIGNER Geraldine Osnato CONTENT EDITOR Alyson Rentrop ASSOCIATE MARKETING DIRECTOR Christine Kushner TEXT and COVER DESIGNER Madelyn Lesure PAGE MAKE-UP Lee Goldstein PHOTO EDITOR Jennifer Atkins COPYEDITOR Helen Walden PROOFREADER Lilian Brady SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Elizabeth Swain COVER IMAGE © 2007 CERN This book was set in 10/12 Times Ten by cMPreparé, CSR Francesca Monaco, and was printed and bound by Quad Graphics.The cover was printed by Quad Graphics. This book is printed on acid free paper. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008, 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year.These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the review period, please return the evalua- tion copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Walker, Jearl Fundamentals of physics / Jearl Walker, David Halliday, Robert Resnick—10th edition. volumes cm Includes index. ISBN 978-1-118-23072-5 (Extended edition) Binder-ready version ISBN 978-1-118-23061-9 (Extended edition) 1. Physics—Textbooks. I. Resnick, Robert. II. Halliday, David. III. Title. QC21.3.H35 2014 530—dc23 2012035307 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1  B R I E F C O N T E N T S V O L U M E 1 V O L U M E 2 1 Measurement 21 Coulomb’s Law 2 Motion Along a Straight Line 22 Electric Fields 3 Vectors 23 Gauss’ Law 4 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions 24 Electric Potential 5 Force and Motion—I 25 Capacitance 6 Force and Motion—II 26 Current and Resistance 7 Kinetic Energy and Work 27 Circuits 8 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 28 Magnetic Fields 9 Center of Mass and Linear Momentum 29 Magnetic Fields Due to Currents 10 Rotation 30 Induction and Inductance 11 Rolling, Torque, and Angular Momentum 31 Electromagnetic Oscillations and Alternating 12 Equilibrium and Elasticity Current 13 Gravitation 32 Maxwell’s Equations; Magnetism of Matter 14 Fluids 33 Electromagnetic Waves 15 Oscillations 34 Images 16 Waves—I 35 Interference 17 Waves—II 36 Diffraction 18 Temperature, Heat, and the First Law of 37 Relativity Thermodynamics 38 Photons and Matter Waves 19 The Kinetic Theory of Gases 39 More About Matter Waves 20 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 40 All About Atoms 41 Conduction of Electricity in Solids 42 Nuclear Physics 43 Energy from the Nucleus 44 Quarks, Leptons, and the Big Bang Appendices / Answers to Checkpoints and Odd-Numbered Questions and Problems / Index v  C O N T E N T S 1 Measurement 1 Adding Vectors by Components 46 1-1 MEASURING THINGS, INCLUDING LENGTHS 1 Vectors and the Laws of Physics 47 What Is Physics? 1 3-3 MULTIPLYING VECTORS 50 Measuring Things 1 Multiplying Vectors 50 The International System of Units 2 REVIEW & SUMMARY 55 QUESTIONS 56 PROBLEMS 57 Changing Units 3 Length 3 Significant Figures and Decimal Places 4 4 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions 62 1-2 TIME 5 4-1 POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT 62 Time 5 What Is Physics? 62 Position and Displacement 63 1-3 MASS 6 Mass 6 4-2 AVERAGE VELOCITY AND INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY 64 REVIEW & SUMMARY 8 PROBLEMS 8 Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity 65 2 Motion Along a Straight Line 13 4-3 AVERAGE ACCELERATION AND INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION 67 Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration 68 2-1 POSITION, DISPLACEMENT, AND AVERAGE VELOCITY 13 What Is Physics? 13 4-4 PROJECTILE MOTION 70 Motion 14 Projectile Motion 70 Position and Displacement 14 Average Velocity and Average Speed 15 4-5 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 76 Uniform Circular Motion 76 2-2 INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED 18 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed 18 4-6 RELATIVE MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION 78 Relative Motion in One Dimension 78 2-3 ACCELERATION 20 Acceleration 20 4-7 RELATIVE MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS 80 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions 80 2-4 CONSTANT ACCELERATION 23 REVIEW & SUMMARY 81 QUESTIONS 82 PROBLEMS 84 Constant Acceleration: A Special Case 23 Another Look at Constant Acceleration 26 5 Force and Motion—I 94 2-5 FREE-FALL ACCELERATION 27 Free-Fall Acceleration 27 5-1 NEWTON’S FIRST AND SECOND LAWS 94 What Is Physics? 94 2-6 GRAPHICAL INTEGRATION IN MOTION ANALYSIS 29 Newtonian Mechanics 95 Graphical Integration in Motion Analysis 29 Newton’s First Law 95 REVIEW & SUMMARY 30 QUESTIONS 31 PROBLEMS 32 Force 96 Mass 97 3 Vectors 40 Newton’s Second Law 98 3-1 VECTORS AND THEIR COMPONENTS 40 What Is Physics? 40 5-2 SOME PARTICULAR FORCES 102 Vectors and Scalars 40 Some Particular Forces 102 Adding Vectors Geometrically 41 5-3 APPLYING NEWTON’S LAWS 106 Components of Vectors 42 Newton’s Third Law 106 3-2 UNIT VECTORS, ADDING VECTORS BY COMPONENTS 46 Applying Newton’s Laws 108 Unit Vectors 46 REVIEW & SUMMARY 114 QUESTIONS 114 PROBLEMS 116 vi  CONTE NTS vii 6 Force and Motion—II 124 8-4 WORK DONE ON A SYSTEM BY AN EXTERNAL FORCE 191 6-1 FRICTION 124 Work Done on a System by an External Force 192 What Is Physics? 124 8-5 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 195 Friction 124 Conservation of Energy 195 Properties of Friction 127 REVIEW & SUMMARY 199 QUESTIONS 200 PROBLEMS 202 6-2 THE DRAG FORCE AND TERMINAL SPEED 130 The Drag Force and Terminal Speed 130 9 Center of Mass and Linear Momentum 214 6-3 UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 133 9-1 CENTER OF MASS 214 Uniform Circular Motion 133 What Is Physics? 214 REVIEW & SUMMARY 138 QUESTIONS 139 PROBLEMS 140 The Center of Mass 215 9-2 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW FOR A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES 220 Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles 220 7 Kinetic Energy and Work 149 7-1 KINETIC ENERGY 149 9-3 LINEAR MOMENTUM 224 What Is Physics? 149 Linear Momentum 224 What Is Energy? 149 The Linear Momentum of a System of Particles 225 Kinetic Energy 150 9-4 COLLISION AND IMPULSE 226 7-2 WORK AND KINETIC ENERGY 151 Collision and Impulse 226 Work 151 9-5 CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM 230 Work and Kinetic Energy 152 Conservation of Linear Momentum 230 7-3 WORK DONE BY THE GRAVITATIONAL FORCE 155 9-6 MOMENTUM AND KINETIC ENERGY IN COLLISIONS 233 Work Done by the Gravitational Force 156 Momentum and Kinetic Energy in Collisions 233 7-4 WORK DONE BY A SPRING FORCE 159 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension 234 Work Done by a Spring Force 159 9-7 ELASTIC COLLISIONS IN ONE DIMENSION 237 7-5 WORK DONE BY A GENERAL VARIABLE FORCE 162 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension 237 Work Done by a General Variable Force 162 9-8 COLLISIONS IN TWO DIMENSIONS 240 7-6 POWER 166 Collisions in Two Dimensions 240 Power 166 9-9 SYSTEMS WITH VARYING MASS: A ROCKET 241 REVIEW & SUMMARY 168 QUESTIONS 169 PROBLEMS 170 Systems with Varying Mass: A Rocket 241 REVIEW & SUMMARY 243 QUESTIONS 245 PROBLEMS 246 8 Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy 177 8-1 POTENTIAL ENERGY 177 10 Rotation 257 What Is Physics? 177 10-1 ROTATIONAL VARIABLES 257 Work and Potential Energy 178 What Is Physics? 258 Path Independence of Conservative Forces 179 Rotational Variables 259 Determining Potential Energy Values 181 Are Angular Quantities Vectors? 