Foundations of Indian Heritage PDF

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIAN HERITAGE  Dedication The completion of this book could not have been possible without the blessings of Amma, Sat-guru Sri Mata Amritanandamayi Devi, the universal mother, the dispeller of darkness and ignorance in her children. We offer this humbl...

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIAN HERITAGE  Dedication The completion of this book could not have been possible without the blessings of Amma, Sat-guru Sri Mata Amritanandamayi Devi, the universal mother, the dispeller of darkness and ignorance in her children. We offer this humble effort at Amma’s lotus feet. Forever grateful for her countless love.  Editor-in-Chief Br Achyutamrita Chaitanya, Ph.D. Principal, School of Spiritual and Cultural Studies, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri Campus Editorial Board Br. Rupesh Kalesan School of Spiritual and Cultural Studies, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri Campus Harikrishnan Venugopal School of Spiritual and Cultural Studies, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri Campus Preethimol Gopi School of Spiritual and Cultural Studies, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri Campus Akshay Mohanan School of Spiritual and Cultural Studies, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri Campus  Preface “Sitting under the Kalpavriksha, the mythological wish-fulfilling tree, one’s every desire would be granted”. This majestic tree symbolises the abundance and prosperity at the heart of Indian Culture, yet it is grounded in the profound wisdom of “Dharma” - the righteous path that ultimately frees the individual from the bondage of material cravings. There is no better allegory that represents Indian Culture than Kalpavriksha which symbolises the symbiotic relationship between man and nature, as well as the cyclical nature of existence. In its ability to provide for every human need, while also guiding one towards transcendence, this ‘Tree of Life’ holds the multifaceted richness of India’s heritage. The wisdom that shaped the Indian subcontinent shall be explored through this book, “Foundations of Indian Heritage”. Meticulously structured into fourteen chapters, the book delves into specific aspects of Indian heritage, each woven together by a common thread: the enduring legacy of Indian knowledge systems and their relevance to contemporary challenges. The adventurous journey can only begin by reclaiming and reconnecting with Indian knowledge Systems. The stage for learning shall be set by highlighting the impact of colonialism on India’s cultural and intellectual identity and the importance of decolonizing the mind to appreciate the true essence of Indian Heritage. The book then offers a panoramic view of Indian philosophical systems, or Darshanas, which provide invaluable insights into the nature of reality and human existence. How these philosophical understandings can enhance creativity in science shall always be an attraction for inquisitive minds. Attempting to bridge the ancient wisdom with contemporary issues, the focus of the book shifts to the epistemological frameworks of Indian philosophies, exploring how ancient Indian thinkers approached the acquisition of knowledge. This highlights the rigorous methodologies that underpin Indian philosophical thought, making one awe-struck about the logical systems that evolved in India. A Vedantic model of human personality is presented, offering insights into the complex interplay between the body, mind, and Atman, providing a holistic understanding of human nature and the path to self- realisation. Drawing from the Upanishads, the book issues a call to awaken to the deeper truths of existence, emphasising the transformative power of self-knowledge and the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment. It explores the Purusharthas, the four goals of human life—Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding the purpose and direction of human life. Drawing from Indian wisdom traditions, the book identifies six essential qualities that lead one to success. Further, it delves into the concept of Dharma, elucidating its multifaceted nature as duty, righteousness, and the principle that sustains the universe, offering practical insights into living a Dharmic life. From discussions on one’s existence and self, the book unfolds to a new dimension. The importance of family as a foundational unit of society is explored, highlighting the values and traditions that have sustained Indian families through the ages. The book examines the cultural and civilizational unity of India, despite its diversity, tracing the historical and philosophical lines that bind the Indian subcontinent into a cohesive whole. The contributions of key historical figures who have shaped the Indian nation are celebrated, providing inspiring accounts of their lives and legacies. The book then explores India’s interactions with other civilizations, highlighting the exchange of ideas, culture, and knowledge, underscoring India’s great role in the global civilizational snapshot. In its final chapter, the book offers a reflective piece, urging the younger generation to learn from the past and carry forward the baton of Indian heritage. It is a call to action for preserving and nurturing the wisdom of the ages. This book is an opportunity for a reader to take an expedition through time, offering a deep and nuanced understanding of India's contributions to the world. Beginning from the foundation of Indian heritage, this invites one to broaden their horizons, challenge their preconceptions, and develop a more holistic worldview that integrates the best of ancient wisdom with modern knowledge.  Contents 1. Decolonisation........................................................... 01 Harikrishnan Venugopal 2. Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas...... 25 Aravindan Neelakandan 3. Ancient Wisdom for Modern Challenges: Pañcamahāyajña.......................................................... 44 Br Rupesh Kalesan 4. Epistemology of Indian Philosophies................... 56 Dr Vigneswar Bhatt 5. A Vedantic Modelling of Human Personality..... 63 Nritthya Jagannathan 6. The Wake Up Call from Upanishads..................... 73 Sooraj Subrahmanyan 7. Goals of Life............................................................... 82 Sooraj Subrahmanyan 8. The Six Ingredients of Success................................ 89 Br Achyutamrita Chaithanya, PhD 9. Making Sense of Dharma........................................ 98 Harikrishnan Venugopal 10. Ancestral Anchors: The Indian Family................ 114 Br Vivek Vijayan 11. Decoding the Idea of India...................................... 122 Michel Danino 12. Nation Builders of Bharatvarsha............................ 132 Dr Pramod Kumar M 13. Civilisational Bridges: India and the World........ 141 Br Sivanandan D S 14. Children! Have You Learnt Your Lessons Yet?.. 151 Swami Amritaswarupananda Puri  Chapter 1 Decolonisation On that historical day in 1947, India was declared free and independent. Every year on August 15th, we celebrate this freedom that we got back. It has been __ years since, and we have celebrated __ times. To us, colonisation is a thing of the past. Something that we remember on Independence day, or during the birthday, or death day of a legendary freedom fighter, or when we happen to stumble upon a majestic statue in the journeys we make. When we discuss British colonisation, we are often filled with images of violence and suffering, looting, and imposition of law. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre; the Kohinoor diamond displayed in the British museum; Bhagat Singh, sentenced to hang until death at the age of 22; Indian’s forced to fight for the British in the World War; the violent creation of Pakistan; the mysterious death / disappearance of Subash Chandra Bose; the assassination of Gandhi, the Mahatma; and then it was all over. We became free (Or so we think). We think about colonisation with such memory, and we remember it as political and economic control, and a lot of violence. Of course, this memory and recollection is not ours personally. We were never there to witness any of it. But it is our memory too. Our collective memory, or our civilisational memory. And we need it. We need it because it helps us connect the dots and see how past events have shaped our present (the historical context of current issues). It reminds us that we’re all in this together and can learn from the past to build a better future for everyone. And we need it also because colonisation is not over. There is more to colonialism that we need to be aware of, more to it than domination, looting and violence. Because now, we are the ones facing it first hand. To begin a discussion on decolonisation, we need to first understand what colonisation is, for all the effects it had on our nation. And it so happens that understanding colonisation as such is the beginning of the process of decolonisation. Activity 1: Define the following words. 1. Maya - ______________________________________ 2. Atma - ______________________________________ 3. Ishwara - ____________________________________ 4. Manas - _____________________________________ 5. Asura - ______________________________________ 6. Shakti - _____________________________________ 2 Foundations of Indian Heritage Defining Colonisation Over the past 500 to 600 years, the Europeans set out to “discover” foreign lands. And in their journey they did “discover” - America, Africa, Australia, large parts of Asia, etc. Even today, we learn that Christopher Columbus “discovered” America, and we accept it even though our common sense tells us that this land that was called America by Europeans, was already there before they “discovered” it. There were people there, and great civilisations like the Maya and the Aztec, among many more. Yet still, somehow, they claim to have “discovered” it. European nations thus colonised numerous regions on Earth for a long time before relinquishing control over many of these territories. Subsequently, research has gone into the impact and experience of colonisation in these places, and hence today, we can examine colonisation on a worldwide scale. We can thus reach a nuanced and unbiased definition of colonisation from all those experiences, a definition that is beyond any kind of religious, nationalistic, or civilisational prejudice. In an article by Margaret Kohn and Kavita Reddy, published in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy in 2006, they discuss the difficulty in defining colonialism. Often limited to the term imperialism, there is a tendency to define colonialism as only political and economic control. While these are indeed common features, they are not synonymous. But owing to the consistent difficulty in distinguishing colonialism from imperialism, they chose to define colonialism thus. … the process of European settlement, violent dispossession and political domination over the rest of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia. Decolonisation 3  … a broad concept that refers to the project of European political domination that began in the early sixteenth century. Here settlement or population transfer is the only difference between colonialism and imperialism. This definition is also in-line with an earlier work by Ronald J Hovarth in 