Earth Science NSCI 201 Past Paper S.Y. '24 - '25, PDF

EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT SOURCES OF WATER with water wherein it underlies the unsaturated zone. What is WATER?...

EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT SOURCES OF WATER with water wherein it underlies the unsaturated zone. What is WATER? the boundary between Water Table saturated zone and unsaturated Water is an important resource with many uses zone. since all living things need water in some form in layer where groundwater seeps order to survive. Water is also known as the Capillary upward from the water table Fringe universal solvent since it covers the Earth's surface due to capillary action. for about 71%. Water is a colorless and odorless substance composed of two hydrogen SOURCES OF WATER atoms and one oxygen atom held together by a strong covalent bond, wherein it exists in Connate Water three different forms, solid, liquid, and gas, Magmatic Water depending on the temperature. Meteoric Water GROUNDWATER Water can be termed groundwater when What is CONNATE? it moves beneath the earth’s surface. Groundwater sources are beneath the Water that is land surface and include springs and included in the rock wells. Water enters a zone referred to as itself at the time of the unsaturated zone or vadose zone rock formation gets and it moves into the saturated zone. trapped in rock The chemistry of the groundwater is pores, which is also influenced by the capillary fringe and by known as "fossil the chemical and biological processes that water". occur as water infiltrates. Importance And Geological Significance Mineral Formation Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production Groundwater Resources PROCESS the sediments are formed through weathering, and they Weathering are transported from place to and erosion place through the process of erosion. as sediments accumulate, they Sediment contain interstitial water, which Deposition is often seawater or freshwater TERMS TO REMEMBER from nearby sources. immediately below the land over time, the sediments Unsaturated surface that contains water and become compacted and Zone air in the open spaces, or cemented, trapping the water Lithification pores. within the pore spaces, Saturated a zone in which all the pores resulting in the formation of Zone and rock fractures are filled connate water. 1  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT CHARACTERISTIC incorporated into the minerals that forms. containing dissolved salts and As rocks are subjected to high High saline minerals accumulated over time temperatures and pressures, content due to the lack of interaction in they begin to melt, forming the surface. Melting magma and water trapped Diverse the composition of connate within these rocks can be chemical water varies depending on the released into the magma composition original sediment and its region. becoming magmatic water. it has been isolated from the Magma, being less dense than surface for millions of years, the surrounding rock, rises and it helps to provide valuable towards the Earth's surface due Ancient age Ascent insights to the researchers into to buoyancy. Magmatic water is the geological history of a carried along with the magma region. during this ascent. APPLICATIONS CHARACTERISTIC It is often sed in wastewater treatments Form under extreme processes particularly in desalination. temperature reaching over Can be extracted and used as a source of High hundred degrees Celsius and it renewable energy. temperature is also subjected to high Its chemical composition can provide and pressure pressure, often reaching insights into the potential for hydrocarbon thousands of atmospheric deposits within sedimentary formations. pressure. The magma that produces magmatic water is often Rich in sulfur derived from the Earth's What is MAGMATIC? and silica mantle, which is rich in silica and sulfur. also known as - Due to its deep-seated origin juvenile water as it Limited and volcanic hazards, magmatic originates in the accessibility water is generally inaccessible earth’s interior and for extraction. typically trapped within magma chambers which Applications associates with Can be a valuable source of geothermal magmatic activities energy due to its high temperature. below the crust. Magmatic water can be used to remove Importance and Geological contaminants from groundwater and soil. The high temperature and mineral Significance Formation of Hydrothermal content of magmatic water can help to Features break down pollutants and render them Geothermal Energy harmless. Volcanism PROCESS Mineral As magma cools and Formation crystallizes, the water can be 2  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT What is METEORIC? It has low saline content and is suitable