264 8-2 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY 184 10-2 ROTATION WITH CONSTANT ANGULAR ACCELERATION 266 Conservation of Mechanical Energy 184 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration 266 8-3 READING A POTENTIAL ENERGY CURVE 187 10-3 RELATING THE LINEAR AND ANGULAR VARIABLES 268 Reading a Potential Energy Curve 187 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables 268 viii CONTE NTS 10-4 KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATION 271 Equilibrium 327 Kinetic Energy of Rotation 271 The Requirements of Equilibrium 329 The Center of Gravity 330 10-5 CALCULATING THE ROTATIONAL INERTIA 273 Calculating the Rotational Inertia 273 12-2 SOME EXAMPLES OF STATIC EQUILIBRIUM 332 Some Examples of Static Equilibrium 332 10-6 TORQUE 277 Torque 278 12-3 ELASTICITY 338 Indeterminate Structures 338 10-7 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW FOR ROTATION 279 Elasticity 339 Newton’s Second Law for Rotation 279 REVIEW & SUMMARY 343 QUESTIONS 343 PROBLEMS 345 10-8 WORK AND ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY 282 Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy 282 13 Gravitation 354 REVIEW & SUMMARY 285 QUESTIONS 286 PROBLEMS 287 13-1 NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION 354 What Is Physics? 354 11 Rolling, Torque, and Angular Momentum 295 Newton’s Law of Gravitation 355 11-1 ROLLING AS TRANSLATION AND ROTATION COMBINED 295 What Is Physics? 295 13-2 GRAVITATION AND THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION 357 Rolling as Translation and Rotation Combined 295 Gravitation and the Principle of Superposition 357 11-2 FORCES AND KINETIC ENERGY OF ROLLING 298 13-3 GRAVITATION NEAR EARTH’S SURFACE 359 The Kinetic Energy of Rolling 298 Gravitation Near Earth’s Surface 360 The Forces of Rolling 299 13-4 GRAVITATION INSIDE EARTH 362 11-3 THE YO-YO 301 Gravitation Inside Earth 363 The Yo-Yo 302 13-5 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY 364 11-4 TORQUE REVISITED 302 Gravitational Potential Energy 364 Torque Revisited 303 13-6 PLANETS AND SATELLITES: KEPLER’S LAWS 368 11-5 ANGULAR MOMENTUM 305 Planets and Satellites: Kepler’s Laws 369 Angular Momentum 305 13-7 SATELLITES: ORBITS AND ENERGY 371 11-6 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW IN ANGULAR FORM 307 Satellites: Orbits and Energy 371 Newton’s Second Law in Angular Form 307 13-8 EINSTEIN AND GRAVITATION 374 11-7 ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A RIGID BODY 310 Einstein and Gravitation 374 The Angular Momentum of a System of Particles 310 REVIEW & SUMMARY 376 QUESTIONS 377 PROBLEMS 378 The Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body Rotating About a Fixed Axis 311 14 Fluids 386 11-8 CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM 312 Conservation of Angular Momentum 312 14-1 FLUIDS, DENSITY, AND PRESSURE 386 What Is Physics? 386 11-9 PRECESSION OF A GYROSCOPE 317 What Is a Fluid? 386 Precession of a Gyroscope 317 Density and Pressure 387 REVIEW & SUMMARY 318 QUESTIONS 319 PROBLEMS 320 14-2 FLUIDS AT REST 388 12 Equilibrium and Elasticity 327 Fluids at Rest 389 12-1 EQUILIBRIUM 327 14-3 MEASURING PRESSURE 392 What Is Physics? 327 Measuring Pressure 392  CONTE NTS ix 14-4 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE 393 16-4 THE WAVE EQUATION 456 Pascal’s Principle 393 The Wave Equation 456 14-5 ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE 394 16-5 INTERFERENCE OF WAVES 458 Archimedes’ Principle 395 The Principle of Superposition for Waves 458 Interference of Waves 459 14-6 THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY 398 Ideal Fluids in Motion 398 16-6 PHASORS 462 The Equation of Continuity 399 Phasors 462 14-7 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION 401 16-7 STANDING WAVES AND RESONANCE 465 Bernoulli’s Equation 401 Standing Waves 465 REVIEW & SUMMARY 405 QUESTIONS 405 PROBLEMS 406 Standing Waves and Resonance 467 REVIEW & SUMMARY 470 QUESTIONS 471 PROBLEMS 472 15 Oscillations 413 15-1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 413 17 Waves—II 479 What Is Physics? 414 17-1 SPEED OF SOUND 479 Simple Harmonic Motion 414 What Is Physics? 479 The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion 419 Sound Waves 479 The Speed of Sound 480 15-2 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 421 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion 421 17-2 TRAVELING SOUND WAVES 482 Traveling Sound Waves 482 15-3 AN ANGULAR SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR 423 An Angular Simple Harmonic Oscillator 423 17-3 INTERFERENCE 485 Interference 485 15-4 PENDULUMS, CIRCULAR MOTION 424 Pendulums 425 17-4 INTENSITY AND SOUND LEVEL 488 Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion 428 Intensity and Sound Level 489 15-5 DAMPED SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 430 17-5 SOURCES OF MUSICAL SOUND 492 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion 430 Sources of Musical Sound 493 17-6 BEATS 496 15-6 FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE 432 Beats 497 Forced Oscillations and Resonance 432 REVIEW & SUMMARY 434 QUESTIONS 434 PROBLEMS 436 17-7 THE DOPPLER EFFECT 498 The Doppler Effect 499 16 Waves—I 444 17-8 SUPERSONIC SPEEDS, SHOCK WAVES 503 16-1 TRANSVERSE WAVES 444 Supersonic Speeds, Shock Waves 503 What Is Physics? 445 Types of Waves 445 REVIEW & SUMMARY 504 QUESTIONS 505 PROBLEMS 506 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves 445 18 Temperature, Heat, and the First Law of Thermodynamics 514 Wavelength and Frequency 446 The Speed of a Traveling Wave 449 18-1 TEMPERATURE 514 What Is Physics? 514 16-2 WAVE SPEED ON A STRETCHED STRING 452 Temperature 515 Wave Speed on a Stretched String 452 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 515 Measuring Temperature 516 16-3 ENERGY AND POWER OF A WAVE TRAVELING ALONG A STRING 454 18-2 THE CELSIUS AND FAHRENHEIT SCALES 518 Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling Along a String 454 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 518 x CONTE NTS 18-3 THERMAL EXPANSION 520 Change in Entropy 585 Thermal Expansion 520 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 588 18-4 ABSORPTION OF HEAT 522 20-2 ENTROPY IN THE REAL WORLD: ENGINES 590 Temperature and Heat 523 Entropy in the Real World: Engines 590 The Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids 524 20-3 REFRIGERATORS AND REAL ENGINES 595 18-5 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 528 Entropy in the Real World: Refrigerators 596 A Closer Look at Heat and Work 528 The Efficiencies of Real Engines 597 The First Law of Thermodynamics 531 20-4 A STATISTICAL VIEW OF ENTROPY 598 Some Special Cases of the First Law of Thermodynamics 532 A Statistical View of Entropy 598 REVIEW & SUMMARY 602 QUESTIONS 603 PROBLEMS 604 18-6 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS 534 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 534 21 Coulomb’s Law 609 REVIEW & SUMMARY 538 QUESTIONS 540 PROBLEMS 541 21-1 COULOMB’S LAW 609 What Is Physics? 610 19 The Kinetic Theory of Gases 549 Electric Charge 610 19-1 AVOGADRO’S NUMBER 549 Conductors and Insulators 612 What Is Physics? 549 Coulomb’s Law 613 Avogadro’s Number 550 21-2 CHARGE IS QUANTIZED 619 19-2 IDEAL GASES 550 Charge Is Quantized 619 Ideal Gases 551 21-3 CHARGE IS CONSERVED 621 19-3 PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, AND RMS SPEED 554 Charge Is Conserved 621 Pressure, Temperature, and RMS Speed 554 REVIEW & SUMMARY 622 QUESTIONS 623 PROBLEMS 624 19-4 TRANSLATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY 557 22 Electric Fields 630 Translational Kinetic Energy 557 22-1 THE ELECTRIC FIELD 630 19-5 MEAN FREE PATH 558 What Is Physics? 