1972. In places like America we find why settlement is given more importance. European settlers in America are called Americans today, and the original people of the land are called Native Americans. Did the natives even call themselves American before the advent of Europeans? In another research discussing the coloniality of knowledge in Africa , we find, The coloniser does not only distort the history of the colonised, slaughter their knowledge systems and empty their heads of self-confidence and their hearts of the emotional stamina to live without colonial domination. But he goes ahead to manufacture accusations and labels against the colonised... Here we encounter another dimension of colonialism. There is something about distortion of history, and of knowledge systems, and about labelling the colonised. This aligns with the work of Aimé Césaire, esteemed author and leader, who extensively studied and worked against colonialism in Africa. In ‘Discourse on Colonialism’ , he exclaims, Colonial activity, colonial enterprise, colonial conquest, is based on contempt for the native and justified by that contempt. He talks about ‘contempt for native’. What does this have to 4 Foundations of Indian Heritage do with colonialism? In an attempt to make subtle and nuanced understanding of colonialism during and after, Nicholas Dirks suggests, It is not just that colonialism had cultural effects, it was itself a cultural project of control. In certain ways, culture was what colonialism was all about. During and after colonial rule, colonised societies were classified as traditional societies. The newly classified traditional societies were reconstructed and transformed by and through colonial technologies of conquest and rule. This created new categories and oppositions between colonisers and colonised, European and Asian, modern and traditional, West and East, even male and female. These are acclaimed research studies outside India, with almost 10,000 citations combined. They suggest that beyond political and economic control, and violence, colonisation is also about, transfer of population of the coloniser, contempt for the native, process of culture change, distortion of history and being categorised. This could just be the tip of the iceberg. Thus we reach a wider definition of colonisation that we need to bother about, 1. Political and Economic Control, with Violence 2. Transfer of population of the coloniser 3. Contempt for the Native 4. Process of Culture Change 5. Distortion of History 6. Distortion of Knowledge Systems 7. Being Categorised (as primitive, underdeveloped etc.) Decolonisation 5 Of these, we don’t have to deal with the first two aspects of colonisation. Our legendary freedom fighters gave up their lives to deal with the first and foremost problem, and by 1947 it was solved. Colonisation in India did not see any permanent settlement of British or other European nationals here. Hence we don’t have to face that aspect of colonisation as well. But the rest is still there, and we have to deal with it. Note that some researchers also define these as ‘post-colonialism’. In many of these countries today, the native traditions have been lost beyond recovery. For them, understanding and addressing the problem of colonisation only means that they rise to the same level of the colonists, be as good as them, be their equal. In India, the indigenous culture is very much alive. The problem of colonisation has to be addressed to return to our civilizational identity, and to prevent further damage. The broader definition of colonialism that we reached here is from global studies of colonialism. This does not mean that this problem has not been identified in India. Though they do not use the word colonisation or decolonisation, many luminaries in India had already identified this problem, and had discussed it. Reading their works brings about a natural process of decolonisation. Who are they? 1. Swami Vivekananda 2. Rabindranath Tagore 3. Sri Aurobindo 4. Mahatma Gandhi 5. Subash Chandra Bose etc. If you take this entire definition of colonialism into consideration, 6 Foundations of Indian Heritage we can immediately see that colonisation is not over. This means that we continue to be colonised, that we are facing it first hand, and we need to gain freedom from this colonisation too. To understand this, and the effect these things have on the core of our being, and our relationship with family, society and nation, we need to first understand how colonialism affects us individually , and collectively. Only with such an understanding can a definition of colonialism be complete. Taking Notice of Colonisation The Monoculture A very visible aspect of colonisation that we constantly see in the world today is the kind of monoculture that has settled in. What does this mean? There are hundreds of thousands of communities in India, and millions more across the world. The differences between them is perceivable. How do we understand one community to be different from others? What do we differentiate? Broadly speaking, among other things, we primarily notice the following , 1. Language 2. Dress 3. Aesthetics - Ornaments, art, etc. 4. Architecture 5. Food (medicine, ecosystem) 6. Divine and the Sacred Activity 2: Divide the class into groups of 5 or 6 students, and prepare a graphic presentation of these six aspects of community, for different states of India. Decolonisation 7 When you take the indigenous framework of lifestyle and living, you find such variations based on geography, climate, and other factors. But how has colonial frameworks changed all this? We can find that colonisation has led to a kind of monoculture in all aspects - linguistic monoculture, aesthetic monoculture, technological monoculture, biological / medicinal monoculture etc. A common language, style of dressing, global styles, and concrete in architecture. As you look closer, you find more and more. Is monoculture a good thing? Are they based on any scientific study? Colonised Identity Imagine that you are introducing yourself to someone. What details would you give as pertaining to the definition of you. This can be an activity. You would first tell them your name; followed by where you come from, which is your origin. You may talk about your hobbies, your interests and your goals. And when you get closer you share your perceptions of life that take you forward, your view of the world, and what you are setting out to achieve. These are the things that make up your identity and define who you are. Now imagine, that someone is trying to artificially remove your memory, and hence your identity. You can relate to the very popular movies like Bourne Series, Inception, The Maze Runner, Shutter Island, Total Recall, among many more that portray a theft of memory and identity, and the journey back. We trade many things, but we dont give or take our core identity. We won’t allow it to be snatched away, manipulated or controlled. On an individual level if such a manipulation happens to us, we can detect and solve it by psychological means. But what if this 8 Foundations of Indian Heritage happens to us collectively, as a community or nation. Is it acceptable if over hundreds of years, our identities, our memories, and our perceptions have been collectively hijacked and manipulated? Robbery of memory personally, is akin to robbery (or distortion) of history in the collective sense. Similarly, forcing a change in our culture implies a forced estrangement of identity on an individual level. Imagine a situation where someone shows contempt for what you believe in! If colonisation is contempt for native culture, it is also contempt for your personal beliefs. This exactly is at the core of the definition of colonialism. Colonisation is the hijacking of our collective identity, by manipulating our past, history, culture, and philosophy, to serve the purposes of the coloniser. Decolonising, hence, is the process of coming back to our true identity. Inability to Access Indian Knowledge Systems How did you define Maya, Atma, Ishwara, Asura, Shakti, or Manas? You will have found yourself saying that Maya means illusion, and then explained what illusion is. You will have defined Atma as soul, and then you defined soul. Or Ishwara is God, and then defined God. Right? Make one more attempt to define all these terms. This time, don’t go for the English words, illusion, soul, god, etc. Try to describe them in your native language. Are you able to do it? You will be surprised at how hard it is. These terms are very personal to you as well, right? When you try to define Manas, remember that you are trying to define your manas, or Atma is your Atma. How come you do not know what all these things mean? This is the most visible effect of colonisation. It disconnected us Decolonisation 9 from our culture (Indian Knowledge Systems), and had us connect to the culture of the coloniser (Coloniser Knowledge Systems) instead. And hence when we try to define any such terms, unable to access IKS, we automatically go to CKS (where we establish a weak connection). In our case, the Coloniser Knowledge Systems is primarily the English or British Knowledge Systems. The solution is now clear. We need to establish our connection with Indian Knowledge Systems, irrespective of the status of our connection with CKS. Colonial Shadows Within Us If you think that all this is not for you, that you are not colonised, think again! Let us evaluate ourselves based on a scale set for us in another work of research. This work describes what we can take to be the five symptoms of a still colonised mind. 1. A sceptical attitude towards Indian cultural creations and institutions. Unless approved or recognised by the west, nothing in India is good enough. 10 Foundations of Indian Heritage  2. A worshipping attitude towards western cultural creations and institutions, justified in the name of “progress”. Unless deemed inadequate in a western evaluation, nothing from the west is to be rejected. 3. An intellectual tendency to compare India of the past with the west of the present, rather than a contemporaneous comparison. 4. A general tendency to judge the west based on its ideals as it were from time to time, as against the tendency to judge Indian society and culture based only on what prevails at the present, without regard to the millenia of foreign invasions. 