Fortnite Balls PDF Lecture 1

LECTURE 1 The Importance of Sociological Imagination Personal troubles and social issues are distinct yet interconnected. Troubles refer to internal problems that affect individuals and are often attributed to personal shortcomings. On the other hand, issues are public concerns with explanations bey...

LECTURE 1 The Importance of Sociological Imagination Personal troubles and social issues are distinct yet interconnected. Troubles refer to internal problems that affect individuals and are often attributed to personal shortcomings. On the other hand, issues are public concerns with explanations beyond individual control. While personal troubles and public issues may seem unrelated, they are interconnected through the sociological imagination, which allows us to understand how our personal experiences are shaped by society. C. Wright Mills (1959), a sociologist, defined sociological imagination as “the ability to see the social structures that shape our lives.” He added that it's “the ability to see the connections between our personal lives and the larger society.” He further argued that individual concerns can become societal ones if they are shared by a significant enough number of individuals. This means that if enough people are struggling with the same issue, it can become a public issue that needs to be addressed. Under sociological imagination, you will have a unique vantage point that allows them to see the world differently. You will be able to see how your personal choices and experiences are connected to the larger social structures around you. This understanding can help you to expose social injustice, take action, and make a positive difference in the world. Developing it takes time and effort, but it's a worthwhile investment. Interrelationship of Culture, Society, and Politics Society can be defined as a complex network of individuals, a fairly large number of people, who share a common geographic territory, interact with one another, participate in a common culture, and are bound by social, cultural, economic, and political institutions. According to Schaefer R. T. (2009), society is the largest form of people who share a common heritage and culture. Its members transmit this from one generation to the other. Culture encompasses human behavior and the material items that are an intrinsic element of this behavior (White, Leslie A., 2022). It encompasses the social behavior prevalent in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, conventions, abilities, and habits of the individuals inside various organizations. Various aspects can define culture as follow: Dynamic, Flexible, and Adaptive - Culture is not static; it undergoes a cycle of creation, maintenance, and destruction based on social interaction to meet human needs; it is affected by a multitude of factors. Shared and Contested - While culture forms the shared identity of individuals in a community, the way it is expressed and practiced can also vary. It is related to the process called social differentiation where individuals or groups become distinct from each other based on characteristics leading to inequalities and divisions in society. Learned and Transmitted through Socialization or Enculturation - Since culture is not natural, an individual acquires ways and manners of their own culture through groups or institutions. This is done through socialization or enculturation, which is to be discussed in a future module.  Integrated - All aspects of culture shall be integrated to keep it functioning. Language, for instance, must be able to describe the ideas and ideals within a culture to transmit these from one person to the other. Requires Language and other forms of Communication - Meanings, both symbolic and semantic, are formed through communication. Hence, culture and communication are inextricably linked. They are each other’s functions. Politics, in its broadest sense, is the process by which people create, preserve, and change the general rules by which they live. Although politics is also an academic discipline, it is fundamentally concerned with human behavior (Heywood, 2013). Politics is the influence of power relations on how a society makes decisions, governs itself, and distributes its resources. Politics can be defined in multiple ways, such as the exercise of authority, the science of government, decision-making, resource allocation, deception, manipulation, debates, elections, and the influence of wealth. Heywood (2013) presents two main perspectives: politics as an arena and politics as a process. The arena view sees politics occurring in specific spaces like government or public, while the process view sees it as either an optimistic action of compromise and consensus or a conflictual exercise of power. Ultimately, cultural and political evolutions over time primarily affect how you behave in society. Your smartphone could be a good metaphor for how society intersects with culture and politics, as demonstrated below. (n/a) Society is how persistently interacting people, who usually occupy a certain geographical or spatial territory, organize themselves. These people, in turn, are subject to the same political authority and cultural expectations. Furthermore, a society comprises smaller institutions like family, education, and government, which aim to address basic needs. Culture refers to the shared practices of a society. It involves the norms, values, and customs of a particular society. On the other hand, politics is how society makes decisions, governs itself, and distributes its resources, as influenced by relations of power. Key Social Constructs in the Study of Culture, Society, and Politics Human behavior is shaped by society and the expectations imposed on individuals. Socially assigned labels determine what is deemed appropriate or inappropriate, significantly influencing our actions. Social Constructionism posits that human life is molded by social and interpersonal influences, arising from collective human interactions within a community or society. According to this perspective, social interaction plays a vital role in creating, maintaining, and altering all aspects of human behavior (Galvin, 2014). If you observe closely, you will notice that human behavior and interactions are affected and controlled by specific socially constructed factors. Below are some of them: Gender and Sex: Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expectations, and identities that society assigns to individuals based on their perceived sex (West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H., 1987). Sex, on the other hand, refers to the biological attributes of an individual, primarily determined by reproductive anatomy and genetics (Fausto-Sterling, A., 2000). Simone de Beauvoir (1949), in her “The Second Sex”, argues that one is not born a woman, but becomes one. From this view, the identities expanded from the usual biological binary distinction of ‘male’ or ‘female’ to an entire spectrum. There are three essential concepts to explain various identities, collectively known as SOGIE:  o Sexual Orientation: a person's enduring emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attraction to other people. (American Psychological Association, 2000) Usually answers the question, who are you attracted to? o Gender Identity: a person's internal sense of being male, female, both, neither, or somewhere along the gender spectrum. It is not always the same as the sex assigned at birth (World Health Organization, 2019). Usually answers the question, who do you think you are? o Gender Expression: the way a person communicates their gender identity to others through their behavior, clothing, hairstyle, voice, and other means (Human Rights Campaign, 2018). Usually answers the question, how do you exhibit your gender? Ethnicity, Nation, and State: An ethnicity refers to a social group of people who share common cultural, linguistic, religious, or ancestral characteristics (Hutchinson, J., & Smith, 1996). It is often based on shared historical experiences and traditions, but can also encompass various aspects such as language, customs, values, and beliefs. While, a nation, in comparison, is a group of people who share a common culture, history, language, and often, a territorial homeland (Smith, A. D., 1991). Nations are often tied to a specific geographic area and have a shared political, social, and cultural identity. It perceives itself to be a distinctive political community, though not all have their independence or political sovereignty. While an ethnic group undoubtedly possesses a communal identity and a sense of cultural pride, unlike a nation, it lacks collective political aspirations (Heywood, 2013). A state, however, is a political unit that has a defined territory, a government, and a population. A state also has sovereignty which guarantees an authority to make laws, enforce those laws, and interact with other states (Weber, M., 2019). A nation is more of an abstract concept of collective cultural, psychological, and political identity, while a state is more of a tangible concept, often used in a more legalistic sense. Religion: It is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses various beliefs, practices, and values related to the supernatural, moral codes, and the meaning and purpose of life. Socioeconomic Class: It is the categorization of individuals or groups in society based on their social and economic status, typically determined by factors such as income, occupation, education, and wealth. Nationality and