Fundamentals of Communication Module 1 Notes PDF

Fundamentals of communication Module 1 (Notes) What is Communication? Definition: Communication can be defined clearly as the transmission of ideas, information, thoughts, emotions or messages from one person or more...

Fundamentals of communication Module 1 (Notes) What is Communication? Definition: Communication can be defined clearly as the transmission of ideas, information, thoughts, emotions or messages from one person or more to another or to a group through the use of words that are spoken or written, physical signals, chemical or through any other form of media. They include the sender, the encoding of a message and the transmission of the message, the receiver who decodes the message and interprets it. Why is Communication Important? Communication is indispensable in people’s interactions and can be considered vital for different spheres of people’s lives: intimate and professional contacts, learning and working processes, and other social contacts. Its importance can be understood through the following points: Its importance can be understood through the following points: Facilitates Understanding: Communication makes it possible for persons to transfer information, including information about plans, fears, and sentiments so that they can be understood. It enables people to teach, guide or inform everybody, thus avoiding misunderstandings in the process of doing so. Example: Sometimes a teacher will make it his or her duty to explain a certain topic to students in a simple manner to enhance their understanding of the matter at hand. Enables Collaboration: In all human relationships regardless of whether the relationships is formal or informal communication must be had. It enables everyone in a given team to be in harmony in their operations and ensure everyone has the right information that would help the team draw a certain achievement. Example: In cases of a project team, communication will always involve ensuring that all the members are informed on what their roles are and when the project needs to be completed to ease project delivery.? Builds Relationships: Communication can be described as the backbone of any relationship, whether with family or at the workplace. It assist in establishing a trusting, reconciling and harmonious environment, leading to people’s belief that they are wanted and accepted. Example: When a manager is able to effectively communicate with their employees this ushers in a friendly environment where the employees feel appreciated and recognized. Supports Decision-Making: we shall understand the importance of communication during the decision-making process, hence the information and perspectives for decision making. So the choice and decision making is easier when there is clear and concise communication. Example: During business meeting it is rational to take some time in order to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the new marketing strategy to take. Enhances Efficiency: Effective communication relieves misunderstandings and mistakes increasing work productivity on assignments and tasks. It lets everyone on the team be familiar with what you want them to do and how they should go about it. Example: Leisurely written mail with a clear instruction assists workers in doing work in the right manner and within the required time of completion. Promotes Innovation: Communication leads to the flow of ideas between individuals and as such fosters for creativity. When people speak to one another they can discuss ideas, share knowledge and suggestions and looks for practical solutions to issues. Example: This means that, in a creative team, having defined meeting where people come and present their ideas, with no regard of how silly they may seem can help to come up with outstanding innovations. Strengthens Leadership: It is clear therefore that communication as a major feature is an important aspect for effective leadership. By so doing, it creates a platform where they are able to motivate, encourage and even influence their sub ordinates towards the achievement of organizational objectives. People transactions relate to communication whereby leaders with good communication skills are able to pass their information appropriately. Example: A CEO who is able to ensure that employees receive regular information about the direction that the company is taking and the achievement of organizational goals, can easily synchronize the efforts of all the employees towards achieving those aims and objectives. Facilitates Conflict Resolution: Both the male and the female client need to talk to each other so that conflicts and misunderstanding can be solved. This means that through the first approach a party addresses the issues that may be ailing him or her and arrive at a point where they can agree to disagree. Example: An example in a workplace where the provision of speech to the parties involved in a conflict is that the mediator can bring the two parties to speak to each other enabling them come to a consensus on the issue in question. Drives Change: It is important that communication is done well during change because change may occur in organizations, communities or in ones life. This is true because it assists in spelling out the rationale for change, response to concerns, and ways of managing change. Example: In restructuring exercise, it is important for management to keep the employees informed so that they are not guessing the next course of action. Improves Public Relations: To the organizations, communication plays a crucial role especially when it comes to the image of the organization. It incorporates providing the proper information dissemination to the public, media and other stakeholders as well as handling of any issues that may arise. Example: Consumers and interested public can be informed because a company that has had to issue a recall on a product can continue defending its image and taking responsibility for a product recall. Real-World Examples of Communication Importance: Real-World Examples of Communication Importance: Business Communication: Scenario: A multi-national company is to open a new product into the international market. Importance: Communications need to be clear so that marketing in one country can effectively relay product details, market and time of launch to another marketing in another country. Lack of coordination in this area could result to confusion in the branding and marketing strategies for the product which could detrimental to the product. Healthcare Communication: Scenario: Their case involves the treatment of a complicated medical situation of a patient. Importance: This involves a good relationship between the doctors, nurses, members of the patient’s family and the patient themselves to ensure that they understand all the procedures that has to be done and those that have been done in the course of the treatment process. There could be miscommunication that can result to inadequate health care provision thus a poor health outcome. Educational Communication: Scenario: Currently, an online course is under implementation to the students from different backgrounds. Importance: The instructor is supposed to explain the content of the class and pass on information with a view of the proficiency level of students. In this case, communication means make available the teaching and learning processes and students’ performance in exams. Crisis Communication: Scenario: A calamity hits a community and they call all forms of response services. Importance: It is useful for the organization’s members to communicate to coordinate search and recovery operations and to spread information about safety procedures and the progress of the event. They include but not limited to panic, confusion and slow down of the entire rescue mission in hopes of establishing better communication with the trapped people. 