5. A tendency to assess and judge Indian culture, society, and spirituality using Western intellectual frameworks, while disregarding the insights and tools of analysis offered by Indian philosophical traditions, which are often dismissed as unscientific or irrelevant when applied to Western culture. If you are able to relate to any of these symptoms, have no doubt you are colonised. This colonisation is essentially a disease of the mind that needs to be cured. A decolonised mind is essentially free to think, is able to accept and transfer knowledge without biases. All biases? No. It goes to say that there are personal elements that can lead to bias or block our thinking. Here it is the ability to think originally, owing to the return of our identity, that was collectively hijacked by the colonisers. Whether we accept it or not, we maintain rigid borders in our thought processes. Because, aligning ourselves with the British coloniser, we have divided everything and everyone around us into what is “modern” and what is not. Or what is “progressive” Decolonisation 11 and what is not. What is “science” or “scientific” and what is not. Our imaginations are trapped within these boundaries. We don’t allow it to soar wide and free. Decolonisation means that you can dissolve those boundaries, and allow yourself to apply your logic and reasoning to anything and everything around you, be it tradition, faith, arts, sports, science, philosophy and much more. A decolonised mind is hence free to think, without ideas of the coloniser running in the background. Notions of Benefit and Progress Almost eight decades after colonisation, we are still chasing western ideas and notions, even when it comes to understanding India. We wholeheartedly agree with the British when they say that it was them who brought progress and modernity to India. We have no problem creating a pros and cons list to discuss the British or Mughal presence in India. Even the violent realities of their presence does not prevent us from thinking about the so-called benefits. We agree to all this without thorough study or research. Activity 3: Divide the class into groups of 5 or 6 students. Let each group create a pros and cons list of European and Mughal presence in India. The existence of these notions, despite lack of proof or study, is another way colonisation can be visibly perceived. For example, the British brought progress to India - Education, Medicine, Law and Administration, or that before the British, India was not united as one nation. How did you come by these notions? Have you been presented with any kind of study or proof that these things are true? You may have read minimally on such matters, but then how did you come to believe that these things are true? 12 Foundations of Indian Heritage Let us discuss and critically analyse the notion that it was the British who educated Indians, or improved our system of education. And thus let us learn to analyse any such notion, before accepting them as true. Indian Education - Pre and Post Colonial Activity 4: When you think about education in Ancient India, what comes to mind? List five things you know. Activity 5: This is an activity for a group of two students. Imagine that one of you is born to a family of carpenters in Britain of the 1800s, and the other a woman born in a royal family in Britain, at the same time. What would be your futures? Discuss and contrast. The history of India is replete with contributions in many fields of study. Physics, mathematics, chemistry, medicine, astronomy, metallurgy, linguistics, philosophy, law and administration, architecture, accounting, sports and games, arts, and much more. Table 1: Contributions and Contributors of Ancient India Sl. Contributors Area of Published / Approximate No Contribution Implemented Year of Publication 1 Sushruta Medicine Sushruta Samhita 600 BCE 2 Lagadha Astronomy Vedanga Jyothisha 500 BCE 4th Century 3 Panini Linguistics Ashtadyayi BCE Economics, Law & Arthashasthra, 3rd Century 4 Chanakya Administration Neethishasthra BCE Mahabhashya,Yoga 2nd Century 5 Patanjali Linguistics, Yoga sutras BCE between 200 6 Bharat Muni Art Natyashastra BCE and 200 CE. Chemistry, 1st Century 7 Nagarjuna Rasaratnakara Metallurgy BCE 8 Charaka Medicine Charaka Samhita 100 CE Decolonisation 13  9 Chandragupta II Metallurgy The Iron Pillar 375 - 415 CE 10 Thiruvalluvar Philosophy, Poet Tirukkural 500 CE Mathematics, Aryabhattiya 11 Aryabhatta 510 CE Astronomy Arya Siddhanta 12 Varahamihira Astronomy and Brihat Samhita 550 CE Mathematics Aryabhattiyabhashya, Mahabhashkariya, 13 Bhaskara 1 Mathematics 629 CE Laghubhashkariya Mathematics, 14 Brahmagupta Brahmasphutasiddhanta 665 CE Astronomy Commentaries (Bhashyas) on the Upanishads, 8th 15 Adi Shankaracharya Philosophy Brahmasutra and Century CE Bhagavadgita. Bhaja Govindam 16 Bhoja Narapati Naval Engineering Yukti Kalpa Taru 1000-1050 CE 17 Bhaskara II Mathematics Sidhanta Siromani 1150 CE Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell), a distinctive form of 18 Queen Udayamati Architecture subterranean water 11th Century architecture of the CE Indian subcontinent, located in Patan Bartaman Bharat, Vedanta Philosophy, Karma Yoga, Bhakti 19 Swami Vivekananda Philosophy Yoga, Sangeet Kalpataru, 1863 - 1902 CE Practical Vedanta and many more. Now, there is an inevitable question that must be pondered. Can there be a contribution to any field of expertise, without opportunities for systematic guidance and support? One can argue that, for example in mathematics, people would know basic counting or calculations without a stream of mathematics learning. But can there be a cutting edge research finding, or proposal of new theorems, only with individual effort. For an advanced research to happen, there must have been previous research to which the researcher had access. This can be through 14 Foundations of Indian Heritage books, or by direct learning. If there are contributions in any field, that implies that that stream of learning flourished in that region. Take popular examples even today. Can there be a Sachin Tendulkar, if cricket was not thriving in India. Can there be Lionel Messi if Argentina did not cherish football? Can there be a Nambi Narayanan or an APJ Abdul Kalam, if India did not have Aerospace Engineering? This implies that a lot of streams including the ones that have been listed in the table above flourished in India. India has a rich educational heritage, with great universities that harboured scholars all over India and abroad. Nalanda, Takshashila, Kanthalloor Sala, etc. are examples of the great universities of India. Figure 1 reveals a teacher-disciple line, in the fields of Astronomy and Mathematics, extending to as much as 700 years. Now consider this - You knew many of these things, of the contributions from India, or of the universities in Ancient India. But when asked about education in Ancient India, you ended up picturing a Guru sitting under a tree, teaching Vedas and spirituality. Why? The British Contribution The British claimed that it was they who educated and civilised India, that they brought modernity to India. Contrary to their claims, research suggests that Indian education was much ahead, extensive and open than other nations at the time, especially Britain. The British education system was not so open, or welcoming, and only included the children of “gentlemen” or “nobles”. In an extensive research on indigenous education in India in the 18th century, Dharampal quotes A E Dobbs (who researched on education in Britain from 1700 - 1850) thus, Decolonisation 15  Govinda Bhattatiri of Talakkulattur (1237 - 1296 CE)  Grandfather of Paramesvara (13th - 14th Century CE)  Paramesvara (1360-1430 CE)  Damodara (15th Century CE)  Nilakantha Somayajin (1443 - 1555 CE)  Jyesthadeva (1500 – 1600 CE)  Acyuta Pisarati (1559 -1621 CE)  Trppanikkara Poduval (17th Century)  Navayikkulathu Azhati (17th Century)  Pulimukhattu Potti (1686 - 1758 CE)  Raman Asan (18th Century)  Krsna Asan (Krsnadasa) (1756 - 1812 CE) Figure 1 16 Foundations of Indian Heritage  …meet for the ploughman’s son to go to the plough, and the artificer’s son to apply the trade of his parent’s vocation: and the gentlemen’s children are meet to have the knowledge of Government and rule in the commonwealth. For we have as much need of ploughmen as any other State: and all sorts of men may not go to school. Britain’s perspective on education back in the 18th century is very clear. That education is not meant for all. That birth decides whether one gets educated or not. Dharampal presents the status of indigenous education in India, as per surveys conducted by the British themselves. It reveals that India had at least one school per village or panchayat at the time. The surveys record as high as 100,000 schools in places like Bengal, Bihar, Punjab, Madras, etc. In comparison, Britain was much behind, not just on numbers alone. … in many respects Indian schooling seems to have been much more extensive (and, it should be remembered, that it is a greatly damaged and disorganised India that one is referring to). The content of studies was better than what was then studied in England. The duration of study was more prolonged. The method of school teaching was superior and it is this very method which is said to have greatly helped the introduction of popular education in England but which had prevailed in India for centuries. School attendance, especially in the districts of the Madras Presidency, even in the decayed state of the period 1822- 25, was proportionately far higher than the numbers in all variety of schools in England in 1800. The conditions under which teaching took place in the Indian schools Decolonisation 17  were less dingy and more natural; and, it was observed, the teachers in the Indian schools were generally more dedicated and sober than in the English versions. Furthermore, we have in Dharmapal’s work, a report by the district collector of Ballari in 1823, The economy with which children are taught to write in the native schools, and the system by which the more advanced scholars are caused to teach the less advanced and at the same time to confirm their own knowledge is certainly admirable, and well deserved the imitation it has received in England. Here we have direct acknowledgement from the British that the system of education in India is being imitated in Britain. With all these hard facts proven by meticulous research, how are Indians today stuck with the perception that it was the British who educated India? And to top it all, the actual impact that the British had on Indian education was disruptive. Mahatma Gandhi’s long address at the Royal Institute of International Affairs, London on 20 October, 1931, stated that literacy had declined in India in the past 50-100 years and held the British responsible for it. When Dharampal published this research, he titled it ‘The Beautiful Tree’, based on this statement made by Mahatma Gandhi, …today India is more illiterate than it was fifty or a hundred years ago, and so is Burma, because the British administrators, when they came to India, instead of taking hold of things as they were, began to root them out. They scratched the soil and began to look at the root, and left the root like that, and the beautiful tree perished. 