Citizenship: Nationality and citizenship are closely related concepts but are not the same. Nationality refers to a person's membership in a particular nation, based on factors such as birth, ancestry, or ethnicity. It is primarily a cultural and social concept that relates to a person's identification with a particular nation. It can affect an individual's legal rights, such as the right to vote or run for public office. However, nationality alone does not necessarily confer all the rights and protections. Citizenship, on the other hand, is a legal status that grants certain rights, privileges, and responsibilities to individuals within a specific country. It signifies the individual's formal membership in that nation and comes with certain rights, obligations, and protections. Some key characteristics of citizenship include legal rights, travel privileges, duties, and responsibilities. Comparing Sociology, Anthropology, and Political Science Social sciences attempt to discover and explain the behavior and attitudes of people. Through various perspectives and approaches, social science can study human relations in a society. During its development, two opposing forces emerged: one sought a unified social science, while the other emphasized specialized disciplines. In the end, specialization prevailed, leading to the diverse and competitive specialized fields we have today. In the study of culture, society, and politics, three main disciplines are involved, they are: Anthropology: The scientific study of humankind. Political Science: The study of all social factors mutually influencing government operation and the body politic. Sociology: The scientific study of all aspects and institutions that constitute society. FOCUS OF DISCIPLINE NATURE OF STUDY EMERGENCE INQUIRY focuses mainly on pre- industrial societies until the 1970s Physical and socio- The rise of Western imperialism in Anthropolog the main method is cultural the 18th and 19th Centuries y participant observation development of prompted interest in the study of the through fieldwork and humankind culture of the colonies highlights the native’s point- of-view As an academic discipline, political focuses on actions and Interaction of science is a relatively new field that Political institutions relating to humans in their was principally worked by American Science power, state, and attempt to organize scholars in the 19th and government society. 20th Centuries. However, its roots can be traced back to the classics. views human actions as All aspects and Sociology as a formal academic field elements of wider institutions that of study was founded by Émile figurations: that is, of a non- Sociology constitute society, Durkheim during the 19th Century random assembly of actors and social with the establishment of the first locked together in a web of interactions sociology department in Europe mutual dependency LECTURE 2 Anthropological Perspectives Anthropology, of all the social sciences, is most concerned with the study of culture. As Claude Levi- Strauss has expressed, anthropology attempts to understand humanity through its most diverse manifestations. Hence, anthropology studies how different people could be, as much as it tries to find a sense of commonness between different groups of people. As discussed in Module 2, comparing aspects of different societies favors ethnographic fieldwork as a research methodology to provide a thorough and in-depth analysis of human interrelationships. The development of anthropology as a social science has led to the creation of different theories/perspectives. The theory of evolution popularized by Charles Darwin during the Victorian Era greatly influenced social thinking. This is evidenced by the emergence of evolution-inspired theories and perspective in anthropology, sociology and even history. American anthropologist Irving Goldman once remarked: “Anthropology has from its beginnings been closely identified with the concept of evolution." It has been a trend in anthropology, as well as other social sciences, that a theory/perspective grows in popularity for a time, and eventually critiqued and replaced by another. The following are some theories which has been a by-product of anthropology’s ontological, epistemological and methodical development. Social Darwinism: In his book Primitive Culture (1871), Sir Edward Tylor (1932-1917) established a theory influenced by Charles Darwin, of the evolution of cultures from primitive (savage) to modern. Today he was regarded as the father of cultural anthropology. Cultural Evolution: As conceived by Lewis Henry Morgan, cultural evolution is an evolutionary theory of social change. It follows from the definition of culture as "information capable of affecting individuals' behavior that they acquire from other members of their species through teaching, imitation and other forms of social transmission". Diffusionism: This theory by Leo Frobenius holds that the spread of cultural items—such as ideas, styles, religions, technologies, and languages—are transferred from one society to another. Historical Particularism: The anthropologist Franz Boas used the diffusionist concept that there were a few "cradles of civilization" which grew outwards and merged it with the idea that societies would adapt to their circumstances. Structuralism: This theory popularized by Claude Levi Strauss proposes that hidden rules or structures underlie and govern all human thought and practices. Cultural Materialism: It contends that the physical world impacts and sets constraints on human behavior. The materialists believe that human behavior is part of nature and therefore, it can be understood by using the methods of natural science. Materialists do not necessarily assume that material reality is more important than mental reality. However, they give priority to the material world over the world of the mind when they explain human societies.  Symbolic Anthropology: Anthropologists like Clifford Geertz and Victor Turner believe that cultural practices and symbols are manifestations of how societies ascribe meaning to various phenomena and can therefore be used to better understand those societies. Sociological Perspectives Sociology tries to understand culture in terms of the interaction of individuals with social forces, institutions, and other agents at the micro and macro levels. The following sociological perspectives would help you better understand how sociology describes society and culture. Structural Functionalism Structural Functionalism views society as a body composed of different organs that work together as one. Essentially, individuals work together by fulfilling specific roles to keep society functioning. Thus, if one member fails to fulfill his function, society will likely malfunction or collapse altogether. Merton identified two types of functions: manifest and latent. Manifest functions are actions that are intentionally put in place, while latent functions are those unintended consequences of manifest actions. These consequences may either be good or bad. In addition, Merton introduced dysfunctions. These are unintended negative consequences that disrupt the functioning of society. For example, a dysfunction of the case above would be workers reporting late or people having to carry heavy grocery items for long hours as they walk their way home. Another important element of this perspective is social institutions. Social institutions are structures that are installed in society to meet its needs. Take schools, for example. Schools are built in societies so people can learn and eventually be employed. However, these institutions can also adversely affect society. Schools maintain social inequality because most institutions of higher learning are too expensive for everyone to afford. Consequently, one has to obtain an education from a good school to land better opportunities. Structural Conflict (Macro-level) Unlike structural functionalism, structural conflict challenges the status quo, encourages social change, and believes powerful individuals force social order on the poor and the weak. Change for structural conflict can be attained through the oppressed collective action (revolution). Furthermore, structural conflict believes that social institutions are inherently installed to maintain inequality. For example, religion is viewed as a force that romanticizes poverty and hardship to justify oppression. Marx particularly identified the capitalist system as a structure that promotes inequality. Symbolic Interactionism (Micro-level) Symbolic interactionism focuses on symbols and language to understand how meanings are made. However, it acknowledges that meanings may vary between people and is subject to change. It argues that culture is symbolically created through interaction and communication. For this theory, society is made real by interacting with people who work together to make their social world meaningful. It also assumes that social structures are worked out through interaction. An example of symbolic interactionism would be the meanings attached to a birthday cake. A birthday cake could be associated with happy thoughts related to celebration and festivity through social interaction. Hence, in popular culture, birthday cakes are still popular presents for birthday celebrants. However, those with bad memories of their birthdays would not readily welcome a birthday cake as a present as it might just cause them distress. Political Science Theories Political Theory is the exploration of fundamental concepts and ideas that shape political