FSN 321 Food Processing Notes PDF

STATUS OF FOOD PROCESSING IN INDIA ---------------------------------- a. **[Distinctive features of commodities covered under food processing, perishable and non-perishable processing, Primary, secondary and tertiary processing]** **Food processing definition**- the set of methods and tec...

STATUS OF FOOD PROCESSING IN INDIA ---------------------------------- a. **[Distinctive features of commodities covered under food processing, perishable and non-perishable processing, Primary, secondary and tertiary processing]** **Food processing definition**- the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or animals either in the home or by the food processing industry **What are processed foods?** Foods that are subjected to technological modifications either for preservation or for converting into ready-to-use/eat foods, eliminating laborious household procedures, are called "processed foods". Some of the examples are ready mixes, dehydrated foods, pasta products, canned foods, confectioneries, bakery, dairy products and breakfast foods. Manufacture of processed foods requires technology and machinery and as a result, processed foods are expensive. Manufacture of processed foods is on the increase in the unorganized, small-scale and cottage-industry sectors and these products may not always be in conformity with food standards**. While using processed foods following should be kept in mind:** - Prefer traditional, homemade foods. - Avoid processed snack foods at meal times. - Limit consumption of sugar and processed foods which provide only (empty) calories. - Prefer fortified processed foods. - Limit intake of processed foods to decrease load of food additives on the body. - Always look for information on the food label (given on containers) regarding shelf-life and the additives used. **Industrially Processed and ready-to-eat foods:** - Urbanization has increased the intake and demand for processed foods. - There is a trend towards replacing traditionally cooked foods with processed foods. - Processed foods contain a variety of food additives. - Processed foods may not be nutritionally balanced unless fortified. - Sugar, processed food, provides empty calories. **Reasons for food processing** **To conserve food:** Perishable food are something liable to perish, decay or spoil rapidly such as\ fresh meat, poultry, seafood, milk, aromatics, herbs and ripe fruits while **non-perishable** are items that do not spoil or decay example of it are grains, canned goods, all pasta types, sugar, flour (and chips if air-sealed), spices are non perishable as well. [Processing of perishables:]The primary aim in processing perishables is to increase their shelf life or to preserve. **To make foods convenient to use:** There is a great demand nowadays for "instant", "heat and serve" and "ready-to-cook" convenient foods. These foods make up about 60 per cent of the food that Americans buy. Such foods result in saving considerable amounts of time and effort in food preparation at home, restaurants, etc. The **convenience** food revolution would not have been possible without food processing. With the convenience needs of dual income families, 200 million more consumers are expected to move to processed food by 2020. With rapid **increase in the per capita income** and purchasing power along with increased urbanization, improved standards of living, there lies a large untapped opportunity to cater to 1000 million domestic consumers. It is estimated that 300 million upper and middle class consume processed food. **Advantages of food processing** 1. Foods are preserved so that they can be kept edible for longer. 2. Preservation reduces wastage and hence cost. 3. It enables people in affluent communities to eat their favourite foods all the year round. 4. It enables us to benefit from economies of scale by growing large quantities of a food on large areas of suitable land. Preservation helps to feed the growing world population. Economic benefits: The share of the value added products in processed foods would almost double from US \$44 billion currently to US \$88 billion during the same period, growing at the rate of 15%. This presents enormous opportunities for investment in processed food sector. [Components of the food industry (commodities covered under food processing)] ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The food industry may be divided into segments or components, in various ways. One of the simplest is a **[functional division]** into the four major segments of raw material production, manufacture, distribution and marketing. 1. ***Raw material*** production encompasses the technologies of farming, orchard management, fishing and so on, including the selection of plant and animal varieties, cultivation and growth, harvest and slaughter and the storage and handling of the raw materials. 2. ***Manufacturing*** converts the raw agricultural products into more refined or finished foods. Manufacturing includes the numerous unit operations and processes that many consider to be the core of food technology. 3. ***Distribution*** is involved in product attributes conducive to product sales. 4. ***Marketing*** is the selling of foods in commerce and involves wholesale, retail, institutions and restaurants. This overall division is artificial and the segments flow into one another. The food industry is so geared that there is a highly planned organization and rhythm to the functions of the segments. In a well-developed food industry, this involves planning and scheduling of all phases to eliminate or at least minimize both shortages and surpluses among farmer, manufacturer and distributor. Thus, it includes distribution facilities and even the outlets for sale of their manufactured products to ensure smooth operations and high profits. In recent years, for example, many food manufactures have opened national restaurant chains. Distinctive features of processed foods: ---------------------------------------- 1. ***Safe:*** Processing or preparation makes foods safe to eat by destroying or retarding the growth of pathogenic micro-organisms (such as salmonella, clostridia or fungi) or inactivating natural toxins (such as trypsin inhibitors and goitrogens). 2. ***Improved attractiveness:*** Processing or preparation improves the attractiveness of food, its flavour and its appearance. This is not a frivolous function. Poorly prepared food is often the chief complaint of patients in hospitals and nursing homes. 3. ***Convenience:*** Processing also provides convenience. Earlier most urban Indian women spent their lives working for hours each day in the kitchen. Modern convenience foods have liberated women. Much of the work that used to be done by hand is now done by machines, some controlled by computer, in the food processing plant or factory. 4. ***Economy***: Large scale manufacturing of processed foods makes them more economical. Economy of operations and the fact that raw material is sourced from their native locations and some times processed there itself makes processed foods more economical e.g. factory produced bread costs considerably less than home made bread. 5. ***Long shelf life:*** Processed foods have a longer shelf life than their unprocessed counterparts. e.g. Tetra packed fruit juices. 6. ***Variety:*** Most processing food industries have a strong R&D component. This has resulted in not only improvement in the quality of processed foods but also has resulted in a variety of foods. **Distinctive features of commodities covered under food processing:** Both perishable and non-perishable commodities are subjected to processing. Nature and extent of processing may result in primary or secondary processing and these are described in subsequent paragraphs. Various stages in food processing --------------------------------- **Primary and secondary processing:** Primary processing results in a product after a little onsite (on farm or local) processing such as threshing or husking grain or at the most milling the grain. While secondary processing is more intensive treatments to render the product with qualities that appeals the consumer and increase its marketability such as converting grains into snack foods. Following figure shows the relationship between primary and secondary processing (farm-to-fork): ***Farm -- to Fork*** +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ | Field | Farming | Primary | Manufac | Wholesa | Retail/ | Table | | | | Process | turing | le | food | | | | | ing | | | service | | | | | | (Second | | | | | | | | ary | | | | | | | | process | | | | | | | | ing) | | | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ The three-**sector** model in economics divides economies into three **sectors** of activity: extraction of raw materials (**primary**), manufacturing (**secondary**), and services (**tertiary**). It was developed by Allan Fisher, Colin Clark and Jean Fourastié. **[Perishable and non perishable processing:]** **Perishable** food are something liable to perish, decay or spoil rapidly such as\ fresh meat, poultry, seafood, milk, aromatics, herbs and ripe fruits while **non-perishable** are items that do not spoil or decay example of it are grains, canned goods, all pasta types, sugar, flour (and chips if air-sealed), spices are non perishable as well. [Processing of perishables:] The primary aim in processing perishables is to increase their shelf life or to preserve. Fresh Storage: Means that are commonly used in the storage of fresh produce include refrigeration to minimize growth of microorganisms and reduce enzyme activity; packaging or storage to control respiration rate and ripening; and use of preservatives to kill microorganisms. Surface Disinfection: Chemical disinfectant agents are used to decontaminate the surface of fruits and vegetables in addition to washing with water. The agents may include, chlorine, chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, trisodium phosphate, ozon e, and organic acids. Drying: **Dehydration of foods** is the oldest method of preserving food. It is the process of removing water from food by circulating hot air through it or other means, which prohibits the growth of enzymes and bacteria. **Canning:** Canning can be a safe and economical way to preserve quality food. Canning practices remove oxygen; destroy enzymes; kill and prevent the growth of undesirable bacteria, yeasts, and molds; and help form a high vacuum in cans. Freezing: **Freezing** is a quick and convenient way to preserve fruits and vegetables. It does not sterilize foods or destroy the organisms that cause spoilage; the extreme cold slows the growth of microorganisms and the chemical changes that affect quality or cause spoilage. Food Irradiation: **Food Irradiation** utilizes a source of ionizing energy that passes through food to destroy harmful bacteria and other organisms. It is often referred to as \"cold pasteurization\" as it does not substantially raise the temperature of the food during processing. Jelly & Preserve: **Jellies and preserves** are gelled or thickened fruit products with a low pH, cooked and preserved with sugars. Products include fruit butters, jellies, preserves, jams and similar products. Pickling & Fermentation: **Pickled or Fermented** products cure for several weeks. Curing changes the color, flavor, and texture of the product. Lactic acid produced during fermentation helps preserve the product. **[Processing of non perishables]:** Unlike the methods stated above processing of non- perishables is not used to preserve foods but to impart certain quality traits that makes the food commodities more acceptable. ***Separation methods:*** Milling and oil extraction are included under separation methods [Milling:] milling produces several fractions of cereal flours- whole meal (atta), refined flour (maida), semolina (rava/soji); milled grains (brown rice, white rice). [Wet milling] is employed to obtain cereal starches. These starches are the basic material to produce corn syrups which in turn are used in confectionery industry. [Oil extraction:] Pressing of oils or solvent extraction produces oil from oil seeds. Defatted oilseed meals are a by product which in turn is used to make Protein concentrates and isolates and texturised vegetable proteins (TVP) ***Non- separation methods:*** [Malting:] Process of malting provides the malt extracts and syrup used in brewing and confectionery industry. [Flaking:] Process of flaking produces different types of cereal flakes such as rice flakes, oat flakes, maize and corn flakes. [Parched grains]: Produces different types of products puffed, popped grains. [Snack foods, Baked foods, Confectionery and Extruded products]: These products have potential to increase value added compared to unprocessed foods. **Types of value addition** In its simplest form, value-added agriculture is a process of increasing the economic value and consumer appeal of an agricultural product. It allows farmers to benefit by being part of a specialized\" supply chain and affords them the chance to receive a larger share of the consumers\' rupee. Usually producer-driven, there is room for both small- and large-scale development within value-added agriculture. **Value addition** has also been **defined** as -- The additions of time, place, and/or form utility to a commodity in order to meet the preferences or tastes of the consumer. The true test of value added is achieved when the after tax return on invested capital used to generate time, place, and / or form utility exceeds the overall cost of capital". Value-added food products are raw or pre-processed commodities whose value has been increased through the addition of ingredients or processes that make them more attractive to the buyer and/or more readily usable by the consumer. It is a production/marketing strategy driven by customer needs and perceptions. **Primary Sector ** \(i) It is known as agriculture and allied services sector. \(ii) This sector produces goods and services by exploiting natural resources. \(iii) This sector is unorganised and use traditional techniques. \(iv) Activities related to agriculture, forestry fishing, mining and animal husbandary are included in this sector. \(v) This sector continues to be the largest employer in most of the developing nations like that of lndia. **Secondary Sector ** \(i) It is known as manufacturing sector. (ii) This sector transforms one good into another by creating more utility from it. \(iii) it is organised sector and use better techniques. \(iv) It includes manufacturing units, small scale units, large firms, big corporates and multinational corporations. \(v) This sector has failed to provide employment to the surplus workers of primary sector. ** Tertiary sector** \(i) it is known as service sector. \(ii) This sector provides useful services to primary and secondary sectors for optimizedfunctioning of their working. \(iii) it is organised sector and use better techniques. \(iv) Services related to banking, insurance, trade and communication come in this sector.  \(v) This sector's sharing in the employment is increasing **Types of value addition** Post-harvest value addition includes primary and secondary processing, operations performed on farm produce. Primary processing refers to on-farm handling, cleaning, trimming, sorting, grading, cooling and packaging. Secondary processing includes processes which modify the form of the product i.e. convert raw product to a processed products. Processed products offer cent percent edible product, are convenient, and have improved eating quality. Jams, jellies, marmalades, sauces, ketchups, cordials, juices, nectars, pickles, candies, preserves, canned, frozen, dried, and fermented products are examples of secondary processed products. **Distinctive features of commodities covered under food processing** Type of Value addition ---------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Commodity Primary Secondary Dairy Liquid milk Whole milk powder, skimmed milk powder, condensed milk, ice cream, butter, ghee, cheese Fruit and vegetables Fresh fruit and vegetables Beverages, juices, concentrates, pulps, slices, frozen and dehydrated products, potato wafers/chips etc. Grains and cereals Flour, milled grains, semolina, parched and puffed cereals. Baked products, starch, glucose, cornflakes, malted foods, vermicelli, beer and malt extracts, grain based alcohol. Legumes Dhal, whole legumes, flour, roasted grams Papad, savoury and sweet snacks, Oilseeds Oilseeds roasted and raw Oils, oilseed flour products Nuts Raw Ready -- to --eat foods Fisheries Fresh fish Frozen, canned, pickled. Meat and poultry Fresh Frozen, canned, Egg powder Sugar cane Sugar, cane juice Candies, confectionery, mithais. Consumer foods Snack foods, namkeens, biscuits, ready-to-eat food, alcoholic and non -- alcoholic beverages **Processing of food has advantages and disadvantages both. We know** that it results into desirable changes like enhancement of flavours, improvement of texture, and increase in shelf life etc. However, it may lead to some undesirable changes too. These include changes in colour, flavour, nutritional properties and development of toxicity. **Freezing, Drying, Cooking, and Reheating** Nearly every food preparation process reduces the amount of nutrients in food. In particular, processes that expose foods to high levels of **heat, light, and/or oxygen** cause the greatest nutrient loss. Nutrients can also be **\"washed out\"** of foods by fluids that are introduced during a cooking process. For example, boiling a potato can cause much of the potato\'s B and C vitamins to migrate to the boiling water. You\'ll still benefit from those nutrients if you consume the liquid (i.e. if the potato and water are being turned into potato soup), but not if you throw away the liquid. Similar losses also occur when you broil, roast, or fry in oil, and then drain off the drippings. **Consuming raw foods** The amount of nutrient loss caused by cooking has encouraged some health-conscious consumers to eat more raw foods. In general, this is a positive step. However, cooking is also beneficial, because it **kills potentially harmful microorganisms** that are present in the food supply. In particular, poultry and ground meats (e.g. hamburger) should always be thoroughly cooked, and the surface of all fruits and vegetables should be carefully washed before eating. **Grilling meats** Outdoor grilling is a popular cooking method, primarily because of the wonderful taste it imparts on meats. It can also be a healthy alternative to other cooking methods, because some of the meat\'s saturated fat content is reduced by the grilling process. However, grilling also presents a health risk. Two separate types of carcinogenic compounds are produced by high-temperature grilling: **Heterocyclic Amines (HCAs)** HCAs form when a meat is directly exposed to a flame or very high-temperature surface. The creatine-rich meat juices react with the heat to form various HCAs, including amino-imidazo-quinolines, amino-imidazo-quinoxalines, amino-imidazo-pyridines, and aminocarbolines. HCAs have been shown to cause DNA mutation, and may be a factor in the development of certain cancers. **Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)** PAHs form in smoke that\'s produced when fat from the meat ignites or drips on the hot coals of the grill. Various PAHs present in the resulting smoke, including benzo\[a\]pyrene and dibenzo\[a,h\]anthracene, adhere to the outside surface of the grilled meat. PAH exposure is also believed to be linked to certain cancers. **Effect of Food Processing on Vitamins and Minerals** The freshness, appearance, and nutritive value of foods changes when they are stored for long time. People in food industry work for procedures which make the foods retain their nutritive value even after a long time. The conversion of raw food materials into the acceptable food product by a variety of means is referred to as food processing. The techniques followed include, dehydration, freezing, heating at high temperatures, exposure to radiation (i.e. irradiation), fermentation, chemical preservation etc. **Effect of processing on Vitamins and minerals** Processing (including preparation) makes food healthier, safer, tastier and more shelf-stable. While the benefits are numerous, processing can also be detrimental, affecting the nutritional quality of foods. **Benefits** - Soaking, heating and fermentation can reduce or eliminate most of the toxic factors of the pulses. - Fermentation, **Fermentation: the processing of food pulses by fermentation increases their digestibility, palatability and nutritive value.** - Germination (sprouting), **Germination: germination improves the nutritive value of pulses.** - Thermal processing. Cooking also contributes to better digestibility. Correct application of heat in cooking legumes can eliminate most toxic factors without impairment of nutritional value. Heat causes denaturation of trypsin inhibitors, haemagglutinin and the enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of cyanogenic glycosides. The mode of application of heat is important. **Harmful effects** Processing of food and also cooking is an essential first step to ensure safe and digestible food. However, it is important to know how much nutrient loss occurs due to cooking and processing. *Vitamins:* - Thermal processing: Vitamins, especially ascorbic acid, thiamin and folic acid, are highly sensitive to the some processing methods. The time and temperature of processing, product composition and storage are all factors that substantially lowers the vitamin status of our foods. More destruction of water soluble vitamins occurs. - Milling and extrusion can cause the physical removal of vitamins during processing. E.g. milling of rice - Leaching: Vitamin losses during leaching can be minimized by use of a minimum amount of water and use if the cooking water in preparation of the food for consumption. A common practice of throwing away the water in which foods such as , such as in gravies, soups, and sauces. Losses in manganese, iron, copper, phosphorus, zinc, calcium, and manganese during the cooking of pasta may be as great as 86.5 -- 100 %. Blanching, for example, results in leaching losses. *Minerals:* The nutritional quality of minerals in food depends on their quantity as well as their bioavailability. Concentrations of these constituents are altered by various processing methods including - Leaching: Mineral losses during leaching can be minimized by use of a minimum amount of water and use if the cooking water in preparation of the food for consumption, such as in gravies, soups, and sauces. Losses in manganese, iron, copper, phosphorus, zinc, calcium, and manganese during the cooking of pasta may be as great as 86.5 -- 100 %. Blanching, for example, results in leaching losses. - Use of hard water for processing and cooking can result in an increase in the calcium or magnesium content of foods, while use of softened water can result in an increase in the sodium content. - Mineral losses may also occur as a result of physical separation from the product during milling of grains, refining of sugar, and processing of legumes or seeds into oils. For example, significant losses of magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, and cobalt have been reported during milling of wheat to flour. - However, nutrients can be added back to foods by restoration or fortification. - Grain milling has positive nutritive benefits, as well. Phytate and fiber, which are present in the bran portion of the grain, are removed during this process, and they are no longer able to bind to minerals and render them unavailable. - Minerals are also susceptible to changes in bioavailability due to interactions with other food components. For, examples, oxalates may inhibit calcium bioavailability; while vitamin C enhances iron bioavailability.  