for drinking and originates as a result of agriculture. Quality can vary rainfall, snowfall, ice, and Water Quality based on soil composition and the main source of rock mineral content groundwater. The water encountered during stored in the underground percolation. comes out of the surface as Groundwater temperatures “springs” (naturally) or often match the average annual “wells” (artificially). Temperature temperature of the region, making it cooler than surface water in warm climates. Importance and Geological Applications Significance Groundwater Resources Agriculture Groundwater is a major source of potable Temperature Regulation water for many communities. Shaping Landscape Meteoric water replenishes rivers, lakes, and wetlands maintaining their ecological PROCESS balance. Sun’s heat causes water from It is used for irrigation of crops and in Evaporation oceans, lakes, rivers, and other various industrial processes, such as bodies to transform into vapor. manufacturing and cooling. Water vapor cools and forms It can be used for geothermal energy Condensation. clouds as it rises into the production. atmosphere. When clouds become saturated, water falls back to CONCLUSION Precipitation the Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Once precipitation occurs, water infiltrates through the Overall, connate, magmatic, and meteoric soil and rock layers. Water waters are vital sources of water on Infiltration and moves deeper underground Earth. Each type has unique Percolation - through joints, fissures, and characteristics, formation processes, and pores in rocks until it reaches applications. the impermeable layer. Connate water provides insights into Water that doesn’t infiltrate sedimentary basin history and can be used into the ground flows over the Run-off for geothermal energy and hydrocarbon land surface, entering rivers, lakes, and oceans. exploration. Magmatic water is involved in hydrothermal and geothermal systems. And meteoric water is the primary source CHARACTERISTIC of freshwater for human use and plays a Water levels rise during rainy crucial role in various geological seasons and fall during dry processes. Understanding these water seasons due to changes in sources provides us insights that are Variability precipitation and runoff. essential in geological research and for Meteoric water is more sustainable resource management. abundant in humid climates than in arid regions. 3  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT DISTRIBUTION OF EARTH’S WATER INDIAN OCEAN Earth's water is a precious and finite resource, - The third-largest ocean, located primarily distributed unevenly across the planet. in the Southern Hemisphere. It is known for its monsoon patterns and ocean Earth is the only planet where water is present in water. all three status. The three phases are solid (ice or - 19.8 % ocean water snow), liquid (water), and gas (water vapor). ARTIC OCEAN Water covers approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. Earth's water is distributed across various - The smallest ocean, found in north pole reservoirs, including oceans, seas, glaciers, and - Characterize as cold , sea ice and polar polar icecaps. bears. - 5.4% of ocean water Understanding the distribution is crucial for comprehending global water availability. SOUTHERN OCEAN - Encircling Antarctica, this ocean is defined by its oceanic currents and unique marine OCEANS AND SEAS ecosystems. Has a 1.4% of ocean water. - Largest continuous body of water on MAJORS SEAS IN THE PHILIPPINES earth A. SULU SEA holds about 97percent of the Earth's water; the a. Found south of the PH , major remaining three percent is , including glaciers and source of conflicts due to piracy ice, below the ground, in rivers and lakes, and in and terrorism the atmosphere. B. CELEBES SEA Cover approximately 71% of the planet's surface a. Locate in the island of Mindanao, and playa crucial role in regulating the Earth's Palawan, and Borneo. Known for climate, supporting marine ecosystems, and ", rich marine biodiversity providing resources for human civilization. C. West Philippine Sea a. This is the largest sea surrounding This water is primarily saltwater, found in the five the Philippines and is also a major major oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic, indian, source of conflict due to Southern, and Arctic. territorial disputes. PACIFIC OCEAN D. Visayan Sea a. This sea separates the Visay s - The largest ocean, covering approximately islands from Mindanao. It is one-third of Earth's surface. It is known known for its beautiful beaches for its immense size, deep trenches, and and islands, such as Bohol and diverse marine life. It has the 51.1% of the Cebu. ocean water. POLAR ICE CAPS ATLANTIC OCEAN are dome-shaped sheets of ice found near - The