systems, governance, and societies. By studying Political Theory, you gain insights into the origins of power, justice, freedom, equality, and the roles of individuals and institutions in shaping our world. Eventually, theory development throughout history resulted in far more complex discussions, within and outside the discipline. One of the fascinations in political science is the ongoing debate between Rightist and Leftist political leanings/positions. This debate involves political ideologies. Political ideology is a set of beliefs and ideas that define political activities, policies, and events. All political ideologies developed as contrasting attempts to shape emerging industrial society. In the classical sense, there are three political ideologies. Modern political ideologies can be traced back from or a mixture of these classical political ideologies. Liberalism Liberalism holds that political arrangements must be acceptable to the self; thus, it also emphasizes that these arrangements must be consented to by the self. The ideology originated from industrialized Western societies and is occasionally depicted as a comprehensive ideology with the capacity to encompass various conflicting principles and convictions. Its shifts to various forms through movements and policies in history until today have become a testament to the continued relevance and evolution of Liberalism as a guiding political theory for the protection of individual rights and the pursuit of a just society. Liberalism has become a profound and evolving political theory that champions individual rights, limited government intervention, and the rule of law. Conservatism Conservatism stresses tradition and social stability. According to philosopher John Kekes (1997, 351), conservatism is a political morality. It is political because of its view that certain political arrangements make a society good; it is moral because it holds that the existence of such political arrangements is justified if they foster good life. Conservatism has been closely related to Religious Right and capitalism. This can be observed in the conservative tendency to be supplemental to the free market. While the latter embodies values that the conservative may approve of, the conservatives still hold that this economic system ought to be supplemented with morality, the institution, and the authority to sustain it (O’Hear, 1998). Conservatism stood firm as a multifaceted political theory rooted in a desire to preserve traditions, order, and stability. Socialism Socialism emphasizes three values, namely, equality, community, and cooperation. Socialism has been regarded as a critical challenge to capitalism, an ideology that contends that a free-market economy is the best and the only way to bring about prosperity. As a critique, socialism proposes overcoming and replacing capitalism. Socialism favors economic collectivism, governmental or societal ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods (Magstadt 2013, 28). This transformative journey of Socialism, from the utopian socialism, to the scientific socialism, to the democratic socialism of today underscores the ongoing relevance of socialism in addressing issues of inequality, justice, and workers' rights. Socialism has become a compelling political theory that addresses economic inequality and advocates for collective ownership and control. LECTURE 3 Biological Evolution In your early education, you probably learned about biological evolution introduced by Charles Darwin, the one who explained it through natural selection—an important mechanism that works by favoring individuals with beneficial traits, which they pass on to their offspring. You might probably know Gregor Mendel as well, the one who initiated genetics—the study of genes. According to Mendel, genes are responsible for traits, and some traits are dominant while others are recessive and can be hidden though they may disappear in one generation, they can reappear in later generations. Mendel helped strengthen the Darwinian claim of traits being passed down to offspring, solidifying the theory of evolution. This modern synthesis made us have a clearer understanding of our roots today. Despite the long evolution, however, we have to recognize that our biology has limitations. Our biology hampers us from breathing in water, considering that we live on a planet that comprises 71% water. Our biology also requires more protection from harmful elements considering the thin layer of our skin. And due to our biology, we have to develop other ways to defend ourselves since we do not have claws, fangs, or poison, unlike other animals. But, regardless of these limitations, some of our qualities made us equipped to create a culture in order to respond in those instances where our biology lacks. Some of these qualities include: 1. grasping hands with a thumb that enable us to carry the most delicate of objects; 2. An upright posture that enables us to handle and carry objects; 3. A stereoscopic vision, or two-eyed with overlapping fields, that enables us to focus far or near; 4. A highly complicated vocal equipment that enables us to speak; and, 5. An extremely well-developed brain that made us think, create, or innovate culture (Perry & Perry, 2016). Additionally, the configuration of the larynx, pharynx, and tongue enables us to talk, breathe, and swallow. The reconstruction of the vocal tracts of Homo erectus, one of our early ancestors, shows a degree of curvature that suggests a possibility of lower placement of the larynx leading to the development of speech and language in general (Ottenheimer, 2013). The fact that we have an ability to speak and invent a language, it made possible for us to communicate information easier and faster compare to other species. Sociocultural Evolution Given the limitations of our biology, we developed a culture to respond to the challenges we face as a society. But, as the culture develops, so is the society and its structure. This is where sociocultural evolution happens. In simple terms, sociocultural evolution is the idea that as societies grow and progress, they experience changes in their technology, social structure, and cultural beliefs. Gerhard Lenski (1974) believed that technological advancements play a crucial role in shaping societies. He further argued that societies go through different stages based on the level of technology they possess. He also emphasized the importance of social organization in sociocultural evolution. As societies develop, they create different social roles and institutions to meet their needs. Sociocultural change occurs through two methods: extinction, where old elements are removed from sociocultural systems, or innovation, where new elements like technology, social practices, and belief systems are introduced. Lenski (1974) suggests that innovation is more common than extinction because sociocultural development is primarily a cumulative process. Below are the stages of the sociocultural development of human societies according to Lenki (1974): Hunting and Gathering Societies This society represents the earliest form of human society. In this stage, people relied on simple tools and weapons to hunt animals and gather food from their natural environment. Social organization was typically egalitarian, with minimal social differentiation and division of labor. Lenski argued that this stage lasted for hundreds of thousands of years. Horticultural and Pastoral Societies The advent of agriculture marked the transition to horticultural and pastoral societies. In this stage, people began to cultivate plants and domesticate animals, leading to more settled communities. Agriculture provided a more stable food supply, allowing for the development of larger populations and the accumulation of surplus resources. Social hierarchies and specialization of labor emerged, with some individuals focusing on agricultural activities while others performed specialized tasks. Agricultural Societies The agrarian stage represents the development of large-scale, intensive agriculture. This stage witnessed significant technological advancements, such as the invention of the plow, irrigation systems, and new farming techniques. These innovations increased productivity and allowed for the growth of urban centers and complex social structures. Hierarchies became more pronounced, with ruling elites and a peasant class. The agrarian stage persisted for thousands of years and characterized much of human history. The Neolithic Revolution, also known as the Agricultural Revolution, marked the transition from nomadic hunting and gathering societies to settled agricultural communities. This shift from a hunter- gatherer lifestyle to an agricultural one had profound implications, including the development of permanent settlements, the rise of complex social structures, the emergence of specialized labor, and the overall transformation of human society. It laid the foundation for subsequent advancements in technology, trade, and civilization. Industrial Societies The Industrial Revolution marked a significant shift in sociocultural development. The industrial stage emerged with the invention of machinery and the widespread use of fossil fuels, leading to the mechanization of production processes. Industrialization brought about rapid urbanization, the rise of factory work, and a shift from agriculture to manufacturing as the primary economic activity. The industrial stage introduced new social classes, such as the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class), and