7 C’s The Seven C’s are guidelines that assist when making and receiving communication to be purposeful, well understood, and effective. They signify knowledge that should be used in the communication process in general and in the workplace in particular. Completeness: Definition: In completeness, it is imperative that all information that is needed by the receiver of the message should be included in the message so as to enable the receiver get a clear understanding of the message and the necessary action to be taken. Example: In case a manager decides to e-mail his/her team about a new project, all the information relating to the plan should be provided including; the time-line, aims and objectives, responsibilities of the people involved and any other materials that may be required. Lack of information might result in misunderstanding or even arising of some problems, which affect work progress in a project. Conciseness: Definition: Brevity on the other hand means the ability of passing a message within the shortest time possible while at the same time passing the message as it is. It does not include irrelevant words and redundant information that appears in other sections of the same document. Example: Instead of this format: “Dear all, this email is to let you know that we are going to have a meeting tomorrow at 10 AM” a concise message will be, “10 AM Meeting Tomorrow.” Consideration: Definition: This includes perceiving as well as recognizing the emotions, feelings and needs of the receiver. This means making the message contemporary and appropriate as well as using the right words. Example: Another non-listening approach would be ‘Your report was unclear’, while a listening approach would be ‘I saw that at some areas in the report the information could be presented in a more clear manner’. Concreteness: Definition: Clarity of communication is another of four mechanics of communication and concerns the fact that the message sent and received is precise, unambiguous and clear as opposed to being vague or rather ambiguous. Example: The statement of a salesperson that his or her product has developed new features is ambiguous. A more specific would be to say, “Now, our product comes with a new faster processor as well as longer battery life that will last up to 12 hours. Clarity: Definition: Clarity is the requirement which means the message given should be clear and understandable without confusion. This may include the use of the simplest type of language and avoiding the use of technical terms as well. Example: A technical supporting staff may inform a customer, “Can you try restarting your gadget?” while a technical-sounding language may be used such as, “Can you power down your device?” Courtesy: Definition: Punctuality entails being proper in the manner you handle yourself especially when conducting business; this entails being courteous among other things. They contribute in creation of goodwill, and establishing good rapport in any sporting events. Example: This means that instead of a rejecting message, such as ‘This request cannot be approved,’ a polite message would be, ‘We have considered your request and while it is being appreciated we regret that it cannot be approved at the moment.’ Correctness: Definition: Accuracy concerns with the right and correct meaning of the message in regards to grammars, spellings, facts and figures. It also means that the mode of packaging also suits the message. Example: If the report contains a figure such as a company’s quarterly profitability it must be verified before being released. Communication cycle The communication cycle is a basic model which depicts how information flows and is created in different social situations, interpersonal communications, organizations or in mass media. It depicts the process through which a message has to go through from the sender to the receiver and the confirmation that the message is understood. Below is a detailed explanation of each stage in the communication cycle: Below is a detailed explanation of each stage in the communication cycle: 1. Sender Definition: The sender is the one who plans and executes the actual process of transmitting messages through decision making to convey information, message, ideas, thoughts or feeling to the receiver. Role: The sender has the responsibility of developing the message since they have to ensure that it is meaningful, comprehensible and suitable for the target market. Example: Supposing a project manager recognizes that it is regrettable that the project time has to be amended and then the project manager makes up his or her mind to inform the team. 2. Encoding Definition: Essentially, encoding entails transforming the sender’s message or idea into a form of communication, which can be in form of symbols, words, gestures or anything else, which will be understood by the intended receiver. Process: The sender is able to choose the right language, the right tone that is best suited and the right media to use in passing the given message. This depends on the encoder as he/she has to make a decision on how well he/she knows the decoder, the context of communication and the existing and accessible communication skills. Example: Then the project manager composes an email, the text of which is to contain concise arguments of why a specific date has been chosen, the new date suggested, and, possibly, other directions for performers. 