b. **[STATUS OF FOOD PROCESSING IN INDIA]** Food processing is a way or technique implemented to convert raw food stuff into well-cooked and well preserved eatables for both the humans and the animals. All these methods are used by food processing industry to give out processed or preserved foods for our daily consumption. Best quality harvested, slaughtered and butchered and clean constituents are used by food processing industry to manufacture very nutritious and easy to cook food products. **HISTORY OF INDIAN FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY:** Earlier the industrial food products catered to the breakfast / snack segment rather than the main course. - Breakfast or snack: Bread butter, cheese, jam, tea, coffee, biscuits, health drinks, noodles. - Cold beverages: Squashes, syrups, canned and tetra pack, fruit juices, soft drinks and carbonated beverages. - Indulgences: Chocolates, candy, yoghurt, ice cream etc. Of these biscuits boasted of a 75% penetration in top 12 towns and were the cheapest available snack in rural areas, bread was received with a modest 50 per cent acceptance as an alternative for breakfasts and snacks, while health drinks, both brown and white and baby foods fulfilled the basic used in nutrition as milk was not available in plenty. **FOOD PROCESSING SECTOR -- AN INDIAN SCENARIO** ***STATUS OF FOOD PROCESSING:*** - The Indian food and **grocery market are the world's sixth largest**, with retail contributing 70 per cent of the sales. The Indian food processing industry accounts for 32 per cent of the country's total food market, one of the largest industries in India and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption, export and expected growth. It contributes around 8.80 and **8.39 per cent of Gross Value Added (GVA) in Manufacturing and Agriculture** respectively, 13 per cent of India's exports and six per cent of total industrial investment. The Indian gourmet food market is currently valued at US\$ 1.3 billion and is growing at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 20 per cent. India\'s organic food market is expected to increase by three times by 2020. - The online food ordering business in India is in its nascent stage, but witnessing exponential growth. With online food delivery players like Food Panda, Zomato, TinyOwl and Swiggy etc building scale through partnerships, the Organised food business has a huge potential and a promising future. The online food delivery industry grew at 150 per cent year-on-year with an estimated Gross Merchandise Value (GMV) of US\$ 300 million in 2016. - The staple foods are the untapped market and is making in roads - The size of global processed food industry is estimated to be valued around US \$3.6 trillion and accounts for three-fourth of the global food sales. Despite its large size, only 6% of processed foods are traded across borders compared to 16% of major bulk agricultural commodities. India is one of the major food producers in the world. The food sectors contribute 28% of India's GDP In terms of world rank India stands 1^st^ in production of cereals, milk and livestock population Second in producing fruits and vegetables Rank amongst the five in production of wheat, groundnut, rice, coffee, tea, tobacco, spices, sugar and oilseeds \- According to the Ministry of food processing industries the structure of Indian food processing Industry is - - Organised -- 25% - Unorganised -- 42% - Small scale industries -- 33% ***INDUSTRY SUB-SEGMENTS (COMMODITIES)*** The food processing sector is highly fragmented industry, it widely comprises of the following sub-segments: fruits and vegetables, milk and milk products, beer and alcoholic beverages, meat and poultry, marine products, grain processing, packaged or convenience food and packaged drinks. A huge number of entrepreneurs in this industry are small in terms of their production and operations, and are largely concentrated in the unorganized segment. This segment accounts for more than 70% of the output in terms of volume and 50% in terms of value. Though the organized sector seems comparatively small, it is growing at a much faster pace. FAIDA: Food and Agril, intergrated Development Action (McKinsy &co.) **Food Processing Units in Organized Sector (Numbers)** Flour mills 820 -------------------------------------- --------------------------- Fish processing units 568 (mostly cold storage) Fruit and vegetable processing units 5300 Meat processing units 171 Sweetened and aerated water units 656 Milk products unit 266 Sugar mills 429 Solvent extract units 725 Rice mills 91000 Modernized rice mills 43000 Mechanized pulse mills 11000 **Fruits & Vegetables** The installed capacity of fruits and vegetables processing industry has doubled from 1.1 mn tonnes in January 1993 to 2.1 mn tonnes in 2006. Presently, the ***processing of fruits and vegetables is estimated to be around 2.2%*** of the total production in the country. The major processed items in this segment are fruit pulps and juices, fruit based ready-to-serve beverages, canned fruits and vegetables, jams, squashes, pickles, chutneys and dehydrated vegetables. The new arrivals in this segment are vegetable curries in retortable pouches, canned mushroom and mushroom products, dried fruits and vegetables and fruit juice concentrates. **Milk and Milk Products** India's dairy industry is considered as one of the most successful development industry in the post-Independence era. In 2005-06 total milk productions in the country was over 90 million tonnes with a per capita availability of 229 gms per day. During 1993-2005, the dairy industry recorded an annual growth of 4%, which is almost 3 times the average growth rate of the dairy industry in the world. ***The total milk processing in India is around 35%, of which the organized dairy industry accounts for 13% while remaining is either consumed at farm level, or sold as fresh, non-pasteurized milk through unorganized channels***. In an organized dairy industry, dairy cooperatives account for the major share of processed liquid milk marketed in India. Milk is processed and marketed by 170 Milk Producers' Cooperative Unions, which federate into 15 State Cooperative Milk Marketing Federations. Over the years, several brands have been created by cooperatives like Amul (GCMMF), Vijaya (AP), Verka (Punjab), Saras (Rajasthan). Nandini (Karnataka), Milma (Kerala) and Gokul (Kolhapur). The milk surplus states in India are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. **Meat & Poultry** Since 1995, production of meat and its products has been significantly growing at a rate of 4% per annum. Presently the processing level of ***buffalo meat is estimated at 21%, poultry is estimated at 6% while marine products are estimated at 8%. But only about 1% of the total meat is converted into value added products like sausages, ham, bacon, kababs, meatballs, etc.*** **Marine Products** India is the largest fish producing country in the world it is the third largest fish producer in the world while ranks second in inland fish production. Processing of marine produce into canned and frozen forms is carried out fully for the export market. **Processing of grain (cereals)** includes milling of wheat, rice and pulses. In 1999-00, there were more than ***91,000 rice hullers*** and 2,60,000 small flourmills which were engaged in primary milling. There are 43,000 modernized rice mills and huller-cum-shellers. Around ***820 large flourmills*** in the country convert about 10.5 mn tonnes of wheat into wheat products. Also there are ***10,000 pulse mills*** milling about 75% of pulse production of 14 mn tonnes in the country. ***Primary milling of grains is the considered to be the important activity in the grain-processing segment of the industry.*** Indian Basmati rice has gained international recognition, and is a premium export product. Branded grains as well as grain processing is now gaining popularity due to hygienic packaging. **Dal milling** is the third largest in the grain processing industry, and have about 11,000 mechanised mills in the organised segment. **Oilseed processing** is another major segment, an activity largely concentrated in the cottage industry. According to estimates, there are approximately ***2.5 lakh ghanis and kolus*** which are animal operated oil expellers, 50,000 mechanical oil expellers, 15,500 oil mills, 725 solvent extraction plants, ***300 oil refineries*** and over ***175 hydrogenated vegetable oil plants***. **Consumer Foods** This segment comprises of packaged foods, aerated soft drinks, packaged drinking water and alcoholic beverages. **Packaged / Convenience Foods** Consumer food industry mainly consists of ready-to-eat and ready-to-cook products, salted snacks, chips, pasta products, cocoa based products, bakery products, biscuits, soft drinks, etc. There are around ***60,000 bakeries***, several pasta food units and ***20,000 traditional food units*** and in India. Products of bakery include bread, biscuits, pastries, cakes, buns, rusk etc. This activity is mostly concentrated in the unorganized sector. ***Bread and biscuits constitute the largest segment of consumer foods with an annual production of around 4.00 million tonnes.