witnessed the growth of cities and the formation of modern nation- states. Post-industrial Societies Lenski proposed that societies are currently transitioning into a post-industrial stage. This stage is characterized by the dominance of information, services, and knowledge-based industries. Technological advancements, particularly in information technology and communication, have revolutionized the way people live and work. The post-industrial stage is marked by the rise of a highly educated workforce, the prominence of service-oriented jobs, and the globalization of economic systems. Knowledge and innovation become crucial factors in economic productivity and social progress. Bell (1999) cites the following changes in post-industrial societies: 1. Transfer of labor force from manufacturing to service 2. Increase in professional employment 3. Education as the basis of social mobility 4. Importance of human capital investment 5. Application of intellectual technology 6. Focus on communication infrastructure 7. Knowledge as a source of invention and innovation The Civilization Civilizations are complex societies that create agricultural surpluses, allowing for specialized labor, social hierarchy, and the establishment of cities. According to Heywood (2011), there are two key features of early civilizations: the agriculture, which allowed for permanent settlement and the emergence of urban life, and the development of writing. Most of the early civilizations appeared in major river valleys where floodplains contained rich soil. It enables them to have a reliable water supply, irrigation, and fertile soil which developed agriculture faster. Such geographic features also help develop transportation, trade networks, diverse food resources, valuable materials, defense, and, even, naval capabilities. With development in agriculture also meant that not everyone had to be involved in the collection or production of food. They also now have other viable economic opportunities other than farming. A writing system is also crucial for early civilizations, offering benefits such as record-keeping, communication, governance, cultural and intellectual development, education, and historical analysis. It preserves knowledge, facilitates information exchange, supports administration, fosters cultural growth, enables education, and allows for the study of history. Civilizations also have developed highly advanced cities with complex and systematic political institutions characterized by a clear hierarchy of officials with specific functions and responsibilities, codified laws and rules, and organized, stable, and effective government. It is vital for building a civilization. It enables efficient governance, infrastructure development, and economic growth. It fosters social cohesion, ensures defense and security, and allows for long-term planning. Political Organizations Every culture shares a common trait: they employ social control to manage their members. As societies become more intricate, the methods of control also multiply. This is where political organizations come into play—they are entities involved in the political process, actively pursuing specific political objectives. Anthropologist Elman Service (1975), in his Origins of the State and Civilization, developed four categories of political organizations: Band is the smallest unit of political organization, consisting of only a few families and no formal leadership positions; Tribes have larger populations but are organized around family ties and have fluid or shifting systems of temporary leadership; Chiefdoms are large political units in which the chief, who usually is determined by heredity, holds a formal position of power; and, States are the most complex form of political organization and are characterized by a central government that has a monopoly over legitimate uses of physical force, a sizeable bureaucracy, a system of formal laws, and a standing military force. Different political organizations can also be further classified as egalitarian, ranked, or stratified. Band and tribal societies are generally egalitarian, with minimal differences in status or power among individuals. Chiefdoms are ranked societies, where wealth and social status vary depending on one's relation to the chief. State societies are stratified, characterized by significant disparities in wealth, status, and power due to unequal access to resources and positions of authority. Socio-economic classes exemplify forms of stratification in many state societies. Democratization We have already established that society has the tendency to use intricate methods to control its members. However, civilizations continue to evolve due to societal values, driven by a desire for political stability, economic development, global influences, technological advancements, and lessons from history. This where democratization happens—a process through which a political regime becomes democratic, or more open for participation from the people. Democratization processes vary based on unique contexts, usually depending on multiple actors and experiences of such society or civilization. Democratization, however, is often associated with liberal democracy as many countries that undergo democratization adopt liberal democratic principles. Liberal democracy is a specific form of democracy that protects individual rights, the rule of law, and the separation of powers. While not all democratizing countries become liberal democracies, the influence of liberal democratic ideals and global trends has made the two concepts closely linked. Liberal democracy, according to Francis Fukuyama (1982), in his End of History and the Last Man, has become the final form of human government, marking the end point of humanity's ideological evolution. Fukuyama (1982) reiterates this with three basic categories of institutions that constitute political order: State as a hierarchical and centralized organization that holds legitimate force over a territory; Rule of law refers to a set of rules reflecting a “broad consensus within the society” binding even to persons of authority; Accountability refers to the government's responsiveness to the common good and the interest of the whole society. Fukuyama suggests that liberal democracy fulfills humanity's universal desire for recognition and dignity through the protection of individual rights, political participation, and free markets. He believes that although there may be some conflicts and variations, the basic principles of liberal democracy are widely accepted and will eventually spread globally. According to Fukuyama, democracy has resolved social contradictions, ended ideological battles, and brought about the end of history. It has exposed the flaws of totalitarian rule, promoted human rights, and generated material prosperity among nations. Globalization Globalization is a complex process with many causes. Some of the most important factors include the development of transportation and communication technologies, the rise of multinational corporations, the decline of protectionism, and the spread of democracy and human rights. These factors have led to an increase in trade, investment, and the movement of people and ideas around the world. The rise of globalization has stimulated a major debate about the power and significance of the state in a globalized world. Globalization, to define it, refers to the gradual process of political, economic, and cultural integration brought about by the increased exchange of products. That is why there are three dimensions of globalization as enumerated below: Political: political cooperation and dialogue of various governments; Economic: economic integration, free-trade, and global supply chains; and, Cultural: cultural exchange and appreciation. Some theorists have boldly proclaimed the emergence of ‘post-sovereign governance’, suggesting that the rise of globalization is inevitably marked by the decline of the state as a meaningful actor. Some suggest that globalization and the state are not separate or, still less, opposing forces; rather, and to a surprising degree, globalization has been created by states and thus exists to serve their interests. Another viewpoint acknowledges that globalization has brought about qualitative changes in the role and significance of the state, and in the nature of sovereignty, but emphasizes that these have transformed the state, rather than simply reduced or increased its power. This debate is further sparked by the rise of supranational organizations, an international groups, or unions in which the power and influence of member states transcend national boundaries or interests to share in decision-making and vote on issues concerning the collective body. These organizations make states adopt common policies for member states. LECTURE 4 Socialization, Enculturation, and Acculturation In Module 2, we emphasized that to be in a society is to create networks and relationships with others. This objective is, of course, never easy. Creating networks and maintaining relationships are processual. The following are the key social processes that human agents in a society have to go through. Socialization and Enculturation These are related processes that are important for the development of an individual's social identity and his ability to interact with others. Socialization refers to a lifelong process by which people learn the values, norms, and expectations to be integrated into society. As a process, this occurs through different agents and institutions like the