3. Message Definition: The content is the intended information which the sender wishes to pass on to the receiver. It is this data that are sent to the receiver in a coded form. Components: Message can be verbal, this can include spoken or written words or non verbal, this may include body language, facial expressions, intonations in the voice. This involves the key message or message content which the sender wants to put across to the receiver. Example: In the email from the project manager there is information on the new deadline additional information explaining why the change was made and any further information for the team. 4 Channel Definition: The channel is the means that is used in transmitting the message from the sender to the receiver. The type of channel people use can determine the manner in which it is received and understood. Types of Channels: Channels can be oral where people communicate face to face, via phone, or in writing where the usage of emails, letters, reports is used or electronic where the use of social media, video conferencing is used. The decision of which particular communication channel to use is define by characteristics like the speed of transmitting the message, the content of the message and the nature of the relationship between the sender and the recipient. Example: The project manager decides to transmit the message through the organization’s email, a written media that ensures everyone on the team is informed at the same time and also have a copy to turn to when needed. 5. Receiver Definition: The target or the receiver is the person or the group to whom the message is delivered. The receiver on his/her part is supposed to understand the meaning of the message that has been passed. Role: Understanding is always done by the receiver and the understanding is bounded by the prior knowledge of the receiver which is subjected to his or her experience. Transmission takes place when the information gets in the hands of the receiver and the latter can fully comprehend what the former is trying to say. Example: The last link in this particular chains of communication are the receivers, which consist of the team members that is sent the mail. They view it for content related with the new changes in the project schedule and any new set of guidelines. 6. Decoding Definition: The decoding involves wherethe receiver interprets and makes meaning out of the message passed. It consists of decoding them into thoughts, ideas or feelings from the message sent by the sender. Factors Affecting Decoding: This stage is known to be sensitive to factors such as the receiver’s prior knowledge of the topic, his or her culture, language skills as well as emotional state. Example: The tiny team of this communication transaction deciphers the message by reading the email and making meaning of the information regarding the new due date. They know that indecent time has hit and they have to make shifts in their work schedules as planned for. 7. Feedback Definition: Feedback is the response from the receiver, which indicate whether the message has been received and understood in the same manner as it was sent. It validates the message by offering feedback to the sender of the message so that he or she can know whether the message was received as sent. Importance: Receiving a feedback enables the sender to assess the impact of the message he or she conveyed and changes it if need be. It may be either verbal tuned at the time of interaction such as in a conversation, or even written and toned much later. Example: A response following the reading of the email look something like this: ‘I have received the revised time schedule and shall make sure my contributions are submitted within the new set date.’ Such feedback gives the project manager the confidence that the mail was understood and appropriate action taken. 8 Noise Definition: Interference is any unwanted signal that complicate, interferes or hinders the orderly and efficient transmission of the message as well as its proper reception and understanding. Types of Noise: Physical Noise: Interference, which may include noise, that is any sound other than the one being transmitted or noise in the environment that interfers with the message. Psychological Noise: Intrinsic factors mainly encompass the things like attitude which the recipient holds before receiving the message, stress level and any emotional state that may influence the reception of the message. Semantic Noise: Due to the language differences some messages may be interpreted differently and some acronyms or technical terms may be used. Technical Noise: Interference with the communication channel like one party has a bad internet connection, the email system is not well functioning and the like. Example: For instance if one of the team members’ email systems are down or if the email reaches their spam folder they will not receive the change of the deadline for the project. This technical noise could cause misunderstanding and therefore lead to some form of hold up within the project. Conclusion As mentioned earlier, the communication cycle is a process that involves an interchange of information from one person to another whereby both the participants are equally involved in making sure that the transmission and comprehension of the message are proper. The proposed categories also can be valuable since studying each cycle stage will simplify the identification of possible barriers and the enhancement of the communication process. In understanding the cycle of interpersonal communication, it can be beneficial to apply such understanding in relationships, at the workplace or in mass communication so as to optimize outcomes of the exchange process. Levels of communication describes five major forms (LEVELS) of communication, all of which are absolutely invaluable in determining the way people and organizations transfer data and perform interpersonal communication. Here’s a detailed explanation of each type: Here’s a detailed explanation of each type: 1. Intrapersonal Communication Definition: Intrapersonal communication can therefore be described as communication that takes place within an individual or within the boundaries of one’s person. It entails thinking and reflection and the formulation as well as making of decisions. This type of communication occurred within an organization and is known as the process by which the person acquires information, evaluates in relation to a specific set of circumstances and come to a conclusion. Components: Self-Talk: The communication that a person holds with him or herself in his or her mind. Reflection: A specific activity involving the formation of ideas, concepts or thoughts and decisions in respect to a particular event, experience or choice. Decision-Making: The result of intra-personal communication, whereby a person makes a choice on a particular line of action. Importance: Good for self-identity and enables a person to recognize his or her feelings and thoughts. Helps in drawing decision and solving a problem by saving different opinions within the organization. Is involved in the process of the goal setting and planning. Example: Interpersonal Communication A student who is in a process of contemplating on his or her career path may have to undergo intrapersonal communication which involves self talking. 