630 Mean Free Path 558 The Electric Field 631 Electric Field Lines 631 19-6 THE DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS 560 The Distribution of Molecular Speeds 561 22-2 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A CHARGED PARTICLE 633 The Electric Field Due to a Point Charge 633 19-7 THE MOLAR SPECIFIC HEATS OF AN IDEAL GAS 564 The Molar Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas 564 22-3 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DIPOLE 635 The Electric Field Due to an Electric Dipole 636 19-8 DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND MOLAR SPECIFIC HEATS 568 Degrees of Freedom and Molar Specific Heats 568 22-4 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A LINE OF CHARGE 638 A Hint of Quantum Theory 570 The Electric Field Due to Line of Charge 638 19-9 THE ADIABATIC EXPANSION OF AN IDEAL GAS 571 22-5 THE ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A CHARGED DISK 643 The Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas 571 The Electric Field Due to a Charged Disk 643 REVIEW & SUMMARY 575 QUESTIONS 576 PROBLEMS 577 22-6 A POINT CHARGE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD 645 A Point Charge in an Electric Field 645 20 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 583 20-1 ENTROPY 583 22-7 A DIPOLE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD 647 What Is Physics? 584 A Dipole in an Electric Field 648 Irreversible Processes and Entropy 584 REVIEW & SUMMARY 650 QUESTIONS 651 PROBLEMS 652  CONTE NTS xi 23 Gauss’ Law 659 25 Capacitance 717 23-1 ELECTRIC FLUX 659 25-1 CAPACITANCE 717 What Is Physics 659 What Is Physics? 717 Electric Flux 660 Capacitance 717 23-2 GAUSS’ LAW 664 25-2 CALCULATING THE CAPACITANCE 719 Gauss’ Law 664 Calculating the Capacitance 720 Gauss’ Law and Coulomb’s Law 666 25-3 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL AND IN SERIES 723 23-3 A CHARGED ISOLATED CONDUCTOR 668 Capacitors in Parallel and in Series 724 A Charged Isolated Conductor 668 25-4 ENERGY STORED IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD 728 23-4 APPLYING GAUSS’ LAW: CYLINDRICAL SYMMETRY 671 Energy Stored in an Electric Field 728 Applying Gauss’ Law: Cylindrical Symmetry 671 25-5 CAPACITOR WITH A DIELECTRIC 731 23-5 APPLYING GAUSS’ LAW: PLANAR SYMMETRY 673 Capacitor with a Dielectric 731 Applying Gauss’ Law: Planar Symmetry 673 Dielectrics: An Atomic View 733 23-6 APPLYING GAUSS’ LAW: SPHERICAL SYMMETRY 675 25-6 DIELECTRICS AND GAUSS’ LAW 735 Applying Gauss’ Law: Spherical Symmetry 675 Dielectrics and Gauss’ Law 735 REVIEW & SUMMARY 677 QUESTIONS 677 PROBLEMS 679 REVIEW & SUMMARY 738 QUESTIONS 738 PROBLEMS 739 26 Current and Resistance 745 24 Electric Potential 685 26-1 ELECTRIC CURRENT 745 24-1 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 685 What Is Physics? 745 What Is Physics? 685 Electric Current 746 Electric Potential and Electric Potential Energy 686 26-2 CURRENT DENSITY 748 24-2 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES AND THE ELECTRIC FIELD 690 Current Density 749 Equipotential Surfaces 690 Calculating the Potential from the Field 691 26-3 RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY 752 Resistance and Resistivity 753 24-3 POTENTIAL DUE TO A CHARGED PARTICLE 694 Potential Due to a Charged Particle 694 26-4 OHM’S LAW 756 Potential Due a Group of Charged Particles 695 Ohm’s Law 756 A Microscopic View of Ohm’s Law 758 24-4 POTENTIAL DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE 697 Potential Due to an Electric Dipole 697 26-5 POWER, SEMICONDUCTORS, SUPERCONDUCTORS 760 Power in Electric Circuits 760 24-5 POTENTIAL DUE TO A CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION 698 Semiconductors 762 Potential Due to a Continuous Charge Distribution 698 Superconductors 763 REVIEW & SUMMARY 763 QUESTIONS 764 PROBLEMS 765 24-6 CALCULATING THE FIELD FROM THE POTENTIAL 701 Calculating the Field from the Potential 701 27 Circuits 771 24-7 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF 27-1 SINGLE-LOOP CIRCUITS 771 CHARGED PARTICLES 703 What Is Physics? 772 Electric Potential Energy of a System of Charged Particles 703 “Pumping” Charges 772 Work, Energy, and Emf 773 24-8 POTENTIAL OF A CHARGED ISOLATED CONDUCTOR 706 Calculating the Current in a Single-Loop Circuit 774 Potential of Charged Isolated Conductor 706 Other Single-Loop Circuits 776 REVIEW & SUMMARY 707 QUESTIONS 708 PROBLEMS 710 Potential Difference Between Two Points 777 xii CONTE NTS 27-2 MULTILOOP CIRCUITS 781 29-5 A CURRENT-CARRYING COIL AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE 851 Multiloop Circuits 781 A Current-Carrying Coil as a Magnetic Dipole 851 REVIEW & SUMMARY 854 QUESTIONS 855 PROBLEMS 856 27-3 THE AMMETER AND THE VOLTMETER 788 The Ammeter and the Voltmeter 788 30 Induction and Inductance 864 27-4 RC CIRCUITS 788 30-1 FARADAY’S LAW AND LENZ’S LAW 864 RC Circuits 789 What Is Physics 864 REVIEW & SUMMARY 793 QUESTIONS 793 PROBLEMS 795 Two Experiments 865 Faraday’s Law of Induction 865 Lenz’s Law 868 28 Magnetic Fields 803 : 28-1 MAGNETIC FIELDS AND THE DEFINITION OF B 803 30-2 INDUCTION AND ENERGY TRANSFERS 871 What Is Physics? 803 Induction and Energy Transfers 871 What Produces a Magnetic Field? 804 30-3 INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELDS 874 : The Definition of B 804 Induced Electric Fields 875 28-2 CROSSED FIELDS: DISCOVERY OF THE ELECTRON 808 30-4 INDUCTORS AND INDUCTANCE 879 Crossed Fields: Discovery of the Electron 809 Inductors and Inductance 879 28-3 CROSSED FIELDS: THE HALL EFFECT 810 30-5 SELF-INDUCTION 881 Crossed Fields: The Hall Effect 811 Self-Induction 881 28-4 A CIRCULATING CHARGED PARTICLE 814 30-6 RL CIRCUITS 882 A Circulating Charged Particle 814 RL Circuits 883 28-5 CYCLOTRONS AND SYNCHROTRONS 817 30-7 ENERGY STORED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 887 Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons 818 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field 887 30-8 ENERGY DENSITY OF A MAGNETIC FIELD 889 28-6 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE 820 Energy Density of a Magnetic Field 889 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire 820 30-9 MUTUAL INDUCTION 890 28-7 TORQUE ON A CURRENT LOOP 822 Mutual Induction 890 Torque on a Current Loop 822 REVIEW & SUMMARY 893 QUESTIONS 893 PROBLEMS 895 28-8 THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT 824 The Magnetic Dipole Moment 825 31 Electromagnetic Oscillations and Alternating Current 903 REVIEW & SUMMARY 827 QUESTIONS 827 PROBLEMS 829 31-1 LC OSCILLATIONS 903 What Is Physics? 904 LC Oscillations, Qualitatively 904 29 Magnetic Fields Due to Currents 836 The Electrical-Mechanical Analogy 906 29-1 MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT 836 LC Oscillations, Quantitatively 907 What Is Physics? 836 Calculating the Magnetic Field Due to a Current 837 31-2 DAMPED OSCILLATIONS IN AN RLC CIRCUIT 910 Damped Oscillations in an RLC Circuit 911 29-2 FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENTS 842 Force Between Two Parallel Currents 842 31-3 FORCED OSCILLATIONS OF THREE SIMPLE CIRCUITS 912 Alternating Current 913 29-3 AMPERE’S LAW 844 Forced Oscillations 914 Ampere’s Law 844 Three Simple Circuits 914 29-4 SOLENOIDS AND TOROIDS 848 31-4 THE SERIES RLC CIRCUIT 921 Solenoids and Toroids 848 The Series RLC Circuit 921  CONTE NTS xiii 31-5 POWER IN ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS 927 33-5 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION 990 Power in Alternating-Current Circuits 927 Reflection and Refraction 991 31-6 TRANSFORMERS 930 33-6 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION 996 Transformers 930 Total Internal Reflection 996 REVIEW & SUMMARY 933 QUESTIONS 934 PROBLEMS 935 33-7 POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION 997 Polarization by Reflection 998 32 Maxwell’s Equations; Magnetism of Matter 941 REVIEW & SUMMARY 999 QUESTIONS 1000 PROBLEMS 1001 32-1 GAUSS’ LAW FOR MAGNETIC FIELDS 941 What Is Physics? 