family, peers, education, and media. Enculturation, on the other hand, is a process wherein one becomes part of his/her culture by learning it. As such, enculturation involves learning beliefs, customs, traditions, practices, and expressions that define a culture. This is a more comprehensive process that includes socialization. Socialization is focused on the individual, while enculturation is concerned with culture as a whole. Through socialization, for example, an individual can learn skills that would help him integrate into the society; while enculturation would enable an individual to understand how different social, political, and economic systems and institutions shape his culture. There are also cases where socialization is not in sync with enculturation. This is typical among migrant families. The child may be socialized to value individualism in the receiving country, while inside the home, the family still emphasizes collectivism and interdependence. This conflict may create cultural dissonance. The latter refers to a sense of discord, disharmony, or confusion experienced by people in the midst of change in the cultural environment. Acculturation Acculturation refers to a process by which one adopts/learns another culture. An example of this is when a Filipino adopts the culture and norms of a foreign country after staying there for an extended period of time. The above example drives the point quite clearly: socialization is a means to be fully human. While cliché, the adage of “No man is an island” holds to be entirely accurate. Overall, socialization can be understood as a lifelong process by which we as people learn the necessary norms and values to better function and integrate ourselves within society. This eventually enculturates us – wherein we genuinely become part of our society’s or community’s culture. With socialization being a lifelong process, we also go through acculturation, wherein we adopt or learn about other cultures different from our own. Norms, Values, Status, and Roles Through socialization, we gain the following: norms – the unwritten behaviors and rules that govern our society; values – standards through which we determine what is good or bad; There are different types of norms, namely: Laws – formally written rules.  Folkways – norms without moral values. Mores – norms that regulate ethical behavior. Taboo – forbidden acts. Through socialization, we are also aware of social statuses and roles. Status is that designation that individuals occupy. Often statuses also come with specific responsibilities or roles. Roles are behaviors expected of individuals that fit their status within society. Status can be ascribed or assigned at birth or achieved and attained through hard work and effort. The possibility of having conflicting statuses and roles is called role conflict. Agents of Socialization There are five agents of socialization, as follows: Agent of Description Socialization The cornerstone of human interaction for any individual. As the first interaction source, many of the values and habits Family individuals gain and carry throughout life are acquired from the family. These Are responsible for imparting the knowledge and skills that individuals need to be fully functioning members of their respective societies. While these knowledge and skills are formalized within the curricula that schools have, Schools they also have a more implicit, hidden curriculum that shapes the values and culture that individuals are ideally supposed to embody, especially as a product of the institution. Having peers is evident during adolescence, wherein individuals are exposed to people of a similar age that then shape their own preferences – for media, fashion, hobbies – Peers values, and beliefs. Peers are also a critical source of socioemotional support. It may be negatively influenced by peer pressure, however. It is responsible for shaping an individual’s tastes and preferences, beliefs and opinions, and practices throughout Mass Media their life. The media has the role as well of creating and enforcing certain stereotypes.  It fundamentally influences the views, values, and Religion perspectives an individual may have across different subjects. Socialization Practices and Improving Society Having discussed socialization at length, you can see that its influence is enough that much of what we experience – from our biases, values, and even our preferences – is something we acquired throughout our lives from the different people we’ve interacted with. We must keep this reality in mind to better understand our society's problems. Broad social factors exert a critical impact on how we live our lives. From socioeconomic inequality, sexual and gender discrimination, and racism, the root of such prejudices and problems are well-rooted in old practices and beliefs that were acquired by the people who perpetuate these. In understanding and addressing these problems, we must begin new socialization practices and expose others to a more welcoming society to help it improve. Goffman’s Dramaturgy Erving Goffman (1959) likened social interaction to a theatrical performance where a person becomes an actor on stage. In this model, the actors performing in social interaction are the actors, and those who watch them are the audience. The actor and his audience interact in frames or specific situations. According to Goffman (1959), The roles people take in an interaction are crafted performances strategically to manage the audience's impressions. For example, inside the classroom, a teacher tends to stand upright, modulate his voice, and quote prominent authors to make himself credible to the students. Like a theater performance, Goffman argues that there is a front and back stage in social interaction. BACKSTAGE: The backstage space allows you to freely express your thoughts and emotions so that they do not interfere with your front-stage performance. In a theater performance, this is the space where actors cram their makeup and costumes, memorize lines, or even troubleshoot unexpected problems in production. An example is when trying to memorize all concepts in class or do an advanced reading of your topic to participate actively in class and be seen as a good student. FRONT STAGE: The front stage is what is visible to your audience. This is where you perform actions that help you achieve your target impression of your audience. For example, to be a good student, you do not talk to your seatmate during discussions or attempt to cheat in examinations. Conformity and Deviance Conformity is behaving by socially accepted conventions or standards. Consequently, not all individuals are capable of conforming to all forms of social control. Deviance refers to behaviors that violate established norms and values. Deviance may also take on different forms – innovation, retreatism, ritualism, and rebellion. Retreatism Innovation the rejection of society’s goals and the use of illegitimate means means Rebellion Ritualism is the acts that seek to actively change the rejection of society’s goals or replace society’s goals Along with this, societies have a measure to ensure control over individuals and that people stick to their statuses and roles. These means of social control can be positive, negative, formal, or informal. Here are some examples of social control: Formal Informal Positive Salaries; Awards Compliments; Handshakes Negative Fines; Jail time Shaming; Gossip Human Rights and Human Dignity Human rights are universally recognized as fundamental and vital for the proper conduct of society. It is inherent and inalienable – meaning human rights are not earned and can never be taken away. These rights are exercised and categorized in different ways – civil and political, socio-economic, and solidarity rights. Historically, there were no human rights. Safety and other necessities for the realization of human needs were provided by the might of the group to which one belonged. Cyrus the Great was among the first persons who conceived human rights, albeit primordially. He ordered that slaves in Babylon have the right to go and/or choose and practice their own religion. Ancient societies recognized that there are inherent rights to people. These rights are called natural rights. But history provides that rulers often violated these rights. Thus came the Magna Carta in 1215 in England which for the first time argued that these rights cannot be overruled even by the King. Different revolutions (e.g. English Revolution of 1688, the American Revolution of 1765 and 1783, French Revolution of 1789, Philippine Revolution of 1896) in the world have provided declarations about the equality among men, which has become the basis for human rights. Nowadays, we often use natural rights and human rights interchangeably. They are different, however, in one aspect. Natural rights exist in human beings whether or not the government recognizes them; while human rights refer to the government's acknowledgment of its citizens’ rights by virtue of being human. Human rights are of two types: positive and negative. Positive rights provide the right holder with a claim against another person or the state for some good, service, or treatment. Examples of which are right to education, right to a job, right to medical care. Negative rights, on the other hand, restrains other persons or governments by limiting their actions toward or against the right holder. Examples are freedom of speech, freedom of religion, habeas corpus, etc. Category Specific Human Rights Freedom from torture Right to a fair trial Civil and