*** **Other processed products include** Cocoa Products Cocoa products like chocolates, drinking chocolate, cocoa butter substitutes, cocoa based malted milk foods, soft drinks. After packed tea and packed biscuits the soft drink segment is considered to be the 3rd largest in the packaged foods industry in India. Over 100 plants are engaged in aerated soft drinks industry and provide huge employment. **LIMITATIONS OF INDIAN FOOD PROCESSING SECTOR** - Some of the key constraints identified by the food processing industry include: - Poor infrastructure in terms of cold storage, warehousing, etc - Inadequate quality control and testing infrastructure - Inefficient supply chain and involvement of middlemen - High transportation and inventory carrying cost - Affordability, cultural and regional preference of fresh food - High taxation - High packaging cost There is a great potential for improvement**-** Ministry of food processing in its Vision 2015 document has estimated the size of processed food sector to treble, processing level of perishable to increase from 6% to 20%, value addition to increase from 20 % to 35% and India's share in global food trade to increase from 1.5 % to 3%. There is huge potential for both investors and exporters. With rapid increase in the per capita income and purchasing power along with increased urbanization, improved standards of living, there lies a large untapped opportunity to cater to 1000 million domestic consumers. It is estimated that 300 million upper and middle class consume processed food. With the convenience needs of dual income families, 200 million more consumers are expected to move to processed food. The market size for the processed foods is thus bound to increase from US \$40 billion currently to US \$330 billion assuming a growth of 10%.. This presents enormous opportunities for investment in processed food sector. **MAJOR INITIATIVES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA TO IMPROVE THE FOOD PROCESSING SECTOR IN INDIA:** Ministry of food processing in its Vision 2015 document has estimated the size of processed food sector to treble, processing level of perishable to increase from 6% to 20%, value addition to increase from 20 % to 35% and India's share in global food trade to increase from 1.5 % to 3%. According to estimates, food-processing sector has the potential of attracting US \$33 billion of investment in 10 years and generate employment of 9 million person-days. The food-processing sector in India is clearly an attractive sector for investment and offers significant growth potential to investors. In order to achieve this following steps are initiated - **Leveraging reforms such as 100 per cent Foreign direct investment (FDI)** in marketing of food products and various incentives at central and state government level along with a strong focus on supply chain infrastructure. - In Union Budget 2017-18, the Government of India has **set up a dairy processing infra fund worth Rs 8,000 crore (US\$ 1.2 billion).** - The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) plans to invest around Rs 482 crore (US\$ 72.3 million) to **strengthen the food testing infrastructure in India**, by upgrading 59 existing food testing laboratories and setting up 62 new mobile testing labs across the country. - The Ministry of Food Processing Industries announced a **scheme for Human Resource Development (HRD) in the food processing sector**. The HRD scheme is being implemented through State Governments under the National Mission on Food Processing. The scheme has the following four components: - Creation of infrastructure facilities for degree/diploma courses in food processing sector - Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP) - Food Processing Training Centres (FPTC) - Training at recognised institutions at State/National level **2. PROCESSING OF DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF FOOD** **(Cereals, Legumes, Oilseeds, Fats and oils, Fruits and vegetables, Milk)** **CEREALS** The term "cereals" refers to members of the Gramineae family and determines nine species: wheat (Triticum), rye (Secale), barley (Hordeum), oat (Avena), rice (Oryza), millet (Pennisetum), corn (Zea), sorghum (Sorghum), and triticale, which is a hybrid of wheat and rye. Structure of cereal grains: The overall structure of all cereal grains is basically similar, differing from one cereal to another in detail only. Grains of wheat, rye, maize and grain sorghum (naked caryopsis) consist of fruit coat (pericarp) and seed. The seed comprises the seed coat (bran), germ and endosperm. Grains of rice, barley and oats (covered caryopsis) have, in addition, fused palea and lemma which constitute the husk outside the fruit coat. Each of the main parts of the grain pericarp, seed coat, germ and endosperm is further divided into various layers, tissues and regions. Description: rice-husk-diagram *Structure of grain Milling of paddy to brown rice* Storage of cereals: Cereals, if not properly stored, deteriorate. The moisture content chiefly determines the extent of deterioration. Temperature, supply of oxygen, characteristics of the grain and infestation with molds and insects also contribute to deterioration. Cereal grains, although stored in the dormant state, continue to respire producing heat, water and carbon dioxide. This facilitates the growth of molds which are invariably present in the grain. The growth of molds produces many enzymes that cause chemical deterioration of grains. A moisture content of less than 14 per cent is considered safe for the storage of cereals. The grains should, therefore, be dried by appropriate methods so that the moisture content is less than 14 per cent and stored in such a way as to prevent damage due to insects and rodents. **Milling** Milling represents the principal procedure in the cereal industry and is classified in **two categories**: Dry (Rice, Wheat, Maize) & Wet Milling (Maize and rice). **Common Steps in milling:** **Cleaning and conditioning of grains precede milling.** The main grain impurities following formal definition are shrivelled grains, other cereals, damaged grains, extraneous matter, husks, ergots, decayed grains, dead insects, and other undesirable material. ↓ **Conditioning or tempering** is the process during which the kernels are moistened with controlled addition of water for the inner endosperm to become softer and the bran harder. This process aims to prevent breakup of bran, helps gradual separation during milling, and also improves sieving efficiency. ↓ **Grinding and sifting:** Dry milling consists of two processes: grinding and sifting. **PROCESSING OF RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.):** **Dry milled** Milling of rice (paddy) consists of cleaning to remove small and large heavy impurities, dehulling and milling'- a process which removes the coarse outer layers of bran and germ. Paddy, on milling, yields approximately 20% hulls, 8% bran, 2% polishing and 70% rice. **Traditional milling** Paddy is milled in India either by home pounding or in mechanized rice mills. Home pounding is most commonly done using a pestle-and-mortar made of wood and worked by hand or foot. Pounding is continued till the paddy has been sufficiently husked, after which it is winnowed and polished by light hand pounding. The average recovery of rice, including broken rice, in home pounding is higher than in rice milling. Home pounded rice has a short storage life owing to the high content of fat in the bran which develops rancidity. **Modern milling** **Steps in milling rice in a modern rice mill** **Pre-cleaning:** In modern milling, rice is **cleaned** by using various types of machinery. **Dehusking or dehulling:** The cleaned rice is then **dehulled** in a huller. This is actually a shelling device and there are different devices to carry it out. Rice is passed through two stone or rubber discs rotating at different speeds and, by the shearing action on the grain, the hull is pulled away. The whole kernel from which the hulls have been removed is known as ―**brown rice.** **Paddy separation:** This is then milled in a machine called **a pearler** to remove coarse outer layers of bran and germ by a process of rubbing, resulting in unpolished milled rice. There is always a certain amount of breakage of rice in this milling. **Whitening or polishing:** Unpolished rice is liable to develop rancidity and so it is next polished in a brush machine, which removes the aleurone layer and yields 'polished rice'. Sometimes the polished rice is further treated in a device known as trumbol, to give a coating of sugar and talc to produce a brighter shine on the grains. **Grading and separation of white rice:** The milled rice consists of unbroken kernels (the heads) and broken kernels. The latter are then separated, based on their size, into large fragments (second heads), medium ones (screenings) and the smallest ones (brewers rice). **Solvent extraction milling (SEM)** Polishing of brown rice is also carried out by **solvent extraction milling (SEM).** In this case, the brown rice is soaked in oil so that the bran layer is softened and then wet milled in the presence of rice oil and hexane. The debrowned rice is rinsed with hexane and the solvent removed by suitable methods. From the bran-and-oil mixture the solvent and bran are recovered. This method has many advantages over the conventional method. The yield of heads is up by 10%; the decrease fat content of rice increases its storage life. The bran contains 17-20% protein but less than 1.5% fat and is thus good for use in dietetic food, snacks, etc. the rice oil (about 2% yield on rice weight) has edible and industrial applications. **Parboiled rice** Parboiled rice is a kind of processed rice, which is produced in some countries of Asia, principally India, as well as Africa, Europe and America. Parboiling process involves the hydrothermal treatment of paddy before milling. The advantage of the parboiling process stems from the gelatinization of rice starch and hardening of rice kernel that it brings about. As a result, breakage losses during milling of rice can be minimized. Five major steps in the parboiling process are required, as follows; 1) Soaking paddy in water (cold or lukewarm water) to increase the moisture content. 2) Steaming paddy to achieve partial gelatinization. 3) Drying paddy to save the moisture content for storage and milling. 4) Husking to remove paddy husk from paddy kernel. 5) Milling to remove bran from brown kernel. **Advantages** of parboiling rice are due physical, chemical and nutritional changes in rice, as follows: 1\) The milling yield is higher and quality improved as there are fewer broken kernels. 2\) The preservation of parboiled paddy and milled rice is longer and better than in the raw state. Germination is no longer possible and the endosperm has a compact texture making it resistant to attack by insect and microorganism. 3\) The milled rice remains firm during cooking, and its texture becomes less sticky A great amount of water is absorbed during cooking causing the rice to swell. 4\) Its nutritional value is enhanced due to the higher content in vitamins and minerals that have spread into the endosperm during the parboiling process. 