2. Interpersonal Communication Definition: Interpersonal communication is a method of exchanging information between two or more people in the classroom and in a face— to-face manner. Communication can be, for instance, verbal or spoken – casual or verbal communication or official such as a business meeting. Components: Verbal Communication: Verbal communication or messages that are conveyed flow of words that is spoken and or written between or among the two or more people. Non-Verbal Communication: The nonverbal cues that are incorporated with the spoken words even as the latter refers to the verbal communication. Active Listening: When one becomes fully aware of the content of a conversation and is able to actively listen, think about the information and even store it in his/her memory. Importance: Preserves and creates interpersonal relationships characterised by understandable interaction. Stimulates communication of facts and ideas and feelings between two people. Very useful in the management and handling of conflict and negotiations. Example: A job interview that involves the interviewer and the candidate where both parties ask questions and get each other’s responses plus feedback to the questions asked. 3. Group Communication Definition: Thus, group communication is a process which takes place among more than two people. It is in this setting that this type of communication regularly takes place, whether in meetings or group discussion, or cooperation project. Components: Group Dynamics: Interactions between people in a group. Collaboration: Several people joining hands to complete a particular task and thus involving collaborative efforts among people who are in the group. Leadership: The responsibility of monitoring discussions or tasks that are conducted within the group. Importance: As people often come up with different ideas in a situation, it promotes sharing of works, which leads to innovation. This is because it assists in gaining an agreement on the course or action to be taken by the members. Criticically important in project that involves multiple team players In projects which involve different individuals working together. Example: A formal forum in which the project team members gather together to review their work and find ways of addressing challenges encountered in the course of the project. 4 Public Communication Definition: Interpersonal communication happens when people or two or more are involved in exchanges of information, ideas or data. The common purpose is to educate in order to change or pass on the information to a certain audience. Components: Public Speaking: The art of formally communicating an idea or ideas to a group of people usually in a room filled with people usually following an invitation. Audience Engagement: Skills applied in the process of receiving and keeping the audience’s attention, namely, stories, questions, and graphics. Persuasion: The attempt to persuade the members of the audience to accept one’s views, using reasoning and appeal to emotions. Importance: Enables one to pass information to a large number of people within a short span of time. A critical player in shaping the public point of view and enlightening the public and paying attention to causes or products. Assists in creating the identity of the speaker as an authority figure, or a leader within the identified matter. Example: A CEO giving a speech at a conference, presenting on the strategy that the company is planning to follow and its goals and objectives to the community of investors, employees and others. 5. Mass Communication Definition: While broadcast communication is the dissemination of messages to a large diverse audience using media such as TV, newspaper or social media. It often requires the utilization of various means to impact a lot of people at a given period of time. Components: Media Channels: Media outlets which information could be posted including television, radio, newspapers and websites. Mass Media Content: The content that is delivered to the audience whether in the form of information or entertainment or the advertisements aired. Audience Targeting: The way of presenting information to predefined segments of the given audience. Importance: Critic Very important to reach mass audience in the shortest time possible. Affects the trends, attitudes, and approaches of the people in the society, and their culture. Has a great importance in the advertising, distribution of news and even entertainment. Example: A segment of a national news program that offers the audience across the nation with information about the occurrences of the day. Flow of communication In any form of organization, the communication channel is critical since it enables the passing of information and ideas with accurate results. Communication can occur in a number of forms relative to the structural layout of an organization, the type of communication, and the levels of interaction between the people involved. Since there are various types of flows of communication it does assist in the management and implementation of communication in an organization. 1. Downward Communication Definition: Communication which flows from higher level of the organization to the lower level of the organization channel is known as downward communication. It is often presented by directions/guidelines, rules/regulations, feedback/reports, resolutions and recommendations given from the management to employees. Characteristics: Directive Nature: This kind of communication is often one way where by the managers and supervisors pass information such as expectations, goals and tasks to the subordinate employees. Formal: Downward communication usually occurs in form of an announcement done through formal letters, E-mail, meetings or written documents. One-Way Communication: It tend to be a one way process of communication that disseminates information from top to the other lower levels and may not necessitate a response. Purpose: To provide guidance and instructions: Organizations also employ downward communication to provide instruction to the employees on how to accomplish their work, follow organizational policies and achieve organisational goals. To share decisions and policies: The above commutations flow is applied to convey to employees any new policy or change in procedures, company goals and objectives and other decisions made by the management. To give feedback: Managers give correction to employees that will enable them to do their work better and meet the standards of the company. Examples: Policy Changes: An organization implements new rules of working from home. In an email communication to all the employees, the HR department introduces remote working policies, guidelines and policies. Performance Reviews: A supervisor arranges a meeting with an employee to review the latter’s performance and what the employee did well, and where the employee adopted a negative approach. Advantages: Clarity of Expectations: Downward communication help in the clear dissemination of Information on organizational expectations, objectives and process from superiors to the subordinates. Control and Coordination: This ensures that all the workers in the business are direction towards the right way and their activities are coordinated to meet set goals and objectives of the business. Efficiency: By the use of intranet, it is possible for the management to inform all the concerned employees within a short span of time. Challenges: Risk of Information Overload: It could be that conveying too much information at one time might cause congestion on the employee’s brain thus the information being useless to him/her. Lack of Feedback: As downward communication tends to be defined by information broadcasting there may be few chances for the recipients of this information to give their feedback, ask questions or voice their concerns. Potential for Miscommunication: Among the potential issues, possibilities of deterioration of the messages conveyed at different hierarchical levels are possible. 