Political Rights Freedom of opinion and expression Freedom of Peaceful Assembly Right to social security Right to work and protection against Socio-economic Rights unemployment Right to rest and leisure Right to education Right to peace Solidarity Rights Right to self-determination Right to a healthy and balanced environment In the Philippines, human rights and human dignity as core principles of our society are enshrined in the 1987 Philippine Constitution. To be precise, Article 2, Section 11 of the Constitution states, "The State values the dignity of every human person and guarantees full respect for human rights. Human rights and its advocates often have dilemmas to face when discussing human rights. We must ask ourselves, given the past few years under the past government. and how the pandemic crisis has been handled so far, are we truly being treated in a way that is befitting humanity? Are our human rights being respected? And why are human rights being attacked when they are universal and inalienable? Why is there a debate in the first place about human rights? LECTURE 5 Structure of the Social System We analyze our social life with certain groups at two levels: microsocial and macrosocial. At the microsocial level, we analyze our way to relate to one another based on our respective positions in relation to another, for example, husband to wife, father to daughter, teacher to student, employer to employee, etc. While in macro level, we examine relationships between and among groups that comprise society, with a focus on the values and rules for behavior emerging due to their interaction. In this sense, we now realize that each group, regardless of size and depth, is part of what we call a social system—a model of social relationships in which each part is interdependent and interconnected. This interdependence and interconnectedness result in shared patterns of behavior for every member. Such a pattern which becomes fairly predictable emerging from this social system results in what we call social organization or social structure—the foundation underlying the network of organized relationships among the parts of a social system. We can easily describe it as a patterned or recurring way in which members of a certain group interact. It should be noted, however, that social structure is not a fixed set of rules, but rather a dynamic process in which stable and predictable patterns are continually redefined and altered depending on the changing conditions of every situation encountered. We also have to note that such a social structure became effective because of observance of norms, insurance of behavior according to status, and expectations set by our respective roles. We—as members of society— are like ‘actors’ performing our respective roles and duties throughout our lives. It has to be noted, however, that statuses and roles evolve throughout time, especially depending on the need of each member or of a group to work efficiently. They also grow, not static, as they are subjected to change, growth, and replacement. Groups Crucial to human evolution is their ability to coexist with each other. Society is a sum of its different parts. Hence, to understand how a society functions and behaves, you will have to look into the smaller units inside a society. These small units can either be a category, an aggregate, or a group. Initially, we can have a social category or a collection of individuals who have at least one common attribute but do not necessarily interact. Social categories are commonly based on gender, race, ethnicity, religious preference, geographical residence, and social class. Social aggregates, on the other hand, are a collection of individuals who are in the same place at the same time but have nothing in common or no necessary interaction. Social aggregates stand between social categories and social groups. A social group is two or more humans who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity. Hence, compared to a social category and social aggregate, groups have some sense of belongingness formed out of regular and meaningful interaction, which eventually shapes shared identity or common goals. This is a very broad definition, as it includes groups of all sizes, from dyads to whole societies. A society can be viewed as a large group, though most social groups are considerably smaller. From this definition, we can describe a social group using two conceptual handles. On one hand, a social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion with characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties. The social identity perspective, on the other hand, differs from a social cohesion-based definition of social groups. It argues that the formation of social groups requires individuals to be aware of their common category membership and internalize it as part of their self-concept. In contrast, the social cohesion approach focuses on attraction. The social identity perspective asks, "Who am I?" while the social cohesion approach asks, "Who am I attracted to?" Types of Groups Primary and Secondary Groups PRIMARY GROUPS SECONDARY GROUPS  usually small larger than primary groups characterized by strong interactions, more impersonal emotional ties often lasts for a short time to achieve a endures over time specific purpose A primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and culture, and long periods spent together. The goal of primary groups is the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other purpose. Secondary groups, on the other hand, are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal- oriented. People in a secondary group interact on a less personal level than in a primary group, and their relationships are generally temporary rather than long-lasting. Some secondary groups may last for many years, though most are short-term. Such groups also begin and end with very little significance in the lives of the people involved. Charles Cooley (1909) introduced the primary and secondary groups in his book Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind. Primary groups are crucial for personal identity development as individuals hold onto primary ideals even in more complex associations and form new primary groups within formal organizations. Secondary groups, on the other hand, have less influence on one's identity and usually form later in life. For his view, Cooley viewed society as an ongoing experiment to expand social experiences and coordinate diverse groups. Reference Groups Group to which individuals compare themselves. They provide standards against which behaviors and attitudes are measured. For instance, your family and friends greatly influence your behavior and perception of the world. At your age, you might have avoided things your friends ask you to do to avoid disappointing your parents or doing things together with your friends even if your parents disapprove of it. Both primary and secondary groups can act as reference groups. Sometimes, your reference group is not necessarily a group to which you belong but rather one to which you want to belong. This is related to the social comparison theory which states that individuals have a drive to accurately evaluate themselves by comparing themselves to others. They use reference groups as standards for self-evaluation. Reference groups are groups individuals compare themselves to, and they help determine their characteristics, attitudes, and social ties. Robert K. Merton (1957) hypothesized that individuals compare themselves to reference groups of people they aspire to be like. Reference groups can be membership or non- membership groups. Social Networks The belief that success is not dictated by what you know but by who you know perfectly applies to social networks. Social networks refer to the totality of relationships that link you to other individuals and groups and through them to still other groups and individuals. These relationships or bonds may be strong or weak. Strong bonds are relationships built through familiar and regular interactions (primary group), while weak bonds are relationships between groups or individuals who do not share strong interactions (secondary group). Weak bonds are essential in introducing new ideas and other people to your strong bonds. An illustration of the importance of social networks is when you need to interview an expert for a school project. You may not know experts directly, but you may have friends or relatives that could connect you to them. This is related to the social network theory which views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most simple form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being studied. The network can also be used to determine the social capital of individual actors. Social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups. In-group and Out-group  IN-GROUP OUT-GROUP social group or category to which an individual feels a social group or category with which an individual strong loyalty and belongingness does not identify himself or herself. Commonly, in-groups and out-groups maintain a competitive competition. However, a clash between the two may occur when an in-group looks down on the out-group (in-group bias and out-group prejudice) and acts hostility toward its members (intergroup aggression). Such a clash often occurs during a social crisis, as in- group members blame the out-group for their problems. In sociology and social psychology, in-groups and out-groups are social groups to which an individual feels as though he or she belongs as