18 Foundations of Indian Heritage ‘The Beautiful Tree’ that Mahatma Gandhi refers to here is the beautiful tree of education in India. What really happened to education in India? Given all the facts above, the reality is that we are still left with a British-introduced format of education in India. What happened? If not to improve, what could have been the reason behind changing the way education was in India. One popular argument was that Macaulay wanted to remove the quality of Indianness from Indians, and wanted to make them more like the British. His speech in the British Parliament in 1835 is popular, We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. To understand this better, we need to understand the vision that the British had on education itself, and India’s vision of education. The British view on education is well recorded. We saw that only children of nobles were educated. And before 1830, while ‘schooling for all’ was being pondered, no entity powerful enough ever spoke in favour of it. In fact you find that such people opposed the idea. In 1807 a British scientist Davies Gilbert thus spoke in the House of Commons, However specious in theory the project might be of giving education to the labouring classes of the poor, it would in effect be prejudicial to their morals and happiness: it would teach them to despise their lot in life, instead Decolonisation 19  of making them good servants to agriculture and other laborious employments to which their rank in society had destined them: instead of teaching them subordination, it would render them factious and refractory, as was evident in the manufacturing counties… It would render them insolent and indolent to their superiors… Those who promoted education for the working class viewed it more as a ‘means of control’ than a ‘means of liberation’, or a ‘means of empowerment’. Education was seen as a way to pacify and mould the working class to fit into the existing social order. Nobody was worried about giving education in light of the inherent higher purpose - the search for truth, or the real purpose of elevation. In India, education has always been a path to liberation. It is the inner journey of each and every individual that takes them forward from wherever they are. It is about seeking and gaining knowledge to enlighten our minds and our hearts. Amma, Satguru Sri Mata Amritanandamayi Devi, often reinforces this great vision of education, “Education should spread light within and without. Education should equally develop discernment and contemplation. It should develop the child. Education should teach us to keep our inner eyes open just as much as our external eyes. Education should instil awareness and strengthen the deep bond between the student and his Nation, the World, his fellow human beings and other creatures, Nature and God.” It was in this vision that education was widespread in India. So, no matter what anyone learned, be it mathematics, physics, chemistry, or law, or be it carpentry, smithy etc., they learnt because they wanted to know more. Knowing in itself made them happy. This doesn’t imply that gaining of wealth or means 20 Foundations of Indian Heritage of livelihood was absent in India. It is just that priorities that influenced education were different. Read ‘Jonathan Livingston Seagull’ by Richard Bach When the British were here, they may have found that people were educated, but they were definitely not employable for their purposes. For example, education in India did not teach how to be a good clerk or an accountant. This is where the British started creating their own educational institutions, that ‘certified’ people and ensured cheap employable human resources for their purposes. Imagine the kind of education that only aims to make clerks, assistants, accountants, etc. out of you. British education hence generated a class of Indians who could work in the middle between the ruling British and the millions of Indians they governed. Research also tells us that there are other things that the British did that disrupted education in India. For example, destroying the flow of funds that supported education in India. While these factors are there, what really broke the backbone of Indian Education is the disruption of vision of education. Conclusion Colonisation has rendered us prejudiced against our own Mother. Her knowledge and wisdom is second class to us. And we are drawn to all that glitters everywhere else. This does not mean that we demoralise European or western knowledge. There is good everywhere, wisdom everywhere. So what is a decolonised mind? In very simple terms, a mind that is not colonised, right? It is not so difficult to understand Decolonisation 21 what being ‘colonised’ and ‘not colonised’ is. But what is difficult is that when we live thinking we are not colonised anymore (after 1947), someone comes along and tells you otherwise. Decolonization simply means to recognise the colonisation of the mind that has happened to us, that it is very real. And to set ourselves free from this colonisation by being critical of the notions that come our way. We need to willingly make an effort to analyse before we accept something as true. Being free thus means to be free of prejudices, to have a framework that automatically filters in the truth only, and to soar the skies of wisdom all over the world. आ नोो भद्राःः क्रतवोो यन्तुु वि श्वत्व्् अदब्धाासोो अपरीीताास उद्भि दःः | देे वाा नोो यथाा सदमि द्वृ ृधेे असन्न-प्राायुुवोो रक्षि ताारोो दि वेे-दि वेे || ā no bhadrāḥ kratavo yantu viśvatv adabdhāso aparītāsa udbhidaḥ | devā no yathā sadamidvṛdhe asanna-prāyuvo rakṣitāro dive-dive || May noble thoughts come to us from every side, unchanged, unhindered, undefeated in every way; May the devas always be with us for our gain and our protectors caring for us, ceaseless, everyday. Rigveda 1.89.1 Explore 1. We explored the effects of colonisation on those who were colonised. But what about the coloniser? Did colonisation have any effect on the British or Europeans? History of the coloniser is chocked up with a number of mass genocides. From the Jews in Germany, to the slaves in Africa, to the many many forced migrations, including the Goans in India, we can clearly see that colonialism has made the European colonists insensitive to genocides. 22 Foundations of Indian Heritage  2. Have we ever questioned the traditions and beliefs of the British, and asked if they are progressive, scientific or modern? Whatever we are taught as better, were always things that were not pertaining to us. Moreover, to be that “better” we are taught to leave our culture and identity behind. 3. Even today, we talk about good education, or being a good student, to cause good employability. While this makes sense today, is there any other way of looking at education, and our studentship? Read ‘Jonathan Livingston Seagull’ by Richard Bach, and reflect on the decisions you have made regarding your education. References 1. Kohn, Margaret, and Kavita Reddy. “Colonialism.” (2006). 2. Horvath, Ronald J. “A definition of colonialism.” Current anthropology 13.1 (1972): 45-57. 3. Seroto, Johannes. “Dynamics of decoloniality in South Africa: A critique of the history of Swiss mission education for indigenous people.” Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae 44.3 (2018): 1-14. 4. Mpofu, William Jethro. “Coloniality in the scramble for African knowledge: A decolonial political perspective.” Africanus 43.2 (2013): 105-117. 5. Césaire, Aimé. “Discourse on colonialism.” Postcolonlsm. Routledge, 2023. 310-339. 6. Dirks, Nicholas B. Colonialism and culture. University of Michigan Press, 1992. 7. Okazaki, Sumie, E. J. R. David, and Nancy Abelmann. “Colonialism and psychology of culture.” Social and personality psychology compass 2.1 (2008): 90-106. 8. ‘Decolonising Indian Education’, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=MorNZijCuns 9. Goel, Sita Ram. Hindu Society under siege. New Delhi: Voice of India, 1981. 10. Sengupta, Madhumita, and Jahnu Bharadwaj. “Caste census and the impact of colonial sociology in British Assam.” Asian Ethnicity 22.4 (2021): 516- 541. Decolonisation 23  11. Sarma, K. Venkateswara, ed. Science Texts in Sanskrit in the Manuscripts Repositories of Kerala and Tamilanadu [ie Tamilnadu]. Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, 2002. 12. Dharampal. The beautiful tree: Indigenous Indian education in the eighteenth century. Biblia Impex, 1983. 13. Rule, John. The labouring classes in early industrial England, 1750-1850. Routledge, 2014. 24 Foundations of Indian Heritage  Chapter 2 Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas Introduction The ancient temples of South India are adorned with stone-carved windows that captivate the eye and the mind. These windows, with their intricate patterns, not only frame the outside world, but also shape our perception of it. They act as mediators between the observer and the observed, inviting us to explore different ways of knowing and being. The remarkable diversity of these windows, found in the temples of Pallavas, Chalukyas, Cholas, and others, may also mirror the rich epistemological pluralism that characterises Indian culture, a culture that celebrates multiple paths to reality. Pointing out the organic relationship between epistemology and science, Albert Einstein said:  Epistemology1 without contact with science becomes an empty scheme. Science without epistemology is — insofar as it is thinkable at all — primitive and muddled. Epistemology and Science A notable instance is natural theology, which views the world as a masterpiece created by a divine designer. According to this theory, the world is like a clock or a watch, and God is the master Watchmaker behind it all. The sophistications and intricateness of the workings of the world (watch), are understood as reflections of the intelligence of God (watchmaker). This philosophy has inspired scientists and thinkers to explore the complexities of living things, believing they were evidence of a grand plan by a divine creator. However, when Darwin’s theory of evolution came along, it proposed something different. Evolution showed that life’s diversity and complexity could arise from a process without any guiding hand - like a watchmaker who doesn’t need to see what they’re making - a ‘Blind Watchmaker’. Natural theology faced a serious dilemma. Instead of a deliberate designer, evolution revealed a ‘Blind Watchmaker’ at work - where changes in living things are driven by factors like the environment, genetic variations, and survival pressures over time. This revelation shook the foundations of natural theology, leading to cling to ideas like ‘Intelligent design’ and ‘Creationism’ in an attempt to reconcile science with their theological beliefs. Another instance comes from Marxism and the Soviet Union. Pierre Duhem (1861–1916), was a physicist and a philosopher of 1 Epistemology, the study of knowledge and its justification, not only enables us to explore various domains of inquiry, but also allows us to appreciate the scientific implications of our findings. However, epistemological conflicts may arise when scientific discoveries challenge or undermine a particular philosophical worldview. 26 Foundations of Indian Heritage science. He presented a unique perspective in his book, ‘The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory’. Instead of seeing the laws of physics as definite truths, he viewed them as close approximations. Duhem described these laws as neither completely true nor false but rather as symbolic representations that capture aspects of reality in a more or less precise manner. Later developments in Physics revealed that Duhem had actually touched the heart of a problem that physicists would debate passionately in the coming decades. For example, Louis de Broglie, famous for his equation of particle wavelength, saw the work of Duhem as ‘a beautiful and great work where physicists of today can still find numerous topics worthy of reflection and study’. This acknowledgment reveals the relevance and impact of Duhem’s ideas. However, Vladimir Lenin2 (1870 - 1924) disagreed with this view, and regarded it as containing ‘the beginning of the falsity’. In 1908, Vladimir Lenin wrote a concise work called ‘Materialism and Empirio-criticism’. In this work, Lenin critiqued and judged prominent scientists and philosophers of science of his time, including Alexander Bogdanov, Pierre Duhem, and Henri Poincare. Lenin’s work set a standard where every scientific discovery and theory had to align with the specific ideology of marxism, with “correctness” determined by ideological commissars. This approach escalated into a state-controlled investigation during Stalin’s3 rule, leading to the persecution of geneticists and the condemnation of Mendelian genetics as 2 Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, was a prominent Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. Lenin served as the first head of government of Soviet Russia until his death in 1924. His legacy includes being the founder of the Russian Communist Party and a key figure in shaping the Communist worldview through “Leninism.” 