6\) Soild materials are less in the cooking water resulting in lower nutritional losses. **Expanded cereal products from rice** **Puffed rice (Pori):** Expanded rice (murmura, pori, puri, muri) is a traditional convenience food widely consumed in India either as such or with Jaggery, roasted Bengal gram and shredded vegetables and spices. The product is mostly produced in home or cottage sector by skilled artisans. In the traditional process, the paddy is soaked in water preferably over night until saturation, drained and then either steamed or dry roasted in sand for parboiling. The parboiled paddy is milled, salted and again roasted in sand for expansion. **Popped rice:** This is yet another traditional value added product prepared from raw paddy. The paddy at a moisture content of 12-14% is directly roasted in iron pans using sand as a medium at a temperature of 150-200. The production of popped rice is comparatively less and the product is mainly used in religious functions and ceremonies. **Flaked cereal product** **Flaked rice** is another important value added product prepared from paddy. Traditionally, it is prepared from soaked paddy, after heat treatment and immediate flattening using a flaking machine (an edge runner). Flaked rice is made traditionally from parboiled rice. Paddy is soaked in water for 2 -3 days to soften the kernel followed by boiling water for a few minutes and the water is drained off. The paddy is heated in a shallow earthen vessel or sand in iron pan till the husks break open. It is pounded by a wooden pestle which flattens the kernel and removes the husk. The husk is separated by winnowing. Flaked rice is thin and papery and off- white colour. **PROCESSING OF WHEAT (TRITICUM SP.)** **Milling of Wheat** **Traditional milling** The traditional procedure for milling wheat in India has been stone grinding (chakki) to obtain whole meal flour (atta). This method results in 90-95% extraction rate flour which retains almost all the nutrients of the grain while simultaneously eliminating that part of the grain which is most indigestible like cellulose, and phytic acid which binds and carries away minerals. **Modern milling** **Cleaning:** In modern milling, wheat is first subjected to cleaning to remove various types of impurities together with damaged, shrunken and broken kernels which are collectively known as screenings. The total quantity of screenings removed generally amounts to 1-1.5% of the grain fed to the machine. **Conditioning:** Next, the cleaned wheat is subjected to conditioning to achieve average optimum moisture content (i.e. 15-17%), the bran is toughened and separation of endosperm from the bran becomes easy. **Milling:** Finally the cleaned and conditioned wheat is subjected to milling to separate the endosperm from the bran and germ, and to reduce the endosperm to flour fineness to obtain the maximum extraction of white flour from the wheat. Milling involves progressive series of disintegrations followed by sievings. From this operation several flour fractions having finer and finer endosperm particles are collected. The coarser particles are used for **semolina (rava, sooji)** and finer particles are the reduced endosperm is known as flour (**white flour, maida**) and the germ, bran and residual endosperm obtained as by-products are used primarily in animal feeding. Flour milling is achieved by grinding in roller mills. **PROCESSING OF MAIZE** **Milling of Maize** Maize is milled by a dry or wet process. **Dry milled Corn (Zea mays L): I**n general, dry milling of corn results in a great number of products and by-products. From the refined endosperm, flours of different particle size are obtained and are widely used to produce brewer's grits, snack food grits, and corn flour. In ZARS Mandya AICRP on Maize was successful in milling maize to *rawa* or semolina. **Cleaning and Conditioning:** In dry milling, the object is to recover the maximum amount of grits with the minimum amount of flour, with the least possible contamination of the germ. The grains are cleaned and conditioned by addition of cold or hot water or steam. After degermination, the dry milling employs roller mills and the process is somewhat similar to wheat milling. The large, medium and fine fractions (hominy) are then milled in roller mills. **Wet milled Corn (Zea mays L):** Wet milling is mainly used for the production of starch and gluten, having as coproducts steep solids (rich in nutrients valuable for the pharmaceutical industry), germ (intended for the oil-crushing industry), and bran. Maize is wet milled to obtain starch, oil, cattle feed and the products of starch hydrolysis, viz., liquid and solid glucose and syrup. Wet milling involves a steeping stage and complete disintegration of the endosperm in order to recover starch and protein. The first step in wet milling is steeping. The cleaned maize is steeped for 48 hours in warm water (50°C) containing some sulphur dioxide. After steeping, the steep water is drained off, and the maize is coarsely ground in degerminating mills to free the germ from the grain. Then the ground material flows down separating troughs in which hulls and grits settle, while the germ overflows. The germ is then separated, dried and oil extracted by hydraulic pressing or by using a solvent. The suspension of starch and protein from wet screening is adjusted to a specific gravity of 1.04 by dewatering over string filters and the starch is separated from the protein by continuous centrifugation. Finally, the starch is filtered and dried. The protein in the steep water is recovered by vacuum evaporation and dried as ―gluten feed‖ for animal feeding. **CEREAL MALTS** The technologies of malting and brewing vary widely, resulting in a variety of products. Malting is primarily applied to barley grains following cleaning and grading of the grains into uniform fractions, which are then properly stored and processed. The production of malt comprises the following processes: steeping, germination, and kilning. The germination process is broken up by drying the malt and kilning to stop further transformations. During drying, the water content is decreased to less than 5%, thus stopping all the enzymatic activity while color and flavor compounds are formed. Although liquid malt extract is mainly used as a first ingredient brewing industry it has found application in the production of meals, malted shakes, malt vinegar,confections, flavored drinks, and baked goods. In India dry malt powders are also popular e.g. ragi malt. **2. LEGUMES** Legumes refer to the edible seeds of leguminous plants belonging to the Legurninosae family, one of the three largest families of flowering plants comprising nearly 700 genera and 18,000 species. Fruit is a pod that contains the seeds. The edible seed of leguminous plants. The seed is separable into two parts (dicotyledon) general term - bean, pulse. Legume Processing Terminology +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | BEAN | Legume, primarily | | | | referring to those of | | | | the Phaseolus genus. | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | DECORTICATION | Home-Scale Processing | **Wet method:** | | | Removal of the hull, | Soaking as a | | | husk, or outer seed | pre-treatment to | | | coat of the legume | decortication | | | seed. | facilitates removal | | | | of the husk or skin. | | | | Non-decorticated | | | | grains that are | | | | soaked in water for a | | | | short time lend | | | | themselves to easy | | | | husk removal. In this | | | | instance, the husk | | | | takes up more water | | | | than the rest of the | | | | grain, whereby it | | | | becomes more easily | | | | separable. In | | | | addition, legumes may | | | | be steeped, soaked in | | | | hot water that is | | | | below its boiling | | | | point, to allow the | | | | seed coat to swell | | | | and loosen from the | | | | cotyledon. | | | | | | | | **Dry method:** The | | | | dry method involves | | | | simply pounding the | | | | grains to loosen the | | | | husks followed by | | | | removal by winnowing. | | | | In addition, the | | | | pounded mass then can | | | | be submerged in | | | | water, and the husks | | | | removed when they | | | | float to the top of | | | | the water\'s surface. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | DHAL | Dehusked, split grain | | | | legume (major form | | | | eaten in India). | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | MILLING | Process of husking | | | | and subsequent | | | | splitting of pulse or | | | | legume - usually | | | | taking place | | | | simultaneously in | | | | reference to pulse | | | | milling and dhal | | | | preparation (India). | | | | Decortication and/or | | | | preparation of husked | | | | legumes into flour. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | PULSE | Dried, edible seed of | | | | a cultivated legume; | | | | usually refers to one | | | | that has been | | | | dehusked. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | GRAM | The entire, whole | | | | legume grain or seed | | | | usually prepared into | | | | dhal. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **[Processing:]** **In India, more than 75% of grain legumes are milled to produce dehusked splits (dhals) for direct consumption.** **Dhal making:** Preparation of dhal from pulses is an important aspect in pulse processing. Dhal milling is widely practiced in Asia, Africa and South America. Whole grain legumes have a fibrous seed coat (husk or skin) which often is indigestible and may not be palatable. In such cases the skin has to be removed. A number of methods are available for decortication. 1. A simple method is to soak the seeds for a short time in water the husk takes up more water than the seeds and may be easily separated by rubbing while still moist. In the alternative, the soaked grains may be dried and the husk removed by pounding and winnowing. Roasting also renders separate husk easily. Roasted legumes like those of Bengal gram and pea are widely used in India. 2. The wet method used in India is one in which grains, previously steeped for a few hours, are mixed with red earth and then sun-dried for 2-4 days. After removing the red earth by sieving, subsequent milling in mortars or chakkis dehusks and splits the grain. 3. The dry method is one in which the sundried pulses, sometimes after mixing with oil, are sprinkled with small amounts of water. After heating, the pulses are milled (dehusked and split) in mortars or hand-operated wooden or stone chakkis which consist of rotating plates. 4. Commercial dhal mills: The commercial methods involve the same basic principles as in household methods. As described above, both a wet method and dry method of processing are used. a. Comparatively smaller units practice the wet method of processing. After grains are steeped in water for 4-12 hours in cement tanks, upon draining of the water a paste containing red earth and water is mixed thoroughly with the steeped grain at a 2-3% level. The grains are then kept heaped for about 16 hours. Later, the grains are air-dried for 2-4 days in thin layers in drying yards. The red earth is removed by sieving. When dry enough, the grains are passed through a power-operated stone- or emery-coated vertical chakki (sheller). During this step, about 95% of the grain is dehusked and split. The husk is aspirated off and the dhal is separated by sieving. b. With the dry method, initially, the pulse is cleaned, graded according to size in a grading sieve, and then passed through an emery-coated roller for initial \"pitting\" or scratching of the husk to facilitate subsequent oil penetration. Pitted grains are then thoroughly mixed with about 1% oil (linseed) in an oiling machine, which is essentially a worm mixer. The oil grains are then spread in thin layers for sun drying in drying yards for 2-5 days. Grains are heaped during the night to preserve heat. At the end of the drying period, grains are sprayed with 2-5% water, thoroughly mixed, and heaped overnight. The grains are subsequently passed through the roller for dehusking by abrasion. In the process, about 40-50% of the grains are dehusked and a major portion of these are split simultaneously. Husks are aspirated off and the mixture of grains and dhal is passed through a dhal-separat ing sieve to remove the dhal. **Puffing/ parching: Puffed grain legumes are prepared in the Indian household in a manner similar to that used for roasting. Puffing brings about a light and porous texture in split dehusked dhal. Whole unhusked grains are more commonly used for this process. For puffing, grains are soaked in water and mixed with sand, which has been heated to 25o0 c and then toasted for a short time, approximately 15-25 seconds. After the sand is sieved off, the grains are dehusked between a hot plate and rough roller. The more common legumes prepared in this manner are chickpeas and peas.