941 34 Images 1010 Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields 942 34-1 IMAGES AND PLANE MIRRORS 1010 32-2 INDUCED MAGNETIC FIELDS 943 What Is Physics? 1010 Induced Magnetic Fields 943 Two Types of Image 1010 Plane Mirrors 1012 32-3 DISPLACEMENT CURRENT 946 Displacement Current 947 34-2 SPHERICAL MIRRORS 1014 Maxwell’s Equations 949 Spherical Mirrors 1015 Images from Spherical Mirrors 1016 32-4 MAGNETS 950 Magnets 950 34-3 SPHERICAL REFRACTING SURFACES 1020 Spherical Refracting Surfaces 1020 32-5 MAGNETISM AND ELECTRONS 952 Magnetism and Electrons 953 34-4 THIN LENSES 1023 Magnetic Materials 956 Thin Lenses 1023 32-6 DIAMAGNETISM 957 34-5 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 1030 Diamagnetism 957 Optical Instruments 1030 32-7 PARAMAGNETISM 959 34-6 THREE PROOFS 1033 Paramagnetism 959 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1036 QUESTIONS 1037 PROBLEMS 1038 32-8 FERROMAGNETISM 961 35 Interference 1047 Ferromagnetism 961 35-1 LIGHT AS A WAVE 1047 REVIEW & SUMMARY 964 QUESTIONS 965 PROBLEMS 967 What Is Physics? 1047 Light as a Wave 1048 33 Electromagnetic Waves 972 33-1 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 972 35-2 YOUNG’S INTERFERENCE EXPERIMENT 1053 What Is Physics? 972 Diffraction 1053 Maxwell’s Rainbow 973 Young’s Interference Experiment 1054 The Traveling Electromagnetic Wave, Qualitatively 974 35-3 INTERFERENCE AND DOUBLE-SLIT INTENSITY 1059 The Traveling Electromagnetic Wave, Quantitatively 977 Coherence 1059 33-2 ENERGY TRANSPORT AND THE POYNTING VECTOR 980 Intensity in Double-Slit Interference 1060 Energy Transport and the Poynting Vector 981 35-4 INTERFERENCE FROM THIN FILMS 1063 33-3 RADIATION PRESSURE 983 Interference from Thin Films 1064 Radiation Pressure 983 35-5 MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER 1070 33-4 POLARIZATION 985 Michelson’s Interferometer 1071 Polarization 985 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1072 QUESTIONS 1072 PROBLEMS 1074 xiv CONTE NTS 36 Diffraction 1081 38 Photons and Matter Waves 1153 36-1 SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION 1081 38-1 THE PHOTON, THE QUANTUM OF LIGHT 1153 What Is Physics? 1081 What Is Physics? 1153 Diffraction and the Wave Theory of Light 1081 The Photon, the Quantum of Light 1154 Diffraction by a Single Slit: Locating the Minima 1083 38-2 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 1155 36-2 INTENSITY IN SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION 1086 The Photoelectric Effect 1156 Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction 1086 38-3 PHOTONS, MOMENTUM, COMPTON SCATTERING, LIGHT Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction, Quantitatively 1088 INTERFERENCE 1158 36-3 DIFFRACTION BY A CIRCULAR APERTURE 1090 Photons Have Momentum 1159 Diffraction by a Circular Aperture 1091 Light as a Probability Wave 1162 36-4 DIFFRACTION BY A DOUBLE SLIT 1094 38-4 THE BIRTH OF QUANTUM PHYSICS 1164 The Birth of Quantum Physics 1165 Diffraction by a Double Slit 1095 38-5 ELECTRONS AND MATTER WAVES 1166 36-5 DIFFRACTION GRATINGS 1098 Electrons and Matter Waves 1167 Diffraction Gratings 1098 38-6 SCHRÖDINGER’S EQUATION 1170 36-6 GRATINGS: DISPERSION AND RESOLVING POWER 1101 Schrödinger’s Equation 1170 Gratings: Dispersion and Resolving Power 1101 38-7 HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE 1172 36-7 X-RAY DIFFRACTION 1104 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 1173 X-Ray Diffraction 1104 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1107 QUESTIONS 1107 PROBLEMS 1108 38-8 REFLECTION FROM A POTENTIAL STEP 1174 Reflection from a Potential Step 1174 37 Relativity 1116 38-9 TUNNELING THROUGH A POTENTIAL BARRIER 1176 37-1 SIMULTANEITY AND TIME DILATION 1116 Tunneling Through a Potential Barrier 1176 What Is Physics? 1116 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1179 QUESTIONS 1180 PROBLEMS 1181 The Postulates 1117 Measuring an Event 1118 39 More About Matter Waves 1186 The Relativity of Simultaneity 1120 39-1 ENERGIES OF A TRAPPED ELECTRON 1186 The Relativity of Time 1121 What Is Physics? 1186 String Waves and Matter Waves 1187 37-2 THE RELATIVITY OF LENGTH 1125 Energies of a Trapped Electron 1187 The Relativity of Length 1126 39-2 WAVE FUNCTIONS OF A TRAPPED ELECTRON 1191 37-3 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 1129 Wave Functions of a Trapped Electron 1192 The Lorentz Transformation 1129 Some Consequences of the Lorentz Equations 1131 39-3 AN ELECTRON IN A FINITE WELL 1195 An Electron in a Finite Well 1195 37-4 THE RELATIVITY OF VELOCITIES 1133 The Relativity of Velocities 1133 39-4 TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL ELECTRON TRAPS 1197 More Electron Traps 1197 37-5 DOPPLER EFFECT FOR LIGHT 1134 Two- and Three-Dimensional Electron Traps 1200 Doppler Effect for Light 1135 39-5 THE HYDROGEN ATOM 1201 37-6 MOMENTUM AND ENERGY 1137 The Hydrogen Atom Is an Electron Trap 1202 A New Look at Momentum 1138 The Bohr Model of Hydrogen, a Lucky Break 1203 A New Look at Energy 1138 Schrödinger’s Equation and the Hydrogen Atom 1205 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1143 QUESTIONS 1144 PROBLEMS 1145 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1213 QUESTIONS 1213 PROBLEMS 1214  CONTE NTS xv 40 All About Atoms 1219 42-2 SOME NUCLEAR PROPERTIES 1279 40-1 PROPERTIES OF ATOMS 1219 Some Nuclear Properties 1280 What Is Physics? 1220 42-3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY 1286 Some Properties of Atoms 1220 Radioactive Decay 1286 Angular Momentum, Magnetic Dipole Moments 1222 42-4 ALPHA DECAY 1289 40-2 THE STERN-GERLACH EXPERIMENT 1226 Alpha Decay 1289 The Stern-Gerlach Experiment 1226 42-5 BETA DECAY 1292 40-3 MAGNETIC RESONANCE 1229 Beta Decay 1292 Magnetic Resonance 1229 42-6 RADIOACTIVE DATING 1295 40-4 EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE AND MULTIPLE ELECTRONS IN A TRAP 1230 Radioactive Dating 1295 The Pauli Exclusion Principle 1230 Multiple Electrons in Rectangular Traps 1231 42-7 MEASURING RADIATION DOSAGE 1296 Measuring Radiation Dosage 1296 40-5 BUILDING THE PERIODIC TABLE 1234 Building the Periodic Table 1234 42-8 NUCLEAR MODELS 1297 Nuclear Models 1297 40-6 X RAYS AND THE ORDERING OF THE ELEMENTS 1236 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1300 QUESTIONS 1301 PROBLEMS 1302 X Rays and the Ordering of the Elements 1237 40-7 LASERS 1240 43 Energy from the Nucleus 1309 Lasers and Laser Light 1241 43-1 NUCLEAR FISSION 1309 How Lasers Work 1242 What Is Physics? 1309 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1245 QUESTIONS 1246 PROBLEMS 1247 Nuclear Fission: The Basic Process 1310 A Model for Nuclear Fission 1312 41 Conduction of Electricity in Solids 1252 43-2 THE NUCLEAR REACTOR 1316 41-1 THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS 1252 The Nuclear Reactor 1316 What Is Physics? 