second-largest ocean, extending the North and South Poles. They form because "from the Arctic to the Antarctic. It is high-latitude polar regions receive less heat from characterized by its relatively narrow the Sun than other areas on Earth. As a result, shape and significant transatlantic trade average temperatures at the poles can be very routes. It has the 23.3 % ofocean water. cold. 4  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT Polar ice caps form over thousands of years as - LAND ICE snow accumulates and compresses into ice. o is any form of ice that lasts longer than a year on land, such as POLAR ICE CAPS glaciers, ice caps, and ice sheets. The polar ice caps contain the majority of Earth's supply of. In fact, scientists estimate that70 percent of Earth's freshwater supply remains in an ice sheet at the South Pole. Over 3% of Earth's water is fresh. Most of that fresh water (68.7%) is frozen in glaciers and ice caps GLACIERS are rivers of ice, and ice sheets are continental-scale domes of ice. Both glaciers and ice sheets flow slowly, transporting snow/ice to lower elevations, where it melts or is released info the sea as icebergs. Glaciers are found in regions of high elevation, such as in the Alps or the Himalayas, and in polar regions, such as Alaska or Svalbard Melting glaciers add to rising sea levels, which in turn increases coastal erosion and elevates storm surge as warming air and ocean temperatures create more frequent and intense coastal storms like hurricanes and typhoons. CLASSIFIES IN 3 MAIN GROUPS - ICE SHEETS o Glaciers that extend in continuous sheets, moving outward in all directions - MOUNTAIN GLACIERS o Confines within a path that directs the ice movement - PIEDMONT GLACIERS OR ICE SHELVES o Glaciers that spread out on level ground / on the ocean at the foot of glaciated regions KINDS OF ICE ON THE EARTH’S SURFACE - SEA ICE o is frozen ocean water. Land ice, on the other hand, forms from fresh water: snow or rain. 5  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT DISTRIBUTION OF EARTH'S WATER table fluctuates depending on factors such as rainfall, groundwater SUBSURFACE WATER INLAND extraction, and soil permeability. SURFACE WATER water bodies on the Earth's surface, Surface such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and Water What is Subsurface Water? streams is any water found beneath the Earth's surface. This includes water in the soil, rocks, and Unsaturated Zone underground formations. this is the upper layer of the subsurface refers to the shallow underground water where the pores in the soil and rock are that flows as interflow, which is a component of not completely filled with water. The total runoff in the hydrological response of soil to water in this zone is held by capillary precipitation events. forces and is not available for easy extraction. How Does Subsurface Water Form? the voids that is, the spaces between Primarily from precipitation that infiltrates grains of gravel, sand, silt, clay, and cracks the ground and percolates into aquifers. within rocks--contain both air and water. also known as zone of aeration Zones of Subsurface Water KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF Unsaturated Zone UNSATURATED ZONE Saturat water in the unsaturated zone is held in place by capillary Capillary forces. This means that the Action water molecules are attracted to each other and to the surfaces of the soil particles. essential for plant growth, plants absorb water from the Soil moisture unsaturated zone through their roots. the permeability of the unsaturated zone can vary depending on the type of soil or rock. Some soils, such as clay, have low permeability, this is the top layer of the Earth's which means that water does Land Permeability crust, which is exposed to the not flow through them easily. Surface atmosphere. Other soils, such as sand, have crisscrossed by roots, voids left by high permeability, which means decayed roots, and animal and worm that water can flow through burrows, which enhance the them more easily. Soil- water infiltration of precipitation into the Zone soil zone. the unsaturated zone can be a source of pollution if also known as the vadose zone. contaminants enter the soil. the boundary between the Pollution Contaminants can move unsaturated zone and the saturated potential through the unsaturated zone Water table zone. It is the level at which the and eventually reach the water pressure in the soil is equal to saturated zone, where they can atmospheric pressure. The water contaminate groundwater. 