** The addition of heat to legumes by roasting, toasting, or parching renders the husks easier to remove since they become brittle and subsequently crack. In addition to facilitating husk removal, heating can be effective in destroying toxic factors present in legumes most antinutritional or toxic effects of legumes can be partially or wholly eliminated by the proper application of heat. Such factors include trypsin inhibitors, haemnagglutinins, goiterogenic agents, cyanogenic glucosides, alkaloids, and saponins. **Legume powders** that can be easily and rapidly prepared for use in familiar foods can increase the consumption of legumes by people of all economic statuses. There is a need to alter the image of beans and pulses as that of a \"poor man\'s food.\" It was thought that this could be accomplished by increasing their overall acceptance through the introduction of legumes in a form especially desirable to upper income people, namely, as a convenient-to-use tasty powder. **Fermentation:** Fermented mixtures of legumes and rice are widely consumed in India. In this process, previously soaked (4-6 hours) mixtures of black gram dhal and rice (1:2) are mashed and left overnight to ferment. Subsequent steaming of the fermented batter produces idli, whereas baking or frying produces dhosai. Soaking, heating and fermentation can reduce or eliminate most of the toxic factors of the pulses. Correct application of heat in cooking legumes can eliminate most toxic factors without impairment of nutritional value. Cooking also contributes to legume digestibility. Heat causes denaturation of trypsin inhibitors, haemagglutinin and the enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of cyanogenic glycosides. The mode of application of heat is important. **Frying: Frying is mainly used on previously processed legumes, which are in the form of a flour, paste, batter, or dough. In addition, mung bean or dhal is also fried in a little fat and eaten as a snack.** **Germination: Germination as a means for processing legumes, allows the whole bean to be eaten in a palatable form. The germination process itself as practiced in India involves initially soaking the whole unhusked grains for 24 hours, and then spreading them on a damp cloth for up to 48 hours. Under tropical conditions, sprouts up to a length of 1.0 cm appear. Sprouted grains are eaten raw with salt, or further seasoned and fried or boiled. Germination increases vitamin C. reduces antiniutritional factors and improves digestibility.** **Papads:** Papads are made from different types of legume flours principally black gram (uddin/urad). Commonly the fine dal flour is mixed with oil, water and papad khara (an alkaline salt with major components as sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate) to form a very stiff dough. The dough is worked with oil till it becomes pliable. Papads are rolled using thin rolling pins. The rolled papads are shade dried to low moisture content, packaged and marketed. In India papads are a thriving home industry which has become a commercial success story e.g. Lijjat papad. 3. NUTS AND OILSEEDS ==================== Nuts, in addition to their superior quality protein and high oil content (50%), are also good sources of minerals. Almonds, cashew nut, coconut pistachio nut, chestnut, walnuts are some of the common nuts. Groundnut, sunflower, sesame, safflower are some of the oilseeds. Nuts usually grow on trees, and are used for table purpose while oilseeds are usually grown as field crops and are used extensively for production of oil. Nuts are generally more expensive than oilseeds. Nuts are used in a variety of ways. They are eaten raw, roasted, salted or cooked. Nuts and oilseeds generally, contain about 2 per cent minerals, with a good proportion of phosphorus and potassium. Other mineral elements present in nut kernels and oilseeds are calcium, sodium, magnesium and iron. Nuts and oilseeds also contain appreciable quantities of vitamins. **OILSEEDS** India is fourth oilseed producing country in the next only to USA, China and Brazil. Many varieties of oilseeds, the major oilseeds are soybean, cottonseed, groundnut, Sunflower, Rapeseed, Sesame seed, Copra, Castor seed and Palm Kernels. India occupies the place of pride as the world's largest producer of Groundnuts, Sesame seeds, Linseeds and Castor seeds. Depending on the period of cultivation, the oilseeds are classified as "Kharif crop" and "Rabi crop". ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Post-harvest processing of nuts and oil seeds:** **Shelling, cleaning, storage and packaging** Cleaning: Oilseed and nut should be properly dried, and cleaned to remove sand, dust, leaves and other contaminants before storage. All nuts and oilseeds should be sorted to remove stones and mouldy nuts. Some moulds, especially in the case of groundnuts, can cause aflatoxin poisoning. When storage is necessary, this should be in weather proof, ventilated rooms which are protected against birds, insects and rodents. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Shelling/Decortication: Some raw materials (for example groundnuts, sunflower seeds) need dehusking (or decorticating). Decortication is important to give high yields of oil and reduce the bulk of material. However, expellers normally require a proportion of fibrous material in order to work and, particularly with groundnuts; some husk is normally added to allow oil to escape more freely from the press. Coconut is dehusked and split manually by skilled operators. Most oilseeds (copra, palm kernels and groundnuts) need grinding in mills before oil extraction to increase the yields of oil. All oil-bearing materials need to have correct moisture content to maximize the oil yields. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Storage and packaging:** Moisture content of oil seeds and nuts affects the quality of raw materials. High moisture in oilseeds reduces oil content, decrease protein, and increases the colour and the refining loss during extraction of oil. High moisture also increases microbial growth and therefore spoils the food material. Seeds shall be stored at Moisture Content less than 10%. If the seed moisture content is over 10% then it should be dried prior to storage. Moisture can be lowered by: a. Steaming/ boiling along with sun-drying. b. Adequate ventilation or aeration of the seeds or nuts during storage. c. During very humid conditions, the perishable raw materials such as coconut, etc. shall be processed as soon as possible after harvesting. The packed food materials/ ingredients/packaging material shall be stored on racks/ pallets such that they are stored off the floor on pallets and off the walls to ensure easy and adequate cleaning and prevent harbouring of any insects, pests or rodents. - A wide range of flexible (plastic polymers and metallised material offers strong barrier to atmospheric oxygen. These are a good option for delicate and mid-to-high value nuts. - Similarly large consignments may pack in solid airtight containers. - Often different combinations of gasses (CO~2~ and/or N~2~) are used in a packaging container or flexible pouches to modify atmosphere (Modified atmosphere packaging or MAP). MAP can extend shelf life considerably as they prevent rancidity. **[Products from nuts:]** Nuts are usually used for table or confectionery purpose. Very little is converted to oil example almond oil. **[Products of oilseeds for food use]:** The first step in the production of quality food from oilseeds is to obtain edible flours and protein concentrates from them. Good raw material is selected and after removing extraneous matter, the seeds are dehulled. The dehulled kernels are then milled under optimal conditions to recover oil and a high-quality protein-rich edible grade meal. Several oilseeds contain anti-nutritional and toxic substances. These must be eliminated or inactivated during processing. Protein concentrates are obtained from different processes to suit different seeds. Groundnut flour and seasame, cottonseed, mustard-rapeseed, coconut, sunflower and soyabean and used in the production of supplementary foods. **Nutritional food mixes from oilseeds:** Protein-calorie malnutrition has been an important cause of infant and child mortality. Hence, the development of low-cost processed protein enriched foods based on vegetable proteins is necessary. Nutritive food mixes developed in the country are of two types (i) protein rich foods containing about 40-45 per cent protein based on blends of oilseed meals and pulses and fortified with essential vitamins and minerals and (ii) protein enriched cereal foods, containing 17-25 per cent proteins based on blends of cereals, oilseed meals and pulses. OILS AND FATS ============= **[Extraction of oil and fat:]** Oil and fat is obtained by one of the three methods -- **[Oil Extraction methods]** **a) Mechanical expression** **During the process of mechanical expression, the oil seeds are compressed in various types of compression devices/equipment. Expression is the process of mechanically pressing liquid out of liquid containing solids. Screw press, roll presses, collapsible plate are some examples of wide range of equipment used for expression of liquid.** i. **Hydraulic press: The hydraulic press consist of a series of horizontal corrugated iron plates.  The oil seeds are pressed and then pressure applied for 5-10 min to complete the expression process. The recovery of the oil varied depending upon the sizes and seed being pressed. But, at commercial level, the hydraulic press is replaced by screw type presses.