1252 The Electrical Properties of Solids 1253 43-3 A NATURAL NUCLEAR REACTOR 1320 Energy Levels in a Crystalline Solid 1254 A Natural Nuclear Reactor 1320 Insulators 1254 43-4 THERMONUCLEAR FUSION: THE BASIC PROCESS 1322 Metals 1255 Thermonuclear Fusion: The Basic Process 1322 41-2 SEMICONDUCTORS AND DOPING 1261 43-5 THERMONUCLEAR FUSION IN THE SUN AND OTHER STARS 1324 Semiconductors 1262 Thermonuclear Fusion in the Sun and Other Stars 1324 Doped Semiconductors 1263 43-6 CONTROLLED THERMONUCLEAR FUSION 1326 41-3 THE p-n JUNCTION AND THE TRANSISTOR 1265 Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion 1326 The p-n Junction 1266 The Junction Rectifier 1267 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1329 QUESTIONS 1329 PROBLEMS 1330 The Light-Emitting Diode (LED) 1268 The Transistor 1270 44 Quarks, Leptons, and the Big Bang 1334 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1271 QUESTIONS 1272 PROBLEMS 1272 44-1 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 1334 What Is Physics? 1334 Particles, Particles, Particles 1335 42 Nuclear Physics 1276 An Interlude 1339 42-1 DISCOVERING THE NUCLEUS 1276 What Is Physics? 1276 44-2 LEPTONS, HADRONS, AND STRANGENESS 1343 Discovering the Nucleus 1276 The Leptons 1343 xvi CONTE NTS The Hadrons 1345 APPENDICES Still Another Conservation Law 1346 A The International System of Units (SI) A-1 The Eightfold Way 1347 B Some Fundamental Constants of Physics A-3 C Some Astronomical Data A-4 44-3 QUARKS AND MESSENGER PARTICLES 1349 D Conversion Factors A-5 The Quark Model 1349 E Mathematical Formulas A-9 Basic Forces and Messenger Particles 1352 F Properties of The Elements A-12 G Periodic Table of The Elements A-15 44-4 COSMOLOGY 1355 A Pause for Reflection 1355 ANSWERS The Universe Is Expanding 1356 to Checkpoints and Odd-Numbered Questions and Problems AN-1 The Cosmic Background Radiation 1357 Dark Matter 1358 I N D E X I-1 The Big Bang 1358 A Summing Up 1361 REVIEW & SUMMARY 1362 QUESTIONS 1362 PROBLEMS 1363  P R E F A C E WHY I WROTE THIS BOOK Fun with a big challenge. That is how I have regarded physics since the day when Sharon, one of the students in a class I taught as a graduate student, suddenly demanded of me, “What has any of this got to do with my life?” Of course I immediately responded, “Sharon, this has everything to do with your life—this is physics.” She asked me for an example. I thought and thought but could not come up with a single one.That night I began writing the book The Flying Circus of Physics (John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1975) for Sharon but also for me because I realized her complaint was mine. I had spent six years slugging my way through many dozens of physics textbooks that were carefully written with the best of pedagogical plans, but there was something missing. Physics is the most interesting subject in the world because it is about how the world works, and yet the textbooks had been thor- oughly wrung of any connection with the real world. The fun was missing. I have packed a lot of real-world physics into Fundamentals of Physics, con- necting it with the new edition of The Flying Circus of Physics. Much of the mate- rial comes from the introductory physics classes I teach, where I can judge from the faces and blunt comments what material and presentations work and what do not. The notes I make on my successes and failures there help form the basis of this book. My message here is the same as I had with every student I’ve met since Sharon so long ago: “Yes, you can reason from basic physics concepts all the way to valid conclusions about the real world, and that understanding of the real world is where the fun is.” I have many goals in writing this book but the overriding one is to provide in- structors with tools by which they can teach students how to effectively read scientific material, iden- tify fundamental concepts, reason through scientific questions, and solve quantitative problems. This process is not easy for either students or instructors. Indeed, the course associated with this book may be one of the most challenging of all the courses taken by a student. However, it can also be one of the most rewarding because it reveals the world’s fundamental clockwork from which all scientific and engineering applications spring. Many users of the ninth edition (both instructors and students) sent in comments and suggestions to improve the book. These improvements are now incorporated into the narrative and problems throughout the book. The publisher John Wiley & Sons and I regard the book as an ongoing project and encourage more input from users. You can send suggestions, corrections, and positive or negative comments to John Wiley & Sons or Jearl Walker (mail address: Physics Department, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115 USA; or the blog site at www.flyingcircusofphysics.com). We may not be able to respond to all suggestions, but we keep and study each of them. WHAT’S NEW? Modules and Learning Objectives “What was I supposed to learn from this section?” Students have asked me this question for decades, from the weakest student to the strongest. The problem is that even a thoughtful student may not feel confident that the important points were captured while read- ing a section. I felt the same way back when I was using the first edition of Halliday and Resnick while taking first-year physics. To ease the problem in this edition, I restructured the chapters into concept modules based on a primary theme and begin each module with a list of the module’s learning objectives. The list is an explicit statement of the skills and learning points that should be gathered in reading the module. Each list is following by a brief summary of the key ideas that should also be gathered. For example, check out the first module in Chapter 16, where a student faces a truck load of concepts and terms. Rather than depending on the student’s ability to gather and sort those ideas, I now provide an explicit checklist that functions somewhat like the checklist a pilot works through before taxiing out to the runway for takeoff. xvii xviii PR E FACE Links Between Homework Problems and Learning Objectives In WileyPLUS, every question and prob- lem at the end of the chapter is linked to a learning objective, to answer the (usually unspoken) ques- tions, “Why am I working this problem? What am I supposed to learn from it?” By being explicit about a problem’s purpose, I believe that a student might better transfer the learning objective to other problems with a different wording but the same key idea. Such transference would help defeat the common trouble that a student learns to work a particular problem but cannot then apply its key idea to a problem in a different setting. Rewritten Chapters My students have continued to be challenged by several key chapters and by spots in several other chapters and so, in this edition, I rewrote a lot of the material. For example, I redesigned the chapters on Gauss’ law and electric potential, which have proved to be tough-going for my students. The presentations are now smoother and more direct to the key points. In the quan- tum chapters, I expanded the coverage of the Schrödinger equation, including reflection of matter waves from a step potential. At the request of several instructors, I decoupled the discussion of the Bohr atom from the Schrödinger solution for the hydrogen atom so that the historical account of Bohr’s work can be bypassed. Also, there is now a module on Planck’s blackbody radiation. New Sample Problems and Homework Questions and Problems Sixteen new sample problems have been