6  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT Saturated Zone Groundwater Formation this is the lower layer where the pores Hydrologic Cycle are completely filled with water. The Unsaturated Zone water in this zone is under pressure and Saturated Zone can flow freely. the voids in the saturated zone are Ground Water Recharge completely filled with water. Groundwater is replenished through water in the saturated zone is referred to recharge, which occurs primarily during rainy as ground water. seasons. also known as phreatic zone Discharge KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF SATURATED ZONE Groundwater naturally discharges through the water in the saturated zone springs and riverbeds. is known as groundwater. It is a Ground Distribution valuable resource that is used Water for drinking, irrigation, and Groundwater is widely distributed industrial purposes. globally, with many untapped reservoirs. are underground formations that can store and transmit 98% Aquifers groundwater. Aquifers are typically made of porous rocks, Ninety-eight percent of Earth's available such as sandstone, or gravel. fresh water is groundwater. direction of groundwater flow is influenced by factors such as 1.7 % Flow the slope of the land, the permeability of the aquifer, and About 1.7 percent of all of Earth's water Direction. the presence of confining is groundwater layers. Earthquake affect groundwater vulnerable to pollution if contaminants enter the Groundwater levels in wells can oscillate groundwater. Contaminants up and down when seismic waves pass Pollution can come from various sources, potential SPRINGS including agricultural runoff, industrial waste, and septic are natural outlets where groundwater systems. emerges onto the land surface. They occur when the water table intersects the surface, allowing the Sources of Ground Water groundwater to flow out. Pamukkale, Turkey Mambukal Hot Spring Resort Ground Water (Bacolod) water found in the saturated zone Groundwater Recharge valuable resource that is used for drinking, Aquifer Formation irrigation, and industrial purposes Pressure Build-Up fresh water (from rain or melting ice and snow) that soaks into the soil and is Discharge Point stored in the tiny spaces (pores) between rocks and particles of soil. 7  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT WELLS are man-made structures that provide access to groundwater. They are typically drilled into the saturated zone to extract water for various purposes Dug Wells Drilling Well Casing Pump Installation Water Extraction AQUIFER is a body of porous rock or sediment saturated with groundwater. Groundwater enters an aquifer as precipitation seeps through the soil. It can move through the aquifer and resurface through springs and wells. Importance of Subsurface Water a geological formation that stores and transmits water 1. Drinking Water a. groundwater is a major source of How does water fill an aquifer? drinking water for many communities, especially in regions Precipitation with limited surface water o rain and snow infiltrate the ground, resources. eventually reaching the saturated 2. Agriculture zone. a. used for irrigating crops, Surface Water particularly in arid and semi-arid o Lakes and rivers can also contribute regions. to aquifer recharge. 3. Industry a. used in various manufacturing processes, such as cooling, Two General Types of Aquifers cleaning, and processing. 4. Ecosystem Support Confined Unconfined a. supports various ecosystems, such as wetlands, springs, and caves, an aquifer below the an aquifer whose providing habitat for diverse land surface that is upper water surface organisms. saturated with water. (water table) is at 5. Domestic use confined aquifers have atmospheric pressure, a. household activities and and thus is able to rise recreational pursuits a layer of and fall impenetrable rock or clay above them lie below a permeable layer of soil. 8  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT Inland Surface Water Characteristics of Inland Surface Water They can be located in the term "inland surface water" describes various geographic bodies of water that are found inside a landmass as settings, such as Location opposed to oceanic or coastal waters. mountains, valleys, plains, and coastal its key characteristics include location, size, regions. depth, salinity, flow, and connectivity. - inland Inland surface waters surface water include lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, vary greatly in size, Size swamps, and marshes from small ponds to expansive lakes. Inland surface waters are formed through The depth of an inland a combination of precipitation, runoff, surface water can groundwater, geology, and climate. Depth affect its temperature, Precipitation fills depressions to form lakes and light penetration, and ponds, runoff flows into rivers and streams, nutrient distribution groundwater can also contribute to water bodies, surface waters can underlying geology and climate affect how these Salinity Inland range from freshwater waters form and persist, and human activities can to saltwater. affect their existence and condition. surface waters can be either static/lentic Inland surface waters serve human civilizations and Flow Inland (lakes, ponds) or ecosystems in many ways, such as: flowing/lotic (rivers, streams). 