3 Joseph Stalin was a prominent Soviet politician who ruled the Soviet Union from the mid- 1920s until his death in 1953. Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas 27 non-science, resulting in the imprisonment, torture, and even execution of geneticists. So epistemological diversity is not just an abstract notion but a much needed one for the post-Darwinian and post-New Physics societies which value advancement in knowledge. This can be illustrated with two contrasting examples: When Lenin wrote ‘Materialism and Empirio-criticism’, New Physics4 was dawning. Science was well nearing what would be the epicentre of quantum revolutions. So the signs were clear as to the direction into which science was moving. Lenin’s assertion that science should align with dialectical materialism5, even if reluctantly or with reservations, reflects a rigid and dogmatic approach akin to religious beliefs. This perspective suggests that science should conform to predetermined ideological frameworks, endorsing theology or ideology, rather than allowing for open- minded exploration and discovery. On the other hand Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) considered religion to submit itself to the methods of science mercilessly - Is religion to justify itself by the discoveries of reason, through which every other concrete science justifies itself? Are the same methods of investigation which we apply to sciences and knowledge outside, to be applied to the science of Religion? In my opinion, this must be so, and I am also of the opinion that the sooner it is done the better. If a religion is destroyed by such investigations, it 4 New physics refers to a range of fundamental developments and paradigm shifts that have occurred in the physical sciences, particularly during the latter half of the 20th century. 5 Dialectical materialism is a framework for understanding societal development and historical change, emphasising the role of material conditions and the conflicts they generate. It forms the philosophical basis for Marxist theory, providing a method to analyse and predict the dynamics of social transformation. 28 Foundations of Indian Heritage  was then all the time useless, unworthy superstition; and the sooner it goes the better. I am thoroughly convinced that its destruction would be the best thing that could happen. All that is dross would be taken off, no doubt, but the essential parts of religion will emerge triumphant out of this investigation. Yet his Vedanta could provide a framework that was far more visionary and holistic than the framework of dialectical materialism which not just strangulated science but sent scientists to gallows and labour camps in the USSR: Take anything before you, the most material thing — take one of the most material sciences, as chemistry or physics, astronomy or biology — study it, push the study forward and forward, and the gross forms will begin to melt and become finer and finer, until they come to a point where you are bound to make a tremendous leap from these material things into the immaterial. The gross melts into the fine, physics into metaphysics, in every department of knowledge. The statement was made in 1896. It would be 29 years later, and 23 years after the samadhi of Vivekananda, that Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg would come up with the Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics6 which would disturb Einstein enough to make the statement that, “God would not play dice with the universe”. Einstein would collaborate with physicists Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen to prove the incompleteness of quantum mechanics, which in turn would unveil stranger non-localised quantum phenomena. But all that 6 Highlighting the probabilistic nature of quantum phenomena, it introduces the concept of complementarity, stating that certain properties cannot be simultaneously observed. This view emphasises the role of observation in defining quantum states and remains a key aspect of quantum theory. Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas 29 would be in the future. Much before any of those developments, this monk from a colonised world could predict the direction science would take in the next century. Now let us briefly consider three traditional Indian knowledge frameworks (or epistemologies) and see how they could be used to view developments in modern science. Let us consider briefly three instances of how the Indic frameworks provide us ways to explore and view the problems and discoveries of science respectively. Vedantic Satkaryavada Have you ever thought about how a tiny seed can hold the potential to become a majestic banyan tree? When you plant the seed and it grows into a tree, you are not creating something entirely new or separate from the seed. Instead, you are helping to bring out the hidden potential that was there all along. The banyan tree is inherent in the seed, meaning that the essence or possibility of the tree already exists within the seed itself. This is the idea of Satkaryavada. It suggests that the effect (the banyan tree) is not something entirely new that emerges from the cause (the seed), but rather a transformation or manifestation of what was already present in a latent form. Satkaryavada is the idea that cause is already present in the effect and the effect is present in the cause. Understanding the concept of Satkaryavada provides a specific kind of view on how cause and effect are interconnected. It is an integral part of three out of six schools, the Six Darshanas7, Yoga, Vedanta and Samkhya. Through various metaphors, proverbs and philosophical 7 The Six Darshanas are the six Schools of Philosophy in India, based on the Vedas. They are Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta, each presenting distinct viewpoints on reality and spirituality. 30 Foundations of Indian Heritage discussions, this notion has become ingrained in the collective consciousness of Indian society, making it very easy for the Indian mind to embrace the concept of evolution. Unlike the ongoing conflicts in the West between religious fundamentalists and proponents of science education, India has a smoother acceptance of evolution due to the seamless integration of Satkaryavada into its cultural and philosophical framework. Swami Vivekananda suggested the significance of Satkaryavada in the context of biological evolution. He proposed that evolution is not a simple process of new forms emerging from pre-existing ones, but rather a manifestation of what was already present in a latent form. He believed that evolution presupposes involution, meaning that the potential for evolution is already present in the original cause. Interestingly, Swami Vivekananda also criticised the concept of ‘Social Darwinism’, which was popularised by British philosopher Herbert Spencer. Social Darwinism is the application of the principles of natural selection to society, suggesting that the strong should prevail over the weak. Vivekananda rejected this idea and proposed the concept of “Infilling of Nature”8 (Prakrtyapurat), which emphasises the harmonious development of all living beings. Similarly, Sri Aurobindo also recognized the relevance of Satkaryavada in the context of evolution. He would literally sing evolution into his mystic English verses of Savitri, where he described evolution as a process of rapid and sudden outbursts of manifestation from the unmanifest. 8 Infilling of nature is seen as a natural process that occurs over time, driven by the inherent qualities and tendencies of each species. It is a continuous process of evolution and transformation, where each species is gradually shaped and moulded by the forces of nature. This idea is based on the Sanskrit term “prakrtyapurat” used by Patanjali, which refers to the process by which nature fills in and transforms one species into another. Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas 31 The perspectives of Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo align closely with the evolutionary theory of punctuated equilibrium proposed by Stephen Jay Gould. Punctuated equilibrium is based on the idea that species remain relatively stable (equilibrium) for extended periods, showing little morphological change, until a rapid burst (punctuation) of evolution results in the emergence of a new species. This theory challenged the traditional view of evolution as a slow and gradual process, suggesting instead that most evolutionary changes occur rapidly during speciation events, with little change happening between these periods. It is not that Vivekananda and Aurobindo “discovered” or “knew” about punctuated equilibrium before Gould. It is about how they offered the Indian mindset a conceptual foundation and a comprehensive worldview to understand such concepts when they were introduced. They provided a framework that resonated with the idea of punctuated equilibrium, emphasising sudden bursts of change and manifestation from the unmanifest, akin to the punctuated shifts in evolutionary development described by Gould. Despite these insightful parallels, the challenge lies in how these Indian perspectives were often overlooked or underutilised in favour of non-Indic frameworks, reflecting a broader societal inclination towards external influences rather than drawing from indigenous philosophical traditions.Consider the following verses of Aurobindo in Savitri. What better way to introduce an Indian student, of any discipline of science and arts, to the wonder of evolution than through a panel depicting the phylogenetic tree of life with these verses? If in the meaningless Void creation rose, If from a bodiless Force Matter was born, If Life could climb in the unconscious tree, Its green delight break into emerald leaves 32 Foundations of Indian Heritage  And its laughter of beauty blossom in the flower, If sense could wake in tissue, nerve and cell And Thought seize the grey matter of the brain, And soul peep from its secrecy through the flesh, How shall the nameless Light not leap on men, And unknown powers emerge from Nature’s sleep? Savitri, Canto IV: The Dream Twilight of the Earthly Real Jain Saptabhangi Have you ever found yourself in a situation where you and your friend disagree about something, but both of your viewpoints seem valid? That’s where the Jain concept of Syadvada comes in! Syadvada is all about understanding that truth can be relative and depends on the perspective and context. The term “syādvāda” comes from the Sanskrit roots “syāt” (meaning “may be” or “perhaps”) and “vāda” (meaning “assertion” or “discussion”). In this context, “syāt” is often translated as “in some ways” or “from a perspective”, emphasising the conditional and relative nature of the truth claim. This approach suggests that every statement or belief should come with a reminder that it may only be true under certain conditions. By doing this, we can understand that apparently conflicting ideas might actually both be valid when viewed from different angles. So next time you and your friend have a differing opinion, remember Syadvada - it might help you understand each other better! Syadvada is a philosophical concept in Jainism. It emphasises the relativity and conditionality of truth. It suggests that all philosophical statements should be predicated with the word Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas 33 “syāt”, indicating that the statement is true from a certain perspective or under certain conditions. For example, 1. The sky is blue, perhaps. 