added to the chapters, written so as to spotlight some of the difficult areas for my students. Also, about 250 problems and 50 questions have been added to the homework sections of the chapters. Some of these problems come from earlier editions of the book, as requested by several instructors. Video Illustrations In the eVersion of the text available in WileyPLUS, David Maiullo of Rutgers University has created video versions of approximately 30 of the photo- graphs and figures from the text. Much of physics is the study of things that move and video can often provide a better representation than a static photo or figure. Online Aid WileyPLUS is not just an online grading pro- gram. Rather, it is a dynamic learning center stocked with many different learning aids, including just-in-time problem-solving tutorials, embedded reading quizzes to encourage reading, animated figures, hundreds of sample problems, loads of simulations and demonstrations, and over 1500 videos ranging from math reviews to mini-lectures to examples. More of these learning aids are added every semester. For this 10th edition of HRW, some of the photos involving motion have been converted into videos so that the motion can be slowed and analyzed. These thousands of learning aids are available 24/7 and can be repeated as many times as de- sired. Thus, if a student gets stuck on a homework problem at, say, 2:00 AM (which appears to be a popular time for doing physics homework), friendly and helpful resources are available at the click of a mouse. LEARNINGS TOOLS When I learned first-year physics in the first edition of Halliday and Resnick, I caught on by repeatedly reread- ing a chapter. These days we better understand that students have a wide range of learning styles. So, I have produced a wide range of learning tools, both in this new edition and online in WileyPLUS: A Animations of one of the key figures in each chapter. Here in the book, those figures are flagged with the swirling icon. In the online chapter in WileyPLUS, a mouse click begins the animation. I have chosen the fig- ures that are rich in information so that a student can see the physics in action and played out over a minute or two  PR E FACE xix instead of just being flat on a printed page. Not only does this give life to the physics, but the anima- tion can be repeated as many times as a student wants. Videos I have made well over 1500 instructional videos, with more coming each semester. Students can watch me draw or type on the screen as they hear me talk about a solution, tutorial, sample prob- lem, or review, very much as they would experience were they sitting next to me in my office while I worked out something on a notepad. An instructor’s lectures and tutoring will always be the most valuable learning tools, but my videos are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and can be repeated indefinitely. Video tutorials on subjects in the chapters. I chose the subjects that chal- lenge the students the most, the ones that my students scratch their heads about. Video reviews of high school math, such as basic algebraic manipulations, trig functions, and simultaneous equations. Video introductions to math, such as vector multiplication, that will be new to the students. Video presentations of every Sample Problem in the textbook chapters. My intent is to work out the physics, starting with the Key Ideas instead of just grabbing a formula. However, I also want to demonstrate how to read a sam- ple problem, that is, how to read technical material to learn problem-solving procedures that can be transferred to other types of problems. Video solutions to 20% of the end-of chapter problems. The availability and timing of these solutions are controlled by the instructor. For example, they might be available after a homework deadline or a quiz. Each solution is not simply a plug-and-chug recipe. Rather I build a solution from the Key Ideas to the first step of reasoning and to a final solution. The student learns not just how to solve a particular problem but how to tackle any problem, even those that require physics courage. Video examples of how to read data from graphs (more than simply reading off a number with no comprehension of the physics). Problem-Solving Help I have written a large number of resources for WileyPLUS designed to help build the students’ problem-solving skills. Every sample problem in the textbook is available online in both reading and video formats. Hundreds of additional sample problems. These are available as stand- alone resources but (at the discretion of the instructor) they are also linked out of the homework problems. So, if a homework problem deals with, say, forces on a block on a ramp, a link to a related sample problem is provided. However, the sample problem is not just a replica of the homework problem and thus does not provide a solution that can be merely duplicated without comprehension. GO Tutorials for 15% of the end-of-chapter homework problems. In multi- ple steps, I lead a student through a homework problem, starting with the Key Ideas and giving hints when wrong answers are submitted. However, I pur- posely leave the last step (for the final answer) to the student so that they are responsible at the end. Some online tutorial systems trap a student when wrong answers are given, which can generate a lot of frustration. My GO Tutorials are not traps, because at any step along the way, a student can return to the main problem. Hints on every end-of-chapter homework problem are available (at the discretion of the instructor). I wrote these as true hints about the main ideas and the general procedure for a solution, not as recipes that provide an answer without any comprehension. xx PR E FACE Evaluation Materials Reading questions are available within each online section. I wrote these so that they do not require analysis or any deep understanding; rather they simply test whether a student has read the section. When a student opens up a section, a randomly chosen reading question (from a bank of questions) appears at the end. The instructor can decide whether the question is part of the grading for that section or whether it is just for the benefit of the student. Checkpoints are available within most sections. I wrote these so that they require analysis and deci- sions about the physics in the section. Answers to all checkpoints are in the back of the book. Checkpoint 1 Here are three pairs of initial and final positions, respectively, along an x axis. Which pairs give a negative displacement: (a) $3 m, #5 m; (b) $3 m, $7 m; (c) 7 m, $3 m? All end-of-chapter homework Problems in the book (and many more problems) are available in WileyPLUS. The instructor can construct a homework assignment and control how it is graded when the answers are submitted online. For example, the instructor controls the deadline for submission and how many attempts a student is allowed on an answer. The instructor also controls which, if any, learning aids are available with each homework problem. Such links can include hints, sample prob- lems, in-chapter reading materials, video tutorials, video math reviews, and even video solutions (which can be made available to the students after, say, a homework deadline). Symbolic notation problems that require algebraic answers are available in every chapter. All end-of-chapter homework Questions in the book are available for assignment in WileyPLUS. These Questions (in a multiple choice format) are designed to evaluate the students’ conceptual un- derstanding. Icons for Additional Help When worked-out solutions are provided either in print or electronically for certain of the odd-numbered problems, the statements for those problems include an icon to alert both student and instructor as to where the solutions are located. There are also icons indicating which problems have GO Tutorial, an Interactive LearningWare, or a link to the The Flying Circus of Physics. An icon guide is provided here and at the beginning of each set of problems. Tutoring problem available (at instructor’s discretion) in WileyPLUS and WebAssign SSM Worked-out solution available in Student Solutions Manual WWW Worked-out solution is at http://www.wiley.com/college/halliday – Number of dots indicates level of problem difficulty ILW Interactive solution is at Additional information available in The Flying Circus of Physics and at flyingcircusofphysics.com VERSIONS OF THE TEXT To accommodate the individual needs of instructors and students, the ninth edition of Fundamentals of Physics is available in a number of different versions. The Regular Edition consists of Chapters 1 through 37 (ISBN 9781118230718). The Extended Edition contains seven additional chapters on quantum physics and cosmology, Chapters 1–44 (ISBN 9781118230725). Volume 1 –– Chapters 1–20 (Mechanics and Thermodynamics), hardcover, ISBN 9781118233764 Volume 2 –– Chapters 21–44 (E&M, Optics, and Quantum Physics), hardcover, ISBN 9781118230732  PR E FACE xxi INSTRUCTOR SUPPLEMENTS Instructor’s Solutions Manual by Sen-Ben Liao, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This man- ual provides worked-out solutions for all problems found at the end of each chapter. It is available in both MSWord and PDF. Instructor Companion Site http://www.wiley.com/college/halliday Instructor’s Manual This resource contains lecture notes outlining the most important topics of each chapter; demonstration experiments; laboratory and computer projects; film and video sources; answers to all Questions, Exercises, Problems, and Checkpoints; and a correlation guide to the Questions, Exercises, and Problems in the previous edition. It also contains a complete list of all problems for which solutions are available to students (SSM,WWW, and ILW). Lecture PowerPoint Slides These PowerPoint slides serve as a helpful starter pack for instructors, outlining key concepts and incorporating figures and equations from the text. Classroom Response Systems (“Clicker”) Questions by David Marx, Illinois State University. There are two sets of questions available: Reading Quiz questions and Interactive Lecture ques- tions.The Reading Quiz questions are intended to be relatively straightforward for any student who reads the assigned material.The Interactive Lecture questions are intended for use in an interactive lecture setting. Wiley Physics Simulations by Andrew Duffy, Boston University and John Gastineau, Vernier Software. This is a collection of 50 interactive simulations (Java applets) that can be used for class- room demonstrations. Wiley Physics Demonstrations by David Maiullo, Rutgers University. This is a collection of digital videos of 80 standard physics demonstrations. They can be shown in class or accessed from WileyPLUS. There is an accompanying Instructor’s Guide that includes “clicker” questions. Test Bank For the 10th edition, the Test Bank has been completely over-hauled by Suzanne Willis, Northern Illinois University. The Test Bank includes more than 2200 multiple-choice questions. These items are also available in the Computerized Test Bank which provides full editing features to help you customize tests (available in both IBM and Macintosh versions). All text illustrations suitable for both classroom projection and printing. Online Homework and Quizzing. In addition to WileyPLUS, Fundamentals of Physics, tenth edition, also supports WebAssignPLUS and LON-CAPA, which are other programs that give instructors the ability to deliver and grade homework and quizzes online. WebAssign PLUS also offers students an online version of the text. STUDENT SUPPLEMENTS Student Companion Site. The web site http://www.wiley.com/college/halliday was developed specifi- cally for Fundamentals of Physics, tenth edition, and is designed to further assist students in the study of physics. It includes solutions to selected end-of-chapter problems (which are identified with a www icon in the text); simulation exercises; tips on how to make best use of a programmable calcu- lator; and the Interactive LearningWare tutorials that are described below. Student Study Guide (ISBN 9781118230787) by Thomas Barrett of Ohio State University. The Student Study Guide consists of an overview of the chapter’s important concepts, problem solving techniques and detailed examples. Student Solutions Manual (ISBN 9781118230664) by Sen-Ben Liao, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. This manual provides students with complete worked-out solutions to 15 percent of the problems found at the end of each chapter within the text. The Student Solutions Manual for the 10th edition is written using an innovative approach called TEAL which stands for Think, Express, Analyze, and Learn. This learning strategy was originally developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and has proven to be an effective learning tool for students. These problems with TEAL solutions are indicated with an SSM icon in the text. xxii PR E FACE Interactive Learningware. This software guides students through solutions to 200 of the end-of-chapter problems. These problems are indicated with an ILW icon in the text. The solutions process is devel- oped interactively, with appropriate feedback and access to error-specific help for the most common mistakes. Introductory Physics with Calculus as a Second Language: (ISBN 9780471739104) Mastering Problem Solving by Thomas Barrett of Ohio State University. This brief paperback teaches the student how to approach problems more efficiently and effectively. The student will learn how to recognize common patterns in physics problems, break problems down into manageable steps, and apply appropriate techniques. The book takes the student step by step through the solutions to numerous examples.  A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S A great many people have contributed to this book. Sen-Ben Liao of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, James Whitenton of Southern Polytechnic State University, and Jerry Shi, of Pasadena City College, performed the Herculean task of working out solutions for every one of the homework problems in the book. At John Wiley publishers, the book received support from Stuart Johnson, Geraldine Osnato and Aly Rentrop, the editors who oversaw the entire project from start to finish. We thank Elizabeth Swain, the production editor, for pulling all the pieces together during the complex production process. We also thank Maddy Lesure for her design of the text and the cover; Lee Goldstein for her page make-up; Helen Walden for her copyediting; and Lilian Brady for her proofreading. Jennifer Atkins was inspired in the search for unusual and interesting photographs. Both the publisher John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and Jearl Walker would like to thank the following for comments and ideas about the recent editions: Jonathan Abramson, Portland State University; Omar Adawi, Parkland College; Edward Adelson, The Ohio State University; Steven R. Baker, Naval Postgraduate School; George