1. Biodiversity surface waters are a. They provide homes for often connected to numerous plants and animals and Connectivity Inland each other through are home to a wide variety of rivers, streams, or terrestrial and aquatic species. groundwater. 2. Climate regulation They can be located in a. They have an impact on various geographic temperature, precipitation, and settings, such as Location humidity, which helps to control mountains, valleys, plains, and coastal local and regional climates. regions. 3. Water resources a. These are vital for domestic, industrial, and agricultural Ponds purposes. 4. Recreation Smaller bodies of water that are usually a. Activities like swimming, boating, shallower than lakes. A variety of aquatic plants hiking, and fishing are among the and animals can be found in ponds, which can be leisure pursuits they provide. man-made or natural. 5. Spiritual and cultural value Because they serve as breeding places for a. For local communities, they ducks and amphibians, ponds can be beneficial to frequently have spiritual and local ecosystems. Ponds can be categorized cultural significance. according on their water source, form, and depth. Swamps Wetlands where trees and bushes predominate. Dense vegetation and wet soils are 9  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT characteristics of swamps. They are essential for 2. Tectonic Lakes controlling water flow, filtering contaminants, and a. They are formed due to tectonic creating habitats for a range of fauna. movements of the earth’s crust. These movements include faulting, South America's Pantanal and Florida's warping, or rifting of tectonic Everglades are two examples. The predominant plates, which cause vertical or tree species in a swamp can be used to categorize lateral movement of the earth’s it, such as mangrove or cypress swamps. They can surface. Tectonic lakes appear in also be divided into freshwater and saltwater those spots, with some of the swamps based on where they get their water. world’s grandest and deepest Lakes lakes coming under this category. any relatively large body of slowly moving Examples: The sea of Aral in between or standing water that occupies an inland basin of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, Lake Buluan in appreciable size. Maguindanao & Sultan Kudarat, Lake Danao in Leyte, Laguna De Bay in Laguna Importance/ Purposes of Lakes 3. Volcanic Lakes Lakes supply many communities with a. Volcanic lakes can form within water. Artificial lakes are used to store volcanic craters, calderas of water for times of drought. Lakes formed dormant or extinct volcanoes, or by dams also provide hydroelectric when volcanic lahars (lava flow) energy. The water is channeled from the interrupt the flow of a river or lake to drive generators that produce stream. Volcano craters or electricity. calderas are filled up by Lakes are also helpful for the prevention precipitation when the of floods during heavy rainfall and in the accumulation of water is higher dry season, it helps to maintain an even than the loss of water through flow of water. Lakes help in maintaining evaporation or ground seepage. the flow of a river. Examples: Lake Toba in Sumatra in the TYPES OF LAKES caldera of Toba super volcano ,Tadlac lake in Los banos 1. Meteorite Lakes a. They are formed in craters on the 4. Glacial Lakes earth’s surface due to the impact a. Glaciers carve out rocks that of extraterrestrial objects like form depressions. When the asteroids or meteorites. Over glaciers melt, the water fill-up the time, water accumulates in these depressions, forming lakes. Glacial craters, and lakes appear. So, they lakes can be of different types are often referred to as including proglacial, subglacial, extraterrestrial impact lakes or finger, and epishelf lakes, though it crater lakes. Sediments obtained is difficult to draw a clear from the bottom of these lakes distinction between how they are often carry useful information on formed. Glacial lakes are common extraterrestrial or cosmic objects. in North America, Europe, and Antarctica because these regions Examples: Lonar Lake in India, Lake Elgygytgyn in have undergone heavy glaciations northeast Siberia Example: Jökulsárlón in Iceland, the Great Lakes of North America 10  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT 5. Fluvial Lakes Example: Moses Lake in the USA a. Fluvial lakes are formed in the 8. Anthropogenic Lakes course of a river. When a river a. Anthropogenic lakes or