a member, or towards which they feel contempt, opposition, or a desire to compete, respectively. People tend to hold positive attitudes towards members of their groups, a phenomenon is known as in-group bias, which further strengthens in-group favoritism or a preference for one's group over outsiders. It affects how we evaluate others, allocate resources, and engage in various behaviors. It stems from the need to boost self-esteem, as individuals find ways to prove their group's superiority, even if the reasons are insignificant. This view originates from social identity theory which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner (1979). Eventually, once bias and favoritism are further acted upon or when the security of the in-group is challenged, it can further escalate to intergroup aggression, the harmful behavior directed at out-group members. Conflict of interest between the in-group and out-group fuels this aggression. Justification for aggression is often achieved by dehumanizing the out-group, diminishing their entitlement to humane treatment. Interaction and Social Process We have to remember that societies and groups within them are in a constant flux of change and modification due to interaction—behavior or action that is symbolic or has meaning. Although it is not ruled by rigid rules, its repetition can sufficiently create a pattern that creates predictive behavior especially when the same situation arises. They became behavioral patterns that can govern and synchronize our lives. This can result in a social process which is, according to Robert Nisbet (1970), the “microelements of the social bond, or the molecular cement of society.” They have become the key patterns of interaction that became common to all human societies. It can be either through exchange, cooperation, competition, or conflict. It can also include accommodation, assimilation, coercion, or derivations from or combinations. Social Groups and Social Change Size greatly influences the behavior of groups. As the number of members increases, the intimacy of interaction may decrease, but stability increases. Groups also have leaders, which sociologists identify as either instrumental or expressive. Instrumental leaders exist to carry out their role even at the expense of other members, while expressive leaders seek to maintain and improve social relationships. Since decision- making is usually ascribed to power, leaders mostly set the group's direction and determine the changes in its system. Many of the rights and freedoms we enjoy today are products of a consistent group effort. Today, many social groups exist to serve the needs of the marginalized and disenfranchised sectors of society. However, groups can also hamper social change as more conservative groups want to preserve the status quo. Hence, social change only exists within the limits of what groups do and do not do to maintain the status quo. Groups can also be changed from within. Whistleblowers can initiate calls for reform when a group ceases to reform its practices and becomes inefficient and alienating. Whistleblowing exposes a group's inefficient, counterproductive, and often illegal practices to induce change. Throughout history, most whistleblowers have been threatened or harassed for doing so. Being a whistleblower may not be convenient, but someone has to take on the task. Formal Organizations As societies become more technologically advanced, so is the need to develop our social structures which, in turn, become more complex. Eventually, it made our lives more dominated by large secondary groups we call formal organizations—groups designed for particular purposes and structured for maximum efficiency. They are deliberately designed for the benefit of the larger society and attain specific goals. They can be our schools, government, and corporations. A formal organization can be described with the following characteristics: a presence of a formal structure defined by goals, policy guidelines, constitutions, or by-laws; they are meant to be relatively permanent; authority is organized in a hierarchical order; and, the existence of the formal program, or guide to attain the goals. Formal organizations can either be: private or public, local or national or global, voluntary or involuntary, with a focus on special interests or universal needs. We also have to note the degree of control of its governing body to its members, and its extent of control. Some organizations are normative, or joined by choice of individuals, some are coercive, or people are compelled to join, while some are utilitarian, or people join out of necessity or because of material gains. Bureaucracy in Society All formal organizations are administered according to the principles of bureaucracy—a hierarchical system (or an organizational model) for rationally coordinating the work of many individuals through a division of labor. Max Weber (1921) identified the following as features of a bureaucracy: Specialization: There exists a specialized division of labor. Hierarchy of position: Jobs are structured from greater to lesser amounts of authority. Rules and regulations: Formal rules and regulations guide a bureaucracy’s operations Technical competence: Bureaucratic workers are technically trained. Impersonality: Rules and regulations, not a personal whim, govern the treatment of both clients and workers so that they are treated in the same way. Formal, written communications: There is a reliance on records and files. This has resulted in bureaucratization in society—the process of organizing and managing institutions, organizations, and government entities through formal rules, hierarchical structures, and standardized procedures. It is important because it provides a framework for efficient and consistent decision-making, promotes accountability and transparency, and helps maintain order and stability in complex societies. However, it can also sometimes make society more rigid or may stifle creativity. George Ritzer (1993) further elaborated on this bureaucratization through his concept of McDonaldization— the process by which the fast-food restaurant principles dominate more and more sectors of American society and the rest of the world. Among other things, eating at Mcdonald's provides an individual a sense of belongingness to the contemporary lifestyle. As a global fast food brand, Mcdonald's successfully set a uniform taste and dining experience for people worldwide. Below is a closer look at the principles followed by the McDonaldization thesis. Efficiency: maximizing the most optimum method for achieving goals Calculability: drives the value or quality of products and services based on quantity. Predictability: assurance that products and services will be very much the same when offered at different times and places Control: prescription of roles to fulfill subject to availability of technology and social expectations. LECTURE 6 Social Stratification and Inequality Subgroups have observed, that not all people are born equal. Most people worldwide live in poverty, while a small percentage have accumulated enough wealth to sustain the world’s population. This division among the people of the world is called social stratification. Members of society are categorized into various sections or classes, usually based on their access to and control of basic resources. These basic resources are known as social desirables. The more an individual possesses these social desirables, the better his/her position is in society. Such a social position makes for more opportunities and privileges. The following are examples of social desirables (Weber): All assets, investments, and Wealth properties owned by an individual. Acclaim/appreciation given to Prestige someone. Capacity to influence a person, Power group, organization, etc. When an individual gets limited access to these social desirables compared to others, he or she experiences inequality. However, inequality could be better understood when it is contrasted with equality. The concept of equality is composed of two principles, sameness and fairness. “SAMENESS” “FAIRNESS” state in a society where people enjoy the same quality where diversity is recognized and people are rights, social status, and other privileges. provided with the things they need in society Moreover, social stratification is also induced in society by ranking individuals on other socio-political factors such as gender, race, religion, occupation, and family. Social Exclusion Social stratification legitimizes the idea that there will be privileged and underprivileged people. Worse, those who do not have total access to resources and social desirables could be considered socially excluded. Social exclusion has a conceptual connection to poverty and inequality. Most traditional definitions would characterize poverty as a shortage of income. While inadequate income makes for most poverty cases, it is not the sole factor for poor living conditions. Poor living results from being deprived of the capability to freely secure a means to lead decent lives (or the ability to live in public without shame). Social exclusion, then, can be considered a form of capability deprivation. When one is restricted from participating in the community's life, his or her very deprivation to freely interact with others becomes a form of social exclusion. Furthermore, being excluded from social relations may lead to other deprivations that limit employment opportunities, leading to other deprivation forms such as undernourishment. Hence, social exclusion can be a part of capability deprivation, as much as it causes other capability failures. Seeing poverty through social exclusion generally characterizes the former as a capability failure (Sen).  