** **ii) Screw press: A screw press has a horizontal main shaft. The screw assembly is formed integrally with this shaft. The screw rotates within a cage or barrel. The barrel is made of case hardened, tool steel bars or rings to allow drainage of the oil as the pressure on the feed material is increased. At the discharge end, a movable choke or cone controls the operating pressure. It is achieved by changing the width of annular space through which the oil cake passes. The choke is adjusted by a hand wheel on the opposite end of the screw. The configuration of screw is such that the volume displacement at the feed end of the press is considerably greater than at the discharge end. As a result of such configuration, as the material is conveyed from feed end to discharge end, it is subjected to increasing pressure. As pressure increases, the material is compressed and oil is expelled through the spacers between the cage lining bars** **and oil is expelled** **b) Oil Extraction (solvent extraction)** **Extraction is a process of separating a liquid from a solid system with the use of a solvent. Extraction is also a process of diffusion with the help of low boiling point solvent. This process gives a higher recovery of oil and a drier cake than expression. Solvent extraction is capable of removing nearly all of the available oil from oilseed meal.  This extraction process provides meal of better preservation qualities and with higher protein qualities.** **In this process, the solvent is poured to the well prepared material. It is then followed by the diffusion of oil solvent mixture to the surface of solid for recovery of oil. The most common solvent used in India is n-hexane having boiling point of 65.5 ºC. The oil is separated from mixture of oil and hexane called miscella by distillation and stripping under vacuum. The extracted meal having hexane is de-solventized by heating with live steam in a de-solventizer. This meal is known as deoiled cake and it contains about less than 1 % residual oil. The solvent from the distillation and stripping columns as well as from the de-solventizer is condensed and recovered and stored in the solvent storage tank. The oil separated from the miscella goes to the storage tank after cooling.** **Solvent extraction plant use hexane as a solvent to extract oil from oilseed cake. These plants are expensive and only suitable for large volumes which justify the capital cost of equipment. Where large amounts of oilseed cake are available, solvent extraction becomes a commercially- viable option to extract residual oil left in the cake and leave an almost oil-free powder known as oilseed meal. Both cake and meal are incorporated in animal feeds**. Process flow chart of oil seeds processing  **[Refining:]** Oils extracted by the above methods are crude and contain many other constituents like free fatty acids, unsaponifiable matter, gums, waxes, mucilaginous matter, variety of colouring matter, metallic contaminants, undesirable odoriferous constituents, etc. In refining, the suspended particles are removed by filtration or centrifugation. The free fatty acids are removed by alkali treatment. When the free fatty acid content is high as in palm oil (5 per cent), it is removed by blowing steam through hot oil under vacuum. This results in both deacidification and deodorization. Any remaining free fatty acids are removed by neutralization. Pigments are removed by bleaching using adsorbents like activated earth. **Process of Oil Refining:** In many local markets further refining is not required as the complexes of unrefined oils are preferred. International markets tend to prefer lighter less intense oils for cooking which means further processing of the oil. There is series of refining processes that can be carried out after the oil has been filtered. i\) **De-odorising:** Volatile compounds that produce bad odours can eliminated through the process of sparging, i.e. bubbling steam through the oil, under a vacuum. ii\) **Wintering:** Allowing the oil to stand for a time at low temperatures so that glycerides, which naturally occur in the oil, with higher melting points solidify and can then be removed from the oil by filtering. Over time glycerides can degrade releasing fatty acids into the oil increasing the acidity levels and reducing the quality. iii\) **Neutralisation:** Fatty acids can be neutralized by adding a sodium hydroxide solution, also known as caustic soda, or by stripping, which is a similar process to de-odorising. **iv) Bleaching:** Some oils have a very dark colour to them that is unpopular with consumers. The appearance of the oil can be lightened by bleaching. **v) De-gumming:** De-gumming is a way of treating seed that have high phosphatide content. The phosphatide, which makes a gummy residue, is removed by mixing the oil with 2 to 3% water. This hydrated phosphatide can then be removed by settling, filtering or centrifuged. **[Hydrogenation:]** Hydrogenation is brought about by passing hydrogen under pressure through hot oil in presence of catalysts like nickel. The properties of the final product are affected by temperature, rate of mixing with hydrogen, nature of catalyst and pressure of hydrogen. Hydrogenation is done to overcome rancidity and to obtain fats of desired properties. In addition, partial hydrogenation results in the formation of large amounts of trans fats in the oil mixture, which, since the 1970s, have increasingly been viewed as unhealthy.Disadvantage of hydrogenation is that it will bring about some isomerization of oleic acid to its trans isomer, eladic acid. Trans fatty acids have bad effect on cell membranes in the human body. Thus, hydrogenated fats are bad for our health eg. ***Vanaspati:*** Animals fats ------------ **Butter:** because of its pleasing flavour and good shortening qualities, has for a long time been an important fat component in food preparations. It is made from milk fats. **Lard:** Lard is an animal fat from hogs. It is very popular in Western countries as a low cost, flavourful substitute for butter in frying and baking. It is obtained by the heat rendering of fatty tissues. The quality of lard depends upon the part of the body of the animal from which the fat is obtained and the feed given to the animal. **Margarine:** Margarine, used as a substitute for butter, is made from vegetable oils or a mixture of vegetable and animal fat by hydrogenation. Appropriately hydrogenated fat is blended with cultured skim milk and salt. To simulate (imitate) butter, yellow colouring matter, butter flavour (diacetyl) and vitamins A and D are added. For emulsification, mono- and diglycerides is added. Sodium benzoate is added as preservative. Like butter, margarine contains 80 per cent fat. **FRUITS AND VEGETABLES** **Fruits:** Fruits in food preparation are fleshy or pulpy in character, often juicy and usually sweet with fragrant, aromatic flavours. **Composition:** Fresh fruits have high water content (70-96%), varying amount of carbohydrate (3-27%) and fibre (0.2-3.1%) and a low content of protein, fat and minerals. Fruits are important sources of provitamin A and vitamin C. Some dry fruits are rich sources of minerals, calcium and iron. Fruits contain pigments, which are responsible for their colour. Most fruits contain an edible part combined with some inedible part. **Vegetables:** Vegetables are plants or parts of plants that are used as food. The parts of plant normally used as vegetables include leaves, roots, tubers, bulbs, fruits, seeds (beans and peas), flowers, stems and shoots. Some parts of plants can be grouped under more than one heading. **Composition:** Water content is high in most vegetables, but particularly in greens and tomato. Water constitutes more than 90% of the edible portion of these vegetables. Cellulose, the structural carbohydrate is in the cell walls of all plants. Some vegetables such as corn and potatoes contain a high percentage of carbohydrate in the form of starch. Legumes, however, are an important source of vegetable proteins. **Nutritional significance:** The nutritional contribution of different vegetable is sufficiently varied that means it is wise to serve a variety of vegetables to ensure that all the necessary nutrients from the vegetable category are included in the diet. **Plant parts used as vegetables in tropics** **Leaves** **Roots and tubers** **Bulb** **Fruit** **Flower** **Stem and shoot** --------------- ---------------------- ---------- ------------ ------------- -------------------- Amaranth Beet Garlic Cucumber Agasti Amaranth Cabbage Carrot Leek Brinjal Broccoli Colocasia stem Colocasia Potato Onion Drumstick Cauliflower Celery Fenugreek Potato (sweet) Capsicum Okra Drumstick Lotus stem Lettuce Radish Kovai Plantain Onion stalk Mustard Tapioca Papaya Waterlily Knol Khol Radish leaves Turnip Tomato Plantain stem Spinach Yam All beans Spinach stalk All gourds **Factors responsible for spoilage** ***Respiration:*** Fruits and vegetables breathe like humans do, respiring day and night, continuously giving off water as they release energy for growth and metabolism. In respiration, plants use oxygen to break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into carbon-dioxide and water. Respiration leads to drying out, wilting and shriveling, less food value and less sweetness. This leads to loss of quality and freshness. ***Mechanical injuries*** such as abrasion, puncture and bruising lead to more water loss. Also wounded and punctured areas are more prone to be attacked by bacteria and fungi. ***Other factors:*** Apart from these, there are other factors that lead to loss in quality. These include inefficient crop production, harvesting and handling methods, poor crop processing techniques, inadequate methods of storage and transportation and even poor preparation procedures. Traditional marketing systems often contribute to reduced returns to farmers, by involving several changes of hands. Therefore, a series of sophisticated technologies have to be applied in post harvest handling of horticultural crops **Prevention of spoilage** ***Modern post-harvest technologies*** applied in grading, packaging, pre-cooling, storage, and transportation, minimize losses, and preserve quality. **Value addition:** Another useful approach to minimize post-harvest loss of horticultural commodities is to add value to products. Value addition involves change of form of a product, converting raw material into ingredients or processed products to cater to demands of heterogenous consumers. Value addition offers numerous advantages to the growers and consumers. Value added products have extended shelf life, improved quality, and palatability. Farmers can derive high farm income from their produce by adding value to their products by way of cleaning, trimming, processing, and packaging. Post-harvest value addition includes primary, secondary, and tertiary processing, operations performed on farm produce. Primary processing refers to on-farm handling, cleaning, trimming, sorting, grading, cooling and packaging whereas secondary processing includes processes which modify the form of the product i.e. convert raw product to a processed products. Processed products offer cent percent edible product, are convenient, and have improved eating quality. Jams, jellies, marmalades, sauces, ketchups, cordials, juices, nectars, pickles, candies, preserves, canned, frozen, dried, and fermented products are examples of secondary processed products. **The modern methods of food preservation:** in general and of fruit and vegetable preservation in particular may be broadly classified as follows: **Physical methods of preservation** Method Examples --- -------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 By removal of heat (preservation by cold) Refrigeration, freezing preservation, dehydrofreezing, preservation, carbonation 2 By addition of heat (thermal processing) Stationary pasteurization, agitating pasteurization or sterilization, flash pasteurization or HTST processing etc. 3 By removal of water (evaporation or dehydration) Sun-drying, dehydration, low temperature evaporation or concentration, freeze-drying, Accelerated freeze-drying, foam-mat drying, puff drying etc. 4 By irradiation Dosing with Ultra violet (UV) or ionizing radiation etc. **Chemical methods of preservation** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | Method | Examples | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | 1. | By addition of acid | Pickled vegetables, | | | such as vinegar or | fish and meat | | | lactic acid | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 2. | By salting or brining | Vegetable or fruit | | | | pickles, salted fish, | | | | etc. salt-cured meat | | | | and pork etc. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 3. | By addition of sugar | Fruit preserves, | | | and heating | jams, jellies, | | | | marmalades, etc. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 4. | By addition of | using water-soluble | | | chemical | salts of | | | preservatives | sulphur-dioxide | | | | benzoic acid, sorbic | | | | acid and a few like | | | | hydrogen peroxide, | | | | etc. which are | | | | permitted as harmless | | | | in foods. By means of | | | | substances of | | | | bacterial origin such | | | | as chitosan, resin, | | | | etc. which is | | | | permitted to a | | | | limited extent, in | | | | some cases as | | | | harmless additives. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | 5. | By fermentation | Alcoholic and acetous | | | | fermentation as in | | | | the case of fruit | | | | wines, apple cider, | | | | fruit, vinegar etc. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Asceptic packaging** Method Examples -- ---------------------------- ------------------------------- Canning, Aseptic packaging Canned and tetra packed foods [***Drying***:] Preservation of foods by drying is perhaps the oldest method known. The main objective of drying is removal of free water (lowering of water activity below 0.7) from fruits and vegetables to the extent, where micro-organisms do not survive and reproduce. Simultaneously, the total solids, viz., sugars, organic acids are concentrated, exerting osmotic pressure to inhibit the micro-organisms. There are many methods by which drying is accomplished such as sun drying, drum drying, vacuum drying and freeze drying etc. ***Sun drying*** : Under sun-drying, the sound fruits are loaded on trays, transferred to the sun-drying yard and allowed to dry, until the fruits are about two-thirds dry. Then the trays are stacked in the shade to allow the late stages of drying, which, proceeds slowly. Apricots, peaches, pears and grapes are some fruits that are sun-dried. ***Cabinet drying***[:] Food products dried in a cabinet dryer are placed on trays and moved into a drying compartment where the product is exposed to the drying air. ***Foam-mat drying*** : The foam-mat drying process consists essentially of incorporating small amount suitable foaming agents such as glyceryl-mono-stearate, egg albumin, groundnut protein isolate, guar, guava and carboxymethyl cellulose into the fluid food materials, so that they can be whipped to a low density foam and spread on trays. Drying is done at relatively low temperatures, in an ordinary forced air-circulation drier. The dried product can be reconstituted readily. The method is considerable cheaper than puff drying, drying, drum drying, etc. ***Freez drying***: In this method, the material such as fruit juice concentrate is first poured on trays in the lower chamber of a freeze drier and the frozen material is dried in the upper chamber under high vacuum. The material is directly dried by sublimation of ice without passing through intermediate liquid stage. Mango pulp, orange juice concentrate passion fruit juice and guava pulp have been prepared to give freeze-dried powders of excellent quality for taste, flavour and reconstitution property, etc. [***Canning***:] For canning, fruits and vegetables should be absolutely fresh. An hour from the field to the can is the accepted ideal. The fruit should be ripe but firm and evenly matured. It should be free from all unsightly blemishes, insect damage and malformation. Over-ripe fruit is generally infected with micro-organisms and would show poor quality.The main processes of canning are:- 1. Sorting and grading 2. Washing 3. Blanching -- This loosens skin and the process is particularly important in beetroot and tomato. It facilitates close filling in the can and drives out air from tissues. Further, it helps clean the fruit or vegetable and to eliminate micro-organism. It also inactivates the enzymes, thus preventing the possibility of discolouration. 4. Peeling, coring and pitting a. Hand peeling b. Peeling, coring and pitting by machine c. Peeling by heat d. Lye peeling 5. Can filling -- Automatic can filling machines are in use in large canneries in many countries, but choice graded fruits are generally filled by hand to prevent bruising and also ensuring properly graded pack. In India, filling by hand using rubber gloves is a common practice. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. **Jams, jellies and marmalades** Jam is made using pulp from a single fruit or from a mixture of fruits. The combination of high acidity (pH around 3.0) and high sugar content (68-72%) prevents mould growth after opening the jar. Jellies are crystal-clear jams that are made using filtered juice instead of fruit pulp and marmalades are produced from clear citrus juices (lime, orange, grapefruit, lemon or orange) that have fine shreds of peel suspended in the gel. Ginger may also be used alone or mixed with the citrus fruits. The important points to remember when making jams, jellies or marmalades: 1\) There must be the **correct proportions of juice, sugar, acid and pectin** in order to form a good gel. In general, slightly under-ripe fruits contain more acid and pectin than do overripe fruits, but there are differences in the amounts of acid and pectin in different types of fruit. 2\) **Water must be boiled off quickly to concentrate** the mixture before it darkens. If whole fruit is used, there are two heating stages: at the start, the fruit is heated slowly to soften it and to extract pectin; then the mixture is boiled rapidly until the sugar content reaches 68-72%. This change in heat output requires a large and easily controllable burner. **3) Equipment:** At a small scale, a stainless steel pan and a gas burner can be used, but the mixture should be constantly stirred to prevent it burning onto the base of the pan, particularly towards the end of boiling when it thickens. At higher production rates, a double-jacketed pan is better because it gives more even and faster heating and does not risk burning the product. **4) Pectin:** The type of pectin used in jams and marmalades (above 55% solids) is known as high methoxyl (HM) pectin. It is used in a pH range of 2.0-3.5. A second type, known as low methoxyl (LM) pectin, is used mainly for spreads or for gelling agents in milk products. There are a large number of different types of HM pectin, such as 'rapid set' and 'slow set' and it is necessary to specify carefully the type required when ordering pectin from a supplier. 5\) **Filling:** Jams should be hot filled (at around 85oC) into glass jars and sealed with a new lid. If the temperature is too high, steam condenses to water on the inside of the lid and dilutes sugar at the surface of the jam, which can cause mould growth. If the temperature is too low, the jam thickens and is difficult to pour into containers. Jars should be filled to approximately 9/10ths full, to help a vacuum to form in the space above the product as it cools. The jars are kept upright during cooling until the gel has formed. **Fruit and vegetable juices and drinks** There has been a considerable increase in the consumption of fruit and vegetable juices in the world during the last few years and there are possibilities of its further increase. The beverage industry is by far the largest outlet for fruit juice and concentrates absorbing more than 80% of production. In India, a little more than 60% of the fruit processed is used is fruit based beverages. Many different types of beverages, such as fruit juices, fruit drinks, squashes, cordials and fruit punches, are available. They are broadly defined as: **Chutneys sauces and pickles:** **Candies /Candied fruit** Also known as crystallized fruit or glazed fruit has existed since the 14th century. Whole [fruit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit), smaller pieces of fruit, or pieces of [peel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_(fruit)), are placed in heated [sugar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar) [syrup](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrup), which absorbs the moisture from within the fruit and eventually [preserves](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_preservation) it (osmotic dehydration). Depending on size and type of fruit, this process of preservation can take from several days to several months. The general principle is to boil the fruit, [steep](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steeping) it in increasingly strong sugar solutions for a number of weeks, and then dry off any remaining water. [\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candied_fruit#cite_note-Food_Facts-1) This process allows the fruit to retain its quality for a year. [\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candied_fruit#cite_note-LA_Times-2) The continual process of drenching the fruit in syrup causes the fruit to become saturated with [sugar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar), preventing the growth of [spoilage microorganisms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_microbiology) due to the unfavourable [osmotic pressure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_pressure) this creates. [\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candied_fruit#cite_note-Britannica-3) Fruits that are commonly candied include [dates](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_dactylifera), [cherries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry), [pineapple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple), and a root, [ginger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginger), papaya (tuti- fruti) [\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candied_fruit#cite_note-4) The principal candied peels are orange and [citron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citron); these with candied lemon peel are the usual ingredients of mixed chopped peel (which may also include glazed cherries). **Frozen vegetables** Freezing and refrigeration are among the established and convenient method of food preservation. Other than preservation in many situations low temperature provides added advantages and improves processing properties of foods. In controlling the rate of certain chemicals and enzymatic reactions as well as the rates of growth and metabolism of microorganisms, cooling is applied. Without any doubt properly carried