2. Upward Communication Definition: Upward communication as the communication that is sent from the lower level of the organization towards the higher level. It entails forward of ideas, views, findings as well as matters of interest or concern by the subordinates to their immediate bosses or the senior officials. Characteristics: Employee-Initiated: Upward communication is usually a means by which employees transmit information to their superior, give feedback or come up with complaints. Formal and Informal: It can be in such an official presentation like reports, surveys and meetings as well as an informal data in terms of casual conversations or feedback sessions. Encourages Participation: This flow of communication promotes engaging the employees and getting their input in some decisions made. Purpose: To provide feedback and insights: Workers can express themselves in regard to working environment, problems and possibilities for improvement to the supervisors. To report on progress: Upward communication is the communication where employees inform their superiors on the progress that is being made on a task, project or operation. To offer suggestions for improvement: Sometimes it will involve coming up with solutions on HOW things could be done, or better still reporting any problems noted within the organization. Examples: Feedback on Workplace Conditions: Subordinates give information to their superior regarding an area of concern that is safety having been compromised in the workplace. The feedback gathered in the process is then communicated to the upper management for further action on it or for any follow-up action as deemed necessary. Progress Reports: An employee writes a memo message to the manager detailing the achievements of a particular assignment over the week, the problem encountered and possible remedies. Advantages: Empowerment and Engagement: Upward communication also brings out the needs of the employees by listening to them and also helps them feel important in the organization. Informed Decision-Making: It helps management to get useful information or feedback from the employees that would assist management in making the right decisions. Problem Identification: It aids in the establishment of problems on the lower level before they become difficult to handle by providing necessary information to the top management. Challenges: Reluctance to Share: Workers can be reluctant to report any irregularities or feedback because they expect to be punished or because they do not think that their opinions will be listen to. Information Filtering: This becomes very dangerous when information is passed through different levels since it may be filtered out, changed or even completely disregarded for reporting. Time-Consuming: Downward communication may take time to be implemented particularly if it has to pass through numerous chain of command to reach senior management. 3. Lateral Communication Definition: Another type of communication, namely lateral communication, also known as the horizontal one, takes place with employees working at the same organizational level. It is characterized by sharing of information, ideas and other resources done within and between individuals or departments. Characteristics: Peer-Level Communication: It is practiced between two employees who have equal organizational status and between two groups that likewise have similar statuses in the place of work. Collaborative: Lateral communication is usually worked in a cooperative nature since it aims at ensuring that different groups and departments are in harmony and that they share information in case there is any. Informal or Formal: It may happen within an organisation in both the planned and unplanned social interactions that include casual talking in groups and formal occasions such as interdepartmental meetings. Purpose: To facilitate coordination and teamwork: Lateral communication helps to solve problems that may emanate from different departments or teams in an organization by coordinating efforts towards solving a set goal. To share information and resources: It enables the exchange of information data, and experience as well as equipment and materials which are requisite for accomplishing a task or a set project. To resolve conflicts: Lateral communication proves useful in the case of conflict or miscommunication between departments or people in that it encourages discussion. Examples: Interdepartmental Project: They are both from different departments; for instance, a marketing head and a product development head are likely to have routine situ-ated meetings for a new product development project that involves co-ordination of both the marketing concepts and the product development. Knowledge Sharing: It brings together employee’s from many teams to share good practice as well as technical ability which enhances the efficiency of the service or product. Advantages: Promotes Collaboration: Lateral communication creates a culture of teamwork and consequently helps in the development of effective solution finding and decision-making processes. Increases Efficiency: Due to direct exchange of information and sharing of reference materials, lateral communication eliminates procedures and practices that were earlier repeated at different points or levels. Enhances Understanding: This is an advantage as it leads to improved relationship and cooperation between the different departments hence creating a healthy organizational culture. Challenges: Potential for Conflict: The conflict of interest means that when different departments set priorities or have different objectives and concerns, disputes might arise. Information Silos: A problem of a limited lateral communication means that information is compartmentalized based on which groups or departments communicate with other, thus lack of information flow throughout the organization. Lack of Accountability: At other occasions, lateral communication may breed confusion since there are not set norms of how accountability is managed and responsibilities may be blurred. 