Active Social Exclusion Passive Social Exclusion purposive or deliberate deprivation deprivation comes from social of capability processes in which there is no deliberate attempt to exclude Ex. disallowing a newly transferred student to participate in school Ex. unemployment caused by the elections COVID-19 pandemic Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification Stratification is necessary to induce people with special Structural intelligence, knowledge, and skills to enter the most Functionalism important occupations. For this reason, stratification is necessary and inevitable. Stratification results from a lack of opportunity and from Conflict discrimination and prejudice against the poor, women, and people of color. It is neither necessary nor inevitable. Symbolic Stratification affects people’s beliefs, lifestyles, daily Interactionism interactions, and conceptions of themselves. Types of Social Stratification Social stratification exists in all societies across time. These stratification systems exist in different types and vary depending on their degree of social mobility or the chances of an individual rising or falling down the stratification ladder. In closed systems, the society imposes rigid rules to resist social mobility and limits interaction between individuals. Open systems allow changes in an individual’s social class, mainly based on personal achievements. OPEN-SYSTEMS CLOSED-SYSTEMS Class Systems Slavery in this system, a person is born into a refers to the ownership of people as social rank but can move up or down servants. This is the most closed the stratification ladder resulting system of social stratification from his/her effort, knowledge, skills, or lack of them. a social class is composed of people of the same background and characteristics (ex. upper class, middle class, lower class). Classless Societies Estate Systems an egalitarian society consistent with characterized by control of the land. Marx’s idea of the proletariat Two major estates existed in these revolution. systems: nobility and peasantry. The nobility owned massive lands on which the peasants toiled. Peasants had more freedom than slaves but lived in poverty and control by the nobility. Caste Systems people are born into unequal groups based on their parents’ status and remain in these groups for the rest of their lives. Caste systems promote belief in fate, destiny, and the will of higher spiritual power rather than the promotion of individual freedom. Maintaining Social Stratification Social stratification is maintained through different legitimization processes: General Socialization process and Poor self-evaluation of the lower classes is reinforced in school, self-evaluation workplace, and even in the family (Fave as cited in Kerbo). Uncritically promoting respect for authority. Education System “Radical ideas” are sometimes censored. Propagation of the idea that People of low social class may attribute their status to everyone has equal opportunities their ‘defects’ (Lane, as cited in Kerbo). Social Inequality In sociology and anthropology, social status can be recognized through resources available to an individual on the basis of honor, prestige or recognition, and serves as value that one holds within a culture. Access to such resources is in great part dependent on the following: Social capital is "the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively".It involves the effective functioning of social groups through relationships and connections, a shared sense of identity, understanding, values, trust, norms, and cooperation. Social capital is a measure of the importance of resources, both tangible (e.g., public spaces, private property) and intangible (e.g., actors, human capital, people), and the impact that ideal creators have on the resources involved in each relationship, and on larger groups. Political capital is the term used for an individual's ability to influence political decisions. This capital is built from what the opposition thinks of the politician, so radical politicians will lose capital. Political capital can be understood as a metaphor used in political theory to conceptualize the accumulation of resources and power built through relationships, trust, goodwill, and influence between politicians or parties and other stakeholders, such as constituents. Political capital can be understood as a type of currency used to mobilize voters, achieve policy reform, or accomplish other political goals. Economic capital is distinguished in relation to other types of capital which may not necessarily reflect a monetary or exchange-value. These forms of capital include natural capital, cultural capital and social capital; the latter two represent a type of power or status that an individual can attain in a capitalist society via formal education or through social ties. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu has discussed Non-economic forms of capital most famously. Cultural capital refers to the accumulation of knowledge, behaviors and skill that can be demonstrated as one’s cultural competence and social status. Pierre Bourdeau has once asserted that this capital is used to reinforce class differences. Cultural capital exists in various forms: in Embodied State, this refers to knowledge people acquire through socialization and education; in Objectified State, cultural capital refers to materials individuals own that may reflect, for example, their educational attainment and jobs; and in Institutionalized State wherein this capital are measure, certified and ranked. Gender Inequality Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which men and women are not treated equally. The treatment may arise from distinctions regarding biology, psychology, or cultural norms prevalent in society. Some of these distinctions are empirically grounded, while others appear to be social constructs. While current policies around the world cause inequality among individuals, it is women who are most affected. Gender inequality weakens women in many health, education, and business areas. Studies show the different experiences of genders across many domains including education, life expectancy, personality, interests, family life, careers, and political affiliation. Gender inequality is experienced differently across different cultures and also affects non-binary people. Minorities The term 'minority group' has different usages depending on the context. According to its common use, a minority group can be understood in terms of demographic sizes within a population: i.e., a group in society with the least number of individuals is, therefore, the 'minority'. However, in terms of sociology, economics, and politics; a demographic that takes up the smallest fraction of the population is not necessarily the 'minority'. In the academic context, 'minority' and 'majority' groups are more appropriately understood in terms of hierarchical power structures. For example, in South Africa during Apartheid, white Europeans held virtually all social, economic, and political power over black Africans. For this reason, black Africans are the 'minority group', despite the fact that they outnumber white Europeans in South Africa. This is why academics more frequently use the term 'minority group' to refer to a category of people who experience relative disadvantage compared to members of a dominant social group. Development and Modernization Development, like modernization, has become the orienting principle of modern times. Countries that are seen as modern are also seen as developed, which means that they are generally more respected by institutions such as the United NationsLinks to an external site. and even as possible trade partners for other countries. The extent to which a country has modernized or developed dictates its power and importance on the international level. Under systems theory, a world-system is a socioeconomic system that encompasses part or all of the globe, detailing the aggregate structural result of the sum of the interactions between polities. World- systems are usually larger than single states but do not have to be global. The Westphalian System is the preeminent world-system operating in the contemporary world, denoting the system of sovereign states and nation-states produced by the Westphalian Treaties in 1648. Several world- systems can coexist, provided that they have little or no interaction with one another. Where such interactions become significant, separate world-systems merge into a new, larger world-system. Through the process of globalization, the modern world has reached the state of one dominant world- system, but in human history, there have been periods where separate world-systems existed simultaneously, according to Janet Abu-Lughod. Immanuel Wallerstein has developed the most well- known version of the world-system approach. A world-system is a crucial element of world- system theory, a multidisciplinary, macro-scale approach to world history and social change. Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. A central contention of dependency theory is that poor states are impoverished and rich ones are enriched by how poor states are integrated into the "world system". This theory was officially developed in the late 1960s following World War II, as scholars searched for the root issue of the lack of development in Latin America.