2. Maybe the pot is big. 3. Perhaps, the tree is tall. 4. Perhaps the river is flowing. While addition of ‘syat’ (Perhaps or maybe), seems unnecessary here, the philosophy of ‘Syadvada’ asserts possibilities recognising that things may have many characters and can be perceived from different points of view. The old story of the blind men describing an elephant is one example. The theory of Syadvada is manifested in Saptabhangi. “Sapt’ means seven, and “bhangi” means “propositions” or “aspects”. In the place of a binary truth table, this system of philosophy provides the seven possible states of any instance of reality. 1. Syād-asti (“in some ways it is”) 2. Syād-nāsti (“in some ways it is not”) 3. Syād-asti-nāsti (“in some ways it is and it is not”) 4. Syād-avaktavyaḥ (“in some ways it is indescribable”) 5. Syād-asti cha avaktavyascha (“in some ways it is and also 34 Foundations of Indian Heritage  indescribable”) 6. Syad-nāsti cha avaktavyascha (“in some ways it is not and also indescribable”) 7. Syad-asti nāsti cha avaktavyascha (“in some ways, it is and it is not and also indescribable”) Have you heard of Schrödinger’s cat, in quantum mechanics? According to the principles of quantum mechanics, until someone opens the box that contains the cat and observes the system, the cat can be considered to be both alive and dead at the same time. Do you think that a person who is familiar with Saptabangi will be able to appreciate the cat problem more easily? Haldane, the polymath biologist, was so intrigued by this epistemological system that he attempted to create a ‘logical classification of animal behaviours’ based on this Saptabhangi model. Ever cautious, at the end of the paper, Haldane stated, “It is foolish to pretend that ancient philosophers anticipated all modern intellectual developments. And I believe that we, today, can do more honour to their memories by thinking for ourselves, as they did, than by devoting our lives to commentaries on them.” And then he said, “But if we do so, it is our duty to point out cases where it turns out that our own thought has run parallel to theirs. I was unaware of Bhadrabahu’s existence when I wrote the paper to which I refer. The fact that I reached a conclusion so like his own suggests that we may both have seen the same facet of many-splendored truth… If on the other hand, the contemplation of one’s own mind, and that of the minds of animals, lead to similar results, such results are perhaps worthy of serious consideration.” It was not only Haldane who was enamoured by the Saptabhangi and Syadvada. Bio-physicist Dr. G N Ramachandran was the one who Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas 35 discovered the triple helical structure of collagen. It was he who developed the famous “Ramachandran Plot” which is used in the investigation of peptides, the building blocks of proteins. He also developed a vector matrix based on Saptabhangi. In his paper on Vedanta and modern epistemology, Dr. Ramachandran pointed out in simple terms the relevance of Syadvada and Saptabhangi to the method of science: For example, Newton’s Laws of Motion were taken to be the absolute basis for physics, and a nineteenth century scientist would have answered the question ‘Are Newton’s Laws absolutely valid?’ by a firm definite ‘yes’. But twentieth century physics found it necessary to modify it, and replace it by Einstein’s equations. In fact, nobody can say, even now, that Einstein’s equations are the last word, because newer observations and theories can make still- further changes in them. In this sense, any theory (or any knowledge) derived from necessarily limited, incomplete, observation of facts, can never be absolutely true. This purely philosophical concept, which is obviously a very valid one in epistemology, was put in a practical form by the Jain philosophers. Saptabhangi still awaits its integration into the science and arts education of the nation of its origin, so that Indians can frame the questions of exploration in science and experience the discoveries of science in a new light. Buddhist Pratityasamutpada Pratityasamutpada is also called ‘dependent causation’. It is a fundamental concept in Buddhism that discusses how things happen because of a set of causes and conditions coming together. It helps us understand why things happen, and why it stops happening as well. “A substance does not exist in isolation,” says 36 Foundations of Indian Heritage Nagarjuna9, taking the example of the sprout: “for the sprout does not exist in the seed which is its cause; it does not exist in each one of earth, water, fire, wind and so forth, which are agreed to be its conditions; it does not exist in the combinations of conditions, nor in the combination of causes and conditions, and it does not exist as separate from these, free from causes and conditions.” Through this example, Nagarjuna reveals that nothing exists on its own. The existence of each and every phenomenon relies on a complex interplay of causes and conditions. Nothing can be isolated from its context. Perhaps, Pratityasamutpada provides one of the most comprehensive frameworks to understand the concept of coevolution. Coevolution is the adaptation and counter-adaptation of species, where they evolve together based on the pressures they impose on each other. This leads to complex interdependencies and specialised adaptations in the interacting species. Coevolution was familiar to Darwin. He wrote about “how a flower and a bee might slowly become, either simultaneously or one after the other, modified and adapted in the most perfect manner to each other”. The term ‘coevolution’ itself was coined only a century and five years after Darwin wrote those words in 1858. In 1964, Paul Ehrlich and Peter Raven10 studied plants eaten by butterfly larvae. They discovered the plants evolving chemicals to reduce the larvae 9 Nagarjuna was an Indian Mahāyāna Buddhist philosopher monk of the Madhyamaka school. He is widely regarded as one of the most important Buddhist philosophers, known for his critical analyses of false views about existence, knowledge, and reality. Nagarjuna established the concept of sunyata, or emptiness, as a fundamental tenet of the Madhyamika school. 10 Ehrlich and Raven’s seminal study, in 1964, introduced the concept of coevolution to a wider audience. Examining butterflies and their host plants, they proposed that plants’ evolutionary development of defences could lead to rapid diversification in insects through counter-adaptation, a process known as adaptive radiation. Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas 37 attacks and larvae evolving resistance for the same chemicals. They termed it coevolution. Since their paper- ‘Butterflies and Plants: A Study in Coevolution’, scientists, particularly ecologists and evolutionists, have recognised coevolution as, “one of the most important processes shaping biodiversity”. Another example of coevolution is the horse and the tundra grass. This coevolutionary relationship has been observed in cold, arctic regions such as the tundras of northern America, Eurasia and Greenland. Here, the horses living in the cold, harsh tundra regions, that have sparse vegetation (other than tundra grass), developed specialised teeth and digestive systems over time, to efficiently process the tough, fibrous tundra grass. In response, the tundra grass evolved features like increased silica content and deeper root systems to withstand the grazing of the horse, and maintain their presence in the ecosystem. One wonders what example Nagarjuna would have given had he known coevolution. Just comparing this statement of Gregory Bateson11, one of the greatest systems thinkers of our times, with Nagarjuna’s statement shows the parallels: “the horse didn’t evolve, the field grass didn’t evolve. It is the relationship that evolved. The horse and the tundra with grassy plains are interlocked. It’s an evolution in which the grass needs the horse as much as the horse needs the grass.” Nagarjuna’s concept of dependent causation emphasises that things are shaped and defined by their relationships, rather than existing independently. Recognizing the interconnectedness of the world around us provides valuable insights that can advance our knowledge and improve our 11 Gregory Bateson was an anthropologist, social scientist, and cyberneticist who made significant contributions to the fields of communication, systems theory, and ecological anthropology. He is best known for his work on the nature of communication. Bateson’s interdisciplinary approach to understanding complex systems has had a lasting impact on a wide range of fields, including psychology, sociology, and environmental studies. 38 Foundations of Indian Heritage ability to solve problems. In this way, Nagarjuna’s focus on dependent causation has important implications not only for philosophy but also for the pursuit of scientific knowledge. Maya and the ‘World-Knot’ Another great conceptual tool India has is its conceptualization or rather the discovery of Maya. In modern times, many have tended to dismiss Maya as just ‘illusion’. Not only Westerners even within Indian tradition when Advaita had to be caricatured, its opponents tended to call it Mayavada. There might be some justification to this criticism because of some later day institutional development of Advaita. However when one goes through the texts and the possible interpretative space they contain one can only wonder at the expansive nature of Maya as a framework for doing and experiencing science. Maya is feminine and is at once both the interface and the co- creator of reality as we perceive it. Then she allows us to understand the reality between the apparent binaries. While maya has often been portrayed as a kind of illusion and even an obstruction to realising the reality, Adi Sankara clearly points to her being essential for the ultimate realisation. He speaks of Maya thus: She is the undefined (Avyaktanaamnee) and the power of the Paramesa (Paramesa Sakthi); She is without beginning and is Avidya. She is the inner soul of three Gunas (Trigunaatmika). She is the highest inner Principle (Para); She can be inferred through the effects and can be done so only by those clear reasoning; Such is She, the Maya through whom emerges the entire existence.12 Of primary importance is the use of the term ‘Avyakta’. In the 12 Vivekachudamani (crest-jewel of discrimination: verse 108) Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas 39 Saptabhangi or Syadvada of the Jains, ‘Avyakta’ becomes an important component. Of the seven states, four have Avyakta in them. Sri Lalita Sahasranama makes each of the defining names given by Adi Sankara to Maya, the name of the goddess Herself. Thus, she is Avyakta; she is Trigunaatmika; she is para; she is Avidya. In the sequence of names, while Avyakta is a separate name for the goddess, its opposite state, ‘Vyakta’, is not so. Instead, it is ‘Vyakta-Avyakta’ – there is no manifest system that does not have undefinedness or Avyakta in it. What kind of visions can such a window help us see? In a 2018 article, neurobiologists Todd E Feinberg and Jon Mallatt outline a crucial problem in the study of consciousness – ‘an epistemic barrier’ called ‘auto-irreducibility’: Auto-irreducibility means that once conscious is created, we have no knowledge of what neural processes are causing our experiences. In other words, we have no direct access to our neurons, only to the experiences they create. This barrier was first pointed out by Gordon Globus who called this an aspect of the ‘world knot’, a term coined by Schopenhauer to describe the multiple enigmas that are confronted when trying to explain the relationship between the brain and consciousness.13 The authors have already seen this as an evolutionary development. According to them, subjectivity itself “evolved such that it cannot be objectively ‘experienced’...”14 The quoted Prof. Gordon Globus, now a professor of psychiatry and philosophy, has pointed out, in his original paper, ‘The nervous system has no sensory apparatus directed to its own structure’. On his 1973 paper he wrote: 13 ‘Unlocking the Mystery of Consciousness’ (Scientific American, 17 October 2018) 14 The Ancient Origins of Consciousness, MIT Press, 2016. 