artificial flows in its lower-course, the lakes are human-made reservoirs slow- moving stream bends and that are created either by erecting meanders; thus, horseshoe bends a dam across a river or stream or are formed, and eventually, the excavating land and diverting a river cuts through the narrow part of the river flow into the neck. This neck provides the new reservoir. Such lakes or passage to the river, and the ends reservoirs serve various purposes of the horseshoe bend become like hydro-electric power silted up, thus forming a free- generation, irrigation, and supply standing body of a lake in bow- of drinking water. Inland fish shape. They are also called ox- culture is another common bow lakes. reason for the creation of artificial Example: Lake Chicot of Arkansas in Mississippi lakes. River Ex. Lake Kariba in Zambia and Zimbabwe, 6. Landslide lakes Williston Lake in Canada (human-made a. Also referred to as barrier lakes reservoirs), Ambuklao Dam in Benguet, Lake that form when landslides, mud Carilaya in Laguna, La Mesa Dam in Quezon City flows, or avalanches naturally 9. Solution Lakes obstruct the course of a river. a. These lakes occur in the basins Landslides triggered by where the bedrock contains earthquakes, or heavy rainfall is water-soluble materials like the most common reason for the limestone, gypsum, and dolomite. formation of this type of lakes The bedrocks are dissolved by Ex. Quake Lakes in the US ( that formed as a rainfall and percolation of water, result of 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake),Lake thus producing cavities that are Balanan in Negros Oriental (Created after a eventually filled by rainfall, giving landslide from the 1925 earthquake blocked the birth to a solution lake. These Balanan River), Lake Buhi in Camarines Sur cavities may collapse to form (Formed after the non-volcanic earthquake of sinkholes in regions where 1628 created a landslide which dammed the Barit groundwater is close to the River) surface with sinkholes filling up eventually and forming deeper 7. Aeolian Lakes lakes. a. Aeolian lakes are found in arid regions where wind activity is Examples: Dalmatian coast of Croatia and Florida very prevalent. The wind-blown 10. Cirque Lakes or Tarns sand deposit in layers that act like a. As the name denotes, these lakes a dam in the lake basin, forming are formed in cirques of mountain an aeolian lake. These have a small regions. Cirques are armchair area with changing shapes, and shaped hollow land form with a shallow depressions that fill with steep back wall, and over- water seasonally. They may also deepened valley formed due to form when rainwater accumulates erosion by glaciers. This hollow between sand-dunes, being depression can be filled-up by referred to as interdunal lakes 11  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT melted glacial water with glacial 5. Cultural Significance debris (moraine) acting as a a. Many Philippine cultures and barrier to hold the water, thus traditions are closely tied to forming a lake. rivers and streams, reflecting their importance in local history and Examples: Veľké Hincovo, the largest and deepest identity. tarn in Slovakia, Lake Tear of the Clouds (a small tarn) in the Adirondack Mountains, New York CLASSIFICATION OF STREAMS 11. Organic Lakes Perennial streams a. Organic lakes are named so as the o Flow year-round, fed by action of animals and plants groundwater or consistent contribute to their formation. rainfall. These can occur when the Intermittent streams underground activities of animals o Flow seasonally, often during wet like beavers or rodents obstruct a periods. river or stream, or vegetative Ephemeral streams growths develop into a natural o Flow only after heavy rainfall, dam. These may also appear in drying up quickly afterward. the form of coral lakes. They are quite rare and smaller in size. STREAMS Streams are natural bodies of flowing water that originate in higher elevations, such as mountains or hills, and flow downhill into rivers, lakes, or oceans. IMPORTANCE OF STREAMS PARTS OF STREAMS 1. Water Supply The beginning point of a. Streams are a primary source of a stream, often in a Source freshwater for drinking, irrigation, mountainous region and other uses. or high ground. 2. Biodiversity The upper reaches of a stream, a. They support a diverse range of Headwaters characterized by steep aquatic life, including fish, insects, slopes and narrow and other organisms. channels. 