4. Diagonal Communication Definition: Indeed diagonal communication refers to communication that goes across department and across organizational hierarchy. This is the kind of communication that occurs between two people in an organisation who are not subordinates of each other. Characteristics: Cross-Functional: Cross functional communication also known as diagonal communication occur when a team or an employee from different departments has to work together on a certain task or project. Direct Communication: It enables the employees to speak to the concerned department of organizations, without having to worries about the permiter chain of command. Flexible and Adaptive: There is a preference of diagonal communication because it is faster in decision making and solution of problems. Purpose: To enhance cross-departmental collaboration: Diagonal communication is useful when two companies involved do not have close contact with each other either formally or informally so as to ensure they work together they need to form a certain mannerism that require diagonal communication. To improve efficiency and responsiveness: One of its advantages is that diagonal communication can result in quicker decisions than through the use of formal communication networks. To reduce hierarchical barriers: It plays the role to a certain extent of reducing status differences by providing the paradigm of free and open discussion. Examples: Cross-Departmental Issue Resolution: The sales department employee calls the head of finance and asks for help regarding a payment problem with a specific client in order to solve the problem, and without involving other personnel. Project Coordination: A project manager goes ahead and advises or makes a request directly to a specialist operating in a different department that is responsible for handling technical aspects that may be needed in a certain project in order to ensure that such a project runs without a hitch. Advantages: Improves Communication Efficiency: Diagonal communication minimizes the time and energy used in tackling disputes, or coming up with solutions since everyone can directly communicate with the concerned persons. Encourages Flexibility: It allows organizations to work more loosely coupled, and be well prepared for change or nimble at responding to a problem. Breaks Down Silos: Diagonal communication also assist in avoiding formation of departmental barriers, since people are encouraged to work together in solving issues. Challenges: Potential for Confusion: If not well handled, diagonal communication may arise issues or create confusion mainly because it may cut across certain set channels or authority. Undermining Authority: It may create conflicts or resentment in the organisation in case some departments feel that their power is being challenged through direct communications from other departments. Need for Clear Guidelines: To reduce likelihood of confusion, there is therefore a need for organizations to set out standards on when and how diagonal communication can be deployed. Communication Networks: Communication networks can therefore be defined as the systems or the channels by means of which information passes through in an organization. Such networks may be formalized or rather less formal; all of them have various functions and are different in many ways. By comprehending these networks it becomes easier to handle communication management within any given organization. 1. Formal Networks Definition: Formal networks are formal systems of connecting people since they are in existence to assist the organization. These networks are organized along the line of the hierarchy of the organization and are mostly used in disseminating official messages, instructions, policies and procedures. Characteristics: Structured: The formal networks are structured and are planned in accordance with the structure on the company’s organizational ladder. It is crucial to note that they work in a way that information goes round from one level to another. Official Channels: These networks include communication links that are formal and sanctioned by the organization, more so, email, reports, meetings and memos. Regulated: Business formal communication is characterized by the flow of communication through the organized structure to have official procedures and regulations in handling and passing on information. Types of Formal Networks: Chain Network: Information is processed and passes on in a sequential manner from one hierarchical level to the other. This is more prevalent where organization culture dictates that the correct communication channels should start with senior management and trickle down to the junior management then to other subordinates in the organization. Example: One day a CEO instructs the heads of departments to convey his message to everybody in their departments. Wheel Network: Everything is done with reference to a focal person such as a team leader or a manager. This person is the figure of reference and all the information have to go through him or her. Example: These roles rotate in a project team and the project manager acts as the central focal point receiving information from all the other members and distributing the same according to the required need. Circle Network: Communication takes place between workers of the same equal status in the organization’s hierarchy. This network enables the exchange of information between individuals within the network and not the, higher authorities. Example: Supervisors or managers of various departments when they are in a meeting to address the relations between departments. All-Channel Network: It is also referred to as ‘star’ network since it facilitates communication of its members who are in a group. There is an ability of each user to contact any other user directly. Example: A small scale, integrated work group where everyone is involved and everyone has access to all the information of the organization. Advantages: Clarity and Consistency: It is more organized because when information is passed through the formal networks it follows a set channel and is conducted formally as per the norms of the business organization. Accountability: Since formal network is a hierarchy, it becomes simple to trace the direction in which information is being passed and to whom in the case that evidence is needed. Efficient Decision-Making: Thus, by coming to a definite structure, the formal networks can allow decision making patterns, and see to it that they are implemented by the right level of authorization. Challenges: Rigidity: The officially structured collection of connected individuals is often bureaucratic and inefficient as the information need to go up and down the hierarchy. This can hamper on decision-making as well as the timeliness of responses. Information Distortion: Whenever information passes through the different levels of the organization, it is often changed or twisted in the process, resulting to misunderstandings or lack of comprehension of preceding messages. Limited Flexibility: On the same note, these structures do not permit rapid communication, often associated with free-form, activities, which may be counterproductive in hectic circumstances. Examples: Corporate Hierarchy: In a conventional organizational structure, information is passed from the topmost management beginning with the CEO to the middle and eventually to the lower level of management. Thus, each level has its explicit task of transferring and/or processing the received information. Official Reports and Memos: Formal networks require the use of reports, memos, and other official means of communication for the dissemination of information that is usually financial performance, change in policies, or strategic directions among other things. 2. Informal Networks Definition: Informal communications are those communication Networks that are not officially recognized or prescribed and they develop on their own within an organization. Also known as the ‘word of mouth’, these networks are developed out of camaraderity, fellowship, and passion of the employees. Characteristics: Unstructured: The informal networks do not have the purpose of the formal type, which is a directed hierarchy. Another important thing that defines it is the fact that communication happens on the random nature of social interactions. Unofficial: These networks are not part of the total structural communication networks of an organization and are therefore not controlled nor sanctioned. Flexible: Informal networks are more dynamic as they do not necessitate a large amount of time to be spent in order to develop and therefore can easily shift from one form to another and are very useful in conveying information. Types of Informal Networks: Single Strand: Members receive information one after the other in a linear fashion in a chain like structure. This may take time and the information transmitted may be altered in some form hence the receiver giving a different interpretation of the message. Example: An employee gets a text message from his friend that contains a rumor and forwards it to the next employee and the process continues. Gossip Chain: Normally just one person puts out a message and many people in the organization receive the information. Example: Through the grapevine is the case of an employee who hears of a promotion and brings this information to other employees at the workplace. Probability Chain: People post information to many others around them at a time resulting in more fragmented communication. Example: The current company changes are disclosed by an employee while taking lunch and the information goes round differently among the employees. Cluster Chain: Details are conveyed selectively in a limited number of people would decide to pass on the details to other people whom they interact with in society. Example: An organizational manager leaks information to a few selected employees and those few circulate the information among their friends and acquaintances. Advantages: Speed and Efficiency: As informal systems do not prescribe organizational hierarchies, it is easier for them to spread information than in the formal case. Employee Engagement: They assist in creation of fellowship, trust and a feeling of being associated with other employees resulting in high engagement levels and morale. Flexibility and Adaptability: The main advantage of the informal networks is that it can be rapidly modified depending on the new information and the situation appearing. Challenges: Rumors and Misinformation: The informal communication structure proves to be highly volatile since it has no set rules and can disseminate rumors, unconfirmed information and untruths thereby creating confusion and stress among the staffs. Lack of Control: Unfortunately, communication over the informal network is beyond the control of the management and this makes it hard to regulate the flow of information within and outside the organization and especially preventing the circulation of bad information. Potential for Conflict: Organizational informal structures may foster the formation of small ‘cliquish’ groups which may exclude other individuals thereby complicating matters in the organization or even lead to organizational conflict. Examples: The Grapevine: Discussions of possible changes within a company during lunch breaks or in coffee breaks, discussing some news or gossips which have not been made public. Social Media Groups: Some of the employees may create subgroups, pages, or groups in one or several of the social networks where they communicate about the working conditions, share information or spend time after working hours and fewer are in correspondence with the overall organizational communication policy. Water Cooler Conversations: These are limited informal discussions that may happen when workers are on the break or during a walk-to-work in the course of the working day. General and Technical Communication: Proposal for a Particular Topic/Subject/Thesis/ Research/ Book Analysis/ Case Analysis/ Policy Recommendation Communication can be broadly categorized into two types: general communication and technical communication and the general communication deals with interpersonal communication. Both are different and are employed at different occasions depending on a given piece of information, and the recipients. It is thus important to consider some of the differences between these two phrases in order to enhance the clarity and efficiency of the messages being transmitted in different aspects of an individual’s life. 1. General Communication Definition: General communication encompasses interactions that one has with another on a daily basis and they do not have to be in workplace setting. It is usually non structured and entails sharing of content, ideas, sentiments and perceptions on various issues. Common form of communication may be oral communication, written communication or even through nonverbal communication. Characteristics: Informal: Interpersonal is generally termed as communication which is characterized by formal, casual and daily, and common word of mouth chat. However, it can also be very, very formal as in using the emails for office use or while carrying out a business meeting. Broad Audience: In general communication the audience can be anybody or anyone starting from friends, relation, colleagues and even strangers. The content is generally much more inclusive, and it does not take much to understand what is being said by the presenter. Diverse Topics: The topics of general communication encompass the aspects of experience and opinion sharing, knowledge-sharing, and general concerns, and information flows. Flexible Structure: The structure of general communication differs from that of detailed communication in that it is more informal, and incorporates £tems based on the use of free speech. Purpose: To Build