40 Foundations of Indian Heritage  The enigma of the relationship between mind and matter... was termed by Schopenhauer the ‘world knot’ presumably because so many issues are tangled up in it....Mental events contain no information about any neural embodiments,... Just as mental events contain no information about neural embodiments, the neural events per se contain no information that these events are neurally embedded.15 He formulated two identities – one is the subjective (S) perspective of a mental event that he called psychoevent identity, and another, the perspective of observer (O) in which the “S’s mental events are strictly identical with S’s neural events (psychoneural identity).” These two perspectives should be treated using Niels Bohr’s principle of complementarity to move forward, Gordon asserted: Although equal in status, the perspectives cannot be applied concurrently and each provides different accounts of reality, just as light appears to be a wave or a particle depending on the method of observation, which methods cannot be applied simultaneously. Thus psychoevent and psychoneural identity are complementary in Bohr’s sense... The relationship of the present application of Bohr’s complementarity principle to the problem of mind and matter would seem to be deeper than a simple analogy to its application in quantum physics. Rather, both applications illustrate the use of a general philosophical principle. Indian physicist and educationist D S Kothari (1906-1993) too had pointed out in his last paper, how Bohr’s complementarity principle is a larger darshana (big picture) that can be applied in many domains of science. He also pointed out how this resonates 15 Unexpected Symmetries in the “World Knot”, Science, 15 June 1973: Volume 180, Issue 4091, pages 1129-1136. Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas 41 with traditional Vedantic and Jain approaches to seemingly opposite perspectives: The core of the profound ethical and spiritual insights propounded in the Upanishads, Buddhism, and Jainism rests essentially on the complementarity approach to the problems of life and existence though the formulations may vary.16 Then, he quotes Sri Aurobindo’s commentary on Isa Upanishad, where the seer lists binary pairs starting from the conscious Purusha and phenomenal Prakriti and, among others, the one stable Brahman and the multiple Movement, being and becoming, the Active Lord, and the indifferent Akshara Brahman, Vidya and Avidya, etc. Particular emphasis on Kothari’s paper is on Avyakta in the fourth predication of reality in Syadvada, which he applied to wave-particle duality. Conclusion Let us be cautious. This is not to say we had all the knowledge. We come back to the windows. It is not about Globus and his approach to reality being right or wrong. More importantly he provides an instance of how the Indian Darshanas can provide impetus to do and experience science. One should remember here again that Niels Bohr’s ‘Copenhagen Interpretation’ and David Bohm’s ‘Pilot Wave Theory’ may be at odds with each other. But both Bohr and Bohm could use the frameworks provided by ‘Eastern’ traditions. Each Darshana and concept can thus become a window. We have a unique opportunity of a variety of windows, through which we can shape our personal lives, our intellectual quests, The Complementarity Principle and Eastern philosophy, Niels Bohr Centenary Volume, 16 Harvard University Press, 1985, pages 325-331 42 Foundations of Indian Heritage our explorations into nature, and our experience of the universe. Indian culture in its entirety is then the grand temple of ages, and what beautiful windows they have – ones worthy of being guarded by Gods themselves! Windows to the Universe: Indian Darshanas 43  Chapter 3 Ancient Wisdom for Modern Challenges: Panchamahayajna Introduction The 21st chapter of the ninth Skandha of Sri Bhagavata Purana, describes the story of Rantideva. Sri Shuka narrates about the lineage of Rantideva and eulogises him for his compassionate actions. He was a king who inherited a large amount of property from his ancestors. However he gave up all his wealth for the poor and needy and ended up extremely poor. Enduring hardships with his family, there came a time when they had nothing at all to eat. Many days passed and once he happened to get by chance ghee and some cooked rice (saṃyāva). He whose family was distressed and trembling due to utter starvation and parched with thirst, was about to partake the food when a Brahmana guest arrived, just at the time of their breaking the fast. Since the king visualised ‘Ishwara’ everywhere and in everybody, he happily offered his share of food to the guest who partook of the meal and left contented. Distributing the remaining food among themselves, while they were able to eat, another stranger arrived. Without any reluctance, Rantideva offered him food. After he ate and departed, there was very little food left. Then came another stranger surrounded by a pack of hounds. This person requested, “Oh King! Please give me and my dogs something to eat, we are hungry”. The king received them kindly and gave to him and the dogs respectfully whatever food that remained with him. They left content and now there was only some water left to drink. While he was about to drink it, a Chandala came up and requested, “Give water to me please”. Hearing his pitiful request, the king was deeply moved with compassion and he spoke thus, “I do not seek the highest position or powers or even emancipation from samsara1; I would rather prefer to dwell in all beings and undergo sufferings for them, whereby they may be free from miseries”. Expressing such nobility of heart, the king who was compassionate by nature and full of fortitude, gave that water to the Chandala, though he himself was on the point of death through thirst. To him, Brahma and other Devas appeared and blessed him and he remained devoid of any desires, with his mind eternally fixed on Vasudeva. The story of Rantideva is often cited as an example of the virtues of charity, selflessness, and righteousness, and it continues to be celebrated in Bharat’s tradition as an inspiring tale of devotion to Dharma. But, is this idea of self sacrificing for the benefit of another person, a very singular idea appearing only in Bhagavata Purana? Unsurprisingly, no! The entire Purana-Itihasa corpus 1 The cycle of Samsara is seen as perpetuated by karma and desire/attachment. Liberation or emancipation from samsara (called moksha) is considered the ultimate spiritual goal in many Indian traditions. This liberation is viewed as freedom from the limitations and sufferings of worldly existence. Ancient Wisdom for Modern Challenges: Panchamahayajna 45 of literature is abundant with praiseworthy stories in parallel to the story of Rantideva. In Shanti parva of Mahabharata, Bhishma narrates the story of a pigeon who sacrificed itself for removing the hunger of a hunter. In another context from Mahabharata, Sage Markandeya narrates to Yudhishtira about the story of King Shibi who cut flesh from his own thigh in order to protect a dove and feed a hawk. The famous dictum, ‘Atithidevo bhava’, originates in the Shishyanushasanam of the Shikshavalli in the Taittiriyopanishad; ‘Shishyanushasanam’ means the Guru is authoritatively giving final instructions to his student who has completed his stipulated study, and is now about to begin the independent life of a householder. The entire verse from Taittiriyopanishad of Yajur Veda is: माातृृदेेवोो भव | पि तृृदेेवोो भव | आचाार्ययदेेवोो भव | अति थि देे वोो भव। mātṛdevo bhava. pitṛdevo bhava. ācāryadevo bhava. atithidevo bhava. Be one to whom Mother is as Deva, Be one to whom Father is as Deva, Be one to whom a Teacher is as Deva, Be one to whom a Guest is as Deva. Or simply put, consider and treat your Mother, Father, Teacher and Guest as manifestations of Divinity. This idea of deep concern for everything and anything other than oneself is not just an appreciation of the universal value of ‘compassion’. If we try tracing the origin of this ‘selflessness’ aspect underlying the Indian way of thinking, we can see it to be the reflection of another profound underlying idea - “Interconnectedness of everything”. This, in fact, forms the foundation on which the entire schema of traditions, practices and beliefs systems are built. 