Caplan, Wellesley College; Richard Kass, The Ohio State University; M. R. Khoshbin-e-Khoshnazar, Research Institution for Curriculum Development & Educational Innovations (Tehran); Craig Kletzing, University of Iowa, Stuart Loucks, American River College; Laurence Lurio, Northern Illinois University; Ponn Maheswaranathan, Winthrop University; Joe McCullough, Cabrillo College; Carl E. Mungan, U. S. Naval Academy, Don N. Page, University of Alberta; Elie Riachi, Fort Scott Community College; Andrew G. Rinzler, University of Florida; Dubravka Rupnik, Louisiana State University; Robert Schabinger, Rutgers University; Ruth Schwartz, Milwaukee School of Engineering; Carol Strong, University of Alabama at Huntsville, Nora Thornber, Raritan Valley Community College; Frank Wang, LaGuardia Community College; Graham W. Wilson, University of Kansas; Roland Winkler, Northern Illinois University; William Zacharias, Cleveland State University; Ulrich Zurcher, Cleveland State University. Finally, our external reviewers have been outstanding and we acknowledge here our debt to each member of that team. Maris A. Abolins, Michigan State University N. John DiNardo, Drexel University Edward Adelson, Ohio State University Eugene Dunnam, University of Florida Nural Akchurin, Texas Tech Robert Endorf, University of Cincinnati Yildirim Aktas, University of North Carolina-Charlotte F. Paul Esposito, University of Cincinnati Barbara Andereck, Ohio Wesleyan University Jerry Finkelstein, San Jose State University Tetyana Antimirova, Ryerson University Robert H. Good, California State University-Hayward Mark Arnett, Kirkwood Community College Michael Gorman, University of Houston Arun Bansil, Northeastern University Benjamin Grinstein, University of California, San Diego Richard Barber, Santa Clara University John B. Gruber, San Jose State University Neil Basecu, Westchester Community College Ann Hanks, American River College Anand Batra, Howard University Randy Harris, University of California-Davis Kenneth Bolland, The Ohio State University Samuel Harris, Purdue University Richard Bone, Florida International University Harold B. Hart, Western Illinois University Michael E. Browne, University of Idaho Rebecca Hartzler, Seattle Central Community College Timothy J. Burns, Leeward Community College John Hubisz, North Carolina StateUniversity Joseph Buschi, Manhattan College Joey Huston, Michigan State University Philip A. Casabella, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute David Ingram, Ohio University Randall Caton, Christopher Newport College Shawn Jackson, University of Tulsa Roger Clapp, University of South Florida Hector Jimenez, University of Puerto Rico W. R. Conkie, Queen’s University Sudhakar B. Joshi, York University Renate Crawford, University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth Leonard M. Kahn, University of Rhode Island Mike Crivello, San Diego State University Sudipa Kirtley, Rose-Hulman Institute Robert N. Davie, Jr., St. Petersburg Junior College Leonard Kleinman, University of Texas at Austin Cheryl K. Dellai, Glendale Community College Craig Kletzing, University of Iowa Eric R. Dietz, California State University at Chico Peter F. Koehler, University of Pittsburgh xxiii xxiv ACKNOWLE DG M E NTS Arthur Z. Kovacs, Rochester Institute of Technology Eugene Mosca, United States Naval Academy Kenneth Krane, Oregon State University Eric R. Murray, Georgia Institute of Technology, School of Hadley Lawler, Vanderbilt University Physics Priscilla Laws, Dickinson College James Napolitano, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Edbertho Leal, Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico Blaine Norum, University of Virginia Vern Lindberg, Rochester Institute of Technology Michael O’Shea, Kansas State University Peter Loly, University of Manitoba Patrick Papin, San Diego State University James MacLaren, Tulane University Kiumars Parvin, San Jose State University Andreas Mandelis, University of Toronto Robert Pelcovits, Brown University Robert R. Marchini, Memphis State University Oren P. Quist, South Dakota State University Andrea Markelz, University at Buffalo, SUNY Joe Redish, University of Maryland Paul Marquard, Caspar College Timothy M. Ritter, University of North Carolina at Pembroke David Marx, Illinois State University Dan Styer, Oberlin College Dan Mazilu, Washington and LeeUniversity Frank Wang, LaGuardia Community College James H. McGuire, Tulane University Robert Webb, Texas A&M University David M. McKinstry, Eastern Washington University Suzanne Willis, Northern Illinois University Jordon Morelli, Queen’s University Shannon Willoughby, Montana State University  C H A P T E R 1 Measurement 1-1 MEASURING THINGS, INCLUDING LENGTHS Learning Objectives After reading this module, you should be able to... 1.03 Change units (here for length, area, and volume) by 1.01 Identify the base quantities in the SI system. using chain-link conversions. 1.02 Name the most frequently used prefixes for 1.04 Explain that the meter is defined in terms of the speed of SI units. light in vacuum. Key Ideas Physics is based on measurement of physical quantities. These standards are used in all physical measurement, for Certain physical quantities have been chosen as base quanti- both the base quantities and the quantities derived from ties (such as length, time, and mass); each has been defined in them. Scientific notation and the prefixes of Table 1-2 are terms of a standard and given a unit of measure (such as meter, used to simplify measurement notation. second, and kilogram). Other physical quantities are defined in Conversion of units may be performed by using chain-link terms of the base quantities and their standards and units. conversions in which the original data are multiplied succes- The unit system emphasized in this book is the International sively by conversion factors written as unity and the units are System of Units (SI). The three physical quantities displayed manipulated like algebraic quantities until only the desired in Table 1-1 are used in the early chapters. Standards, which units remain. must be both accessible and invariable, have been estab- The meter is defined as the distance traveled by light lished for these base quantities by international agreement. during a precisely specified time interval. What Is Physics? Science and engineering are based on measurements and comparisons. Thus, we need rules about how things are measured and compared, and we need experiments to establish the units for those measurements and comparisons. One purpose of physics (and engineering) is to design and conduct those experiments. For example, physicists strive to develop clocks of extreme accuracy so that any time or time interval can be precisely determined and compared. You may wonder whether such accuracy is actually needed or worth the effort. Here is one example of the worth: Without clocks of extreme accuracy, the Global Positioning System (GPS) that is now vital to worldwide navigation would be useless. Measuring Things We discover physics by learning how to measure the quantities involved in physics. Among these quantities are length, time, mass, temperature, pressure, and electric current. We measure each physical quantity in its own units, by comparison with a standard. The unit is a unique name we assign to measures of that quantity—for example, meter (m) for the quantity length. The standard corresponds to exactly 1.0 unit of the quantity. As you will see, the standard for length, which corresponds 1 2 CHAPTE R 1