Relationships: Business and social interaction require general communication in order to foster and sustain working and social relationships. It assists people to set a relationship and even share experiences. To Exchange Information: It supports the sharing of routine information including messages, working plans, proposals and reports on the progress of work among others, but without the need of legal forms and software skills. To Entertain or Socialize: Most of day-to-day communication can be seen as recreational as people need ways of filling their time as well as means for social interaction. Examples: Casual Conversations: It means to say two friends who are sharing about their plans during the weekend over a cup of coffee. It is easy going, does not require discussion of complex information content and helps the users to socialize while exchanging information. Professional Emails: An employee writes an email to another employee with regards to the availability of the latter for a scheduled purpose. :Nevertheless, it has to be pointed out that the given email is general and takes place in a professional context as it provides general information that does not necessarily require professional expertise. Social Media Interaction: A friend shares information about a recent holiday which he has posted on a social networking site and others reply to him or her. This can be considered to be a form of general communication that takes place in a digital environment. Advantages: Ease of Understanding: General communication is normally not complicated because it is mainly in layman’s language and one does not need to have specialized training to understand it. Versatility: It can be applied in every day life, as well as organizational and business life which makes it very applicable. Builds Connections: In a way, social media is useful in establishing and enhancing interpersonal connections especially through the channel of proper communication. Challenges: Lack of Precision: One type of communication can sometimes be vague and this may cause confusion sometimes which may even be professionally embarrassing. Informality: However, general communication being rather more informal may not be effective for some professional or formal settings. Limited Depth: General communication may not be effective to be used when delivering information that may need elaborate explanation or one that may require technical content. 2. Technical Communication Definition: Technical communication is the practice of developing, organizing and distributing technical information in a particular subject matter domain. It is used to present the information needed in an efficient and comprehensible way to readers, as a rule targeted readers who need elaborate information on specific topic. Characteristics: Specialized Content: Technical communication addresses specific matter which may not easily be understood by the general population. This embrace courses in areas such as engineering, sciences, technologies, health, and laws and many more. Formal and Structured: Technical communication usually has a business-like approach, it is usually well-structured, it includes various sections such as heading, subheading and it presents information in a standardized manner. Audience-Specific: Technical communication usually has a well-defined target audience, which may include professionals, technicians and anyone who in need of specialized information on a certain issue. Objective and Factual: Technical communication can be said to be more neutral with a conscious effort made to support the information that is communicated with facts. It doesn’t have a tendency to confuse the reader and has accurate language and vocabulary. Purpose: To Inform and Educate: If one had to encapsulate the primary goal of technical communication then one would have to say that it is to educate or enlighten the audience regarding issues that are technical or technical in nature. Nevertheless, it captures communications, work flows, structures, practices, and tools in the usable and actionable format. To Document and Record: Technical communication is then employed in creating documents that are vital in an organization; these include technical writing such as technical specifications, user manuals, standard operating procedures and research results. To Facilitate Decision-Making: This has a positive implication in helping technical decisions to be well informed through valuable information through effective technical communication in technical fields such as engineering design, medical treatment, as well as software development. Examples: User Manuals: A software developer creates an instruction for a new release of software, explaining how to download the software, how to operate through it and what steps to take when problems are encountered. The format of the manual is well arranged and it provides guidance in form of the steps that are involved in undertaking certain tasks. Technical Reports: An engineer writes a technical report outlining structural analysis of a newly designed bridge project. In addition to the recommendations, the report also has key calculations, diagrams and data which are essential in the consideration and execution of the project. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): An example of a manufacturing procedure is that a manufacturing firm has standard operating procedures as to how each machine in a manufacturing plant is to be run. These documents offer precise guidelines on how the equipment is to be run without putting the user and others in harm’s way this makes them standard. Advantages: Precision and Clarity: Technical communication is free from vagueness and therefore the recipient of such a communication can easily comprehend the meaning and intent of the message passed across. Standardization: This is usually composed of some procedures and regulations which may this make it to have more credibility and reliability in delivering technical information. Enhances Efficiency: Technical communication is thus helpful in ensuring that there is enhanced efficiency, reduction in the number of mistakes and that procedures are undertaken in the right manner. Challenges: Complexity: This kind of writing possesses features that are technical in nature, and therefore such writing may not be easily understandable to persons who are not conversant with technical writing. Time-Consuming: It is really tiresome to develop technical communication materials, given the fact that it entails an extensive analysis of the subject in question, the use of appropriate language, and referencing and formatting that must meet certain prescribed standards. Risk of Misinterpretation: Since technical communication is highly formal, it can be easily misinterpreted, as a result of poor writing, hence leading to errors or misunderstanding especially where such communication is of utmost importance for instance engineering/medical fields.