46 Foundations of Indian Heritage Are We Connected? Many social scientists are of the opinion that it is this view of ‘Interconnectedness’ that distinguishes the western and eastern way of looking at things. An American social psychologist, Richard Nisbett's research on culture and cognition has explored how cultural factors influence perception, reasoning, and decision- making. In his book, “The Geography of thought- How Asians and Westerners Think Differently… and Why”, he quotes - The collective or interdependent nature of Asian society is consistent with Asians' broad, contextual view of the world and their belief that events are highly complex and determined by many factors. The individualistic or independent nature of Western society seems consistent with the Western focus on particular objects in isolation from their context and with Westerners' belief that they can know the rules governing objects and therefore can control the objects' behaviour. From Vedic times to modern times, this view of interconnectedness is emphasised through dictums, stories, customs and practices. The entrance hall of the parliament of India is engraved with a verse which appears in Maha Upanishad and Hitopadesha - “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” meaning “The World is one family”. Mata Amritanandamayi Devi, popularly known as Amma, emphasises the importance of understanding this interconnectedness to lead a harmonious life. Everything in the universe is interconnected. The universe is a net held by each of us. When there is movement in one corner of a net held by four people, it reverberates everywhere. At times, people have told Amma about Ancient Wisdom for Modern Challenges: Panchamahayajna 47  experiencing a sense of imbalance similar to vertigo. This can be due to the disturbance of cells in the ears. The situation with nature has become like this these days. With each tree man chops down, he is making his own coffin. When we milk a cow, we should leave some milk for its calf. But today man milks until he gets the last drop. This harms the next generation. For this generation at least some fresh water remains. People make money and procreate, but imagine if there was no water left to drink! Along with making money and procreating, it is important to think of preserving Nature for the future generations. Say a fire breaks out in a 10 story building and the person living on the first floor cries out, “Please help! Please come down and help! If we all try together, we can put out the fire!” But the people living on the top floor say, “It is not my floor; it is yours. It is not my problem but yours”. But soon it will become their problem too. What is “his” problem now will become my problem in the future. It will come back to us. We should be aware of that. This is how it is currently. One thinks it is someone else’s problem – not mine. If an earthquake happens in one place, all the planes can be grounded for hours. So many businessmen can then be affected. No exports or imports, and so on. Like this, an earthquake in one place can affect the world. So many lives around the world. It is because of this that Amma always says that there is harmony in the universe. Will this understanding help solve problems? This concept has important implications for our understanding of the world and our place in it, and it can help us to cultivate 48 Foundations of Indian Heritage a greater sense of compassion, empathy, and connection with all beings and entities. On a global scale, we all have acknowledged various problems like poverty, climate change, equality and so on. From various small scale local clubs to highest bodies like the UN, people have resolved to address these challenges in different measures. It is true that within their scope of work, through events, activities and awareness programs, each of them have produced outcomes. But still, until one’s attitude changes, all these measures to eradicate global problems shall remain superficial without touching the crux of the problem. The Framework of Yajna Yajna, a name that resonates from the vedic times, plays a very significant role in Indian culture and tradition. We find the reference of Yajna everywhere in Vedic and Post-Vedic literature. In the Bhumi Sukta of Atharva Veda, which is a collection of beautiful hymns describing our Mother Earth, it is said that Yajna is one of the principles that uphold and sustain the Earth. However, there is a general notion today that ‘Yajna’ is a relic of the past. But once we understand the significance and the idea behind ‘Yajna’ we will be able to appreciate it and perform it even in the wake of this twenty-first century. Though a layman would relate Yajna to all different fire sacrifices that were performed during vedic times, Dhatupatha or the text that gives the etymology of the Sanskrit words ascribes three meanings to the root word ‘Yaj’ from which the word ‘Yajna’ is derived. ‘Yaj Devapuja, Sangateekarana Daneshu’. The threefold meanings are Devapuja or worship of Devas, Sangateekarana or to bring together for a Ancient Wisdom for Modern Challenges: Panchamahayajna 49 collective effort and Daana means ‘to offer’. The Panchamahayajna Model ‘Pancha’ in Sanskrit means five and ‘Maha’ means great. This Yajna addresses five important relationships that, if kept harmonious, ensure happiness and prosperity at the personal and social levels. Sanatana Dharma instructs everyone to follow these five Yajnas every day. The first is known as Brahma Yajna or Rishi Yajna. All of us are indebted to the ancient seers and sages for the treasure house of knowledge they have gifted us. Brahma Yajna is to understand the essence of ancient scriptures like the Vedas. Spending time with a spiritually illumined Mahatma and contemplating on his / her teachings is the best possible way to conduct this Yajna. However not everyone can meet and spend time with a Satguru. The next best option is to study the Itihasa-Purana corpus like Ramayana or Mahabharata or Bhagavata Purana, or Upanishads according to our temperament and contemplating on the teachings and applying the principles we imbibed into our own lives. Persistent efforts in this direction makes one stronger and wiser day by day, and such a person will be less afflicted by sorrows and pains of the world. The second of the Panchamahayajna is Deva Yajna or ‘Worshipping the Devas’. Deva Yajna is cultivating devotion in one’s heart with a very strong understanding that all creation is a manifestation of Iswara. “Isavasyamidam Sarvam”, says the Isavasya Upanishad. Everything here is Iswara. Mantra Japa or repeated chanting of the mantra, contemplating and meditating on the Divine, doing Archana or chanting of divine names of God, Bhajans, are all different forms of Deva Yajna. Simply put, praying everyday and maintaining an inner connectivity to Divinity is Deva Yajna. Deva Yajna is also showing gratitude towards forces of nature. 50 Foundations of Indian Heritage Each element of Nature has a presiding deity like Surya Deva for Sun, Indra for rain, Varuna for ocean etc. Human beings’ existence is dependent to a greater extent on these natural forces, and showing them gratitude is an acknowledgement of the interdependence. Pitr Yajna is the conduct of reverential bonding with parents, grandparents, and ancestors, fostering family values for the unity and well being of the family. Rituals for the deceased, famous as ‘Pitru Tarpana’ is a common practice amongst Hindus and the details of the rituals can be found in many Smritis. The Shraddha ceremony has become a very important part of religious and social life, presently. Accordingly, immediately after a man has died, offerings are made to provide for him. Very interestingly, in the Itihasa Ramayana, we can see the Avatara Purusha, Sri Rama, doing obsequies or funeral rights for Jatayu, the vulture, Bali the monkey king and even for the enemy, whom he killed, Ravana. As per vedic culture, our self identity is not looked at only from an individual standpoint but it includes the family and cultural background as well. The individual is considered independent and yet an essential and integral part of a larger family unit where the well-being of one member lies in the well-being of all. A certain amount of voluntary sacrifice is needed to understand and accept this. Serving humanity is the fourth Yajna known as Nru Yajna or Manushya Yajna. If we can sit patiently and think calmly, we can appreciate that each of our existence today, including health, wealth, education, position etc. is not the result of our efforts alone. It could possibly be the cumulative effort of millions. Once we realise and acknowledge that inter-connectedness, it would be quite natural for us to perform this Yajna as an obligation towards society. We can share our knowledge, resources, time and also pray for others. Merely accumulating wealth alone is Ancient Wisdom for Modern Challenges: Panchamahayajna 51 ‘not really living’. We should enkindle the spirit of sharing and caring for our fellow beings. There was a prevalent custom in Kerala, which existed till 50 years back. In traditional houses, before they shut down their gates at night, one of the family members would call loudly to check whether there was any person starving that night. If somebody responds, only after having served them food, would the house gates be locked at night. If you explore further back in time, you can see people adhering to practices like eating their meal only after having fed somebody else etc. In Mahabharata, Ramayana and other ancient works, we find many discussions on the importance of supporting fellow beings. For instance, when Draupadi was married into the Pandava family, Kunti tells her how to divide food among themselves and Pandavas. “First take a portion and offer it to the Gods. Then give some alms to a Brahmana. Feed some to those who are needy, and give some to men who are around. Then, divide the rest into two parts. O fortunate one! Give half to Bhima, because that dark youth with a strong body is like a mad bull and is a warrior who always eats a lot. Then divide the other half into six, among the rest of them.” One part of one’s income was compulsorily required to be given in charity. In retrospect, how small have we reverse metamorphosed into our cocoon of self-importance. The fifth and the last Yajna is Bhuta Yajna acknowledging one’s connection with the flora and fauna. Living in conformity with Nature, showing compassion to plants and animals considering them as the manifestation of the same Iswara, is Bhuta Yajna. Sanatana Dharma is not an anthropocentric culture having humans as the central and most important 52 Foundations of Indian Heritage element of existence. ‘The Earth does not belong to us but rather we belong to the Earth’ is the beautiful perspective that thrived here. When we are in harmony with the natural laws which are consistent, unbiased and non-separate from Iswara, we remain in harmony with ourselves. Feeding animals and birds around us and watering and nourishing trees and plants are examples of conducting the Bhuta Yajna. There are many houses in India where they still practise this Yajna very devotedly. Once a day at least, people would feed crows or dogs or cats etc. which live around. Human beings are deeply interconnected with the natural world around them, relying heavily on both animals and plants for their survival and wellbeing. We depend on animals for food, clothing, transportation, companionship, and even medical advancements. Countless industries and livelihoods are built around the use of animals. Similarly, plants provide us with the oxygen we breathe, the food we eat, the materials we use to build and clothe ourselves, as well as the medicines that sustain our health. Plants also play a crucial role in regulating the climate, preventing soil erosion, and maintaining the delicate balance of ecosystems. This intricate web of interdependence means that the wellbeing of humans is inextricably linked to the health and preservation of the animal and plant life around us. Recognizing and respecting this symbiotic relationship is essential for ensuring a sustainable future for our species and the planet as a whole. Conclusion Isn't the concept of Panchamahayajna a breathtakingly beautiful idea expressing and acknowledging the interconnectedness between everything that surrounds us? This deeper understanding of the oneness of all Creation, teaches humans to love Nature, and to develop a sense of reverence and devotion to all. Ancient Wisdom for Modern Challenges: Panchamahayajna 53 Amma's words echo through our hearts, reminding us that our entire life can become a sacred worship when we use our body to serve, our mind to empathise, and our intellect to share knowledge with others. If we observe Her daily routine, we will discover that she is the perfect embodiment of this profound wisdom. The transformation we envision for a brighter future can only be achieved through our collective efforts. However, if we fail to shift our perspective on the w