3. Ecosystem Services The main channel of a a. Streams contribute to ecosystem stream, typically wider services such as flood control, Mainstream and deeper than the nutrient cycling, and carbon headwaters. sequestration. The bed or path 4. Economic Benefits Channel through which a a. Streams can be used for stream flows. recreation, tourism, and Two streams come Confluence hydropower generation, together contributing to the local The point where a Mouth economy. stream flows into a 12  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT larger body of water, Example: The Abra River is a tributary of such as a lake, ocean, the Cagayan River. or another river. Where the stream Distributary: A branch of a river that flows away Estuary meets the ocean or from the main channel. lake Example: The Pasig River has several The sides of the Banks distributaries that flow into Manila Bay. stream channel. The flat area adjacent Bayou: A slow-moving stream or river, often Floodplain to a stream that is found in flat, swampy areas. subject to flooding. The area along the WHAT IS A RIVER? banks of a stream that Riparian Zone A river is a ribbon-like body of water that is influenced by the water. flows downhill from the force of gravity. A river where water slows can be wide and deep, or shallow enough for a and becomes deeper person to wade across. resulted by the Pool IMPORTANCE vertical force of water falling down over logs Humans use rivers for irrigation in or boulders. agriculture, for drinking water, for transportation, to produce electricity through hydroelectric TYPES OF STREAMS dams, and for leisure activities like swimming and boating. Brook: A small stream, often a tributary to a larger river or creek. PARTS OF A RIVER Example: The Agno River, one of the major rivers in the Philippines, has numerous brooks flowing into it. Creek: A small, natural stream of water, often narrower and shallower than a river. Example: The Marikina Creek, which flows through Metro Manila, is a well-known creek in the Philippines. River: A large natural flowing body of freshwater that flows into the sea, ocean, or another river. Example: The Cagayan River, the longest TYPES OF RIVERS river in the Philippines, flows through several provinces. Permanent Rivers Runnel: A small, narrow channel or streamlet, Permanent rivers, also known as perennial often found in fields or forests. rivers, have a continuous flow of water from various sources, including snow melt and rainfall. Example: Many runnels can be found in They are common on every continent except the rice paddies of the Philippines. Antarctica and are home to famous rivers like the Tributary: A stream or river that flows into a Amazon and Nile. larger river. 13  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT Permanent rivers provide habitats, EX. Kuiseb River in Namibia support ecosystems, and support communities Exotic Rivers through crop cultivation and hydroelectric power. However, permanent rivers can also be An exotic river is a river that originates in dangerous because it can cause flooding, damaging a humid region and flows into a dry one, often in land, infrastructure, and housing in nearby towns deserts. Exotic rivers provide consistent water and villages. sources, making them ideal for settlements, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. EX. Amazon River Examples include the Nile, which starts in Periodic Rivers East Africa and flows through Egypt, Sudan, and the Mediterranean Sea, and th Periodic rivers, also known as Colorado River in the United States, which intermittent rivers, flow seasonally due to starts in the Rocky Mountains and flows to seasonal weather patterns. They are found in dry California. and semi-dry areas and are fed by increased rainfall and groundwater. An example is the Ugab River in Tributary Rivers Namibia. A tributary is a river or stream that feeds Ex. Ugab River in Namibia into a larger river, not directly into the sea. They flow into other rivers or lakes. Episodic Rivers The White River, 722 miles long, flows Episodic rivers are similar to periodic through Arkansas and Missouri, attracting rivers because they require increased amounts of settlements and hydroelectric dams. At its end, it rainwater or snow in order to flow. Whilst flows into the Mississippi River. periodic rivers flow seasonally, depending on the seasonal weather and increasing rain water, Distributary River episodic rivers can remain dry for years. A distributary river is the opposite of a Nossob River- It hasn’t had water flow tributary and branches off from another through through it since 1989. river bifurcation. These rivers can split into smaller or join back up to form a single river, Ephemeral Rivers depending on the material separating them. Ephemeral rivers are temporary, caused River bifurcation can create landforms like by heavy rainfall. Ephemeral rivers found in arid river deltas, which occur at the mouth of a river, and semi-arid areas. These rivers are quick- allowing sediment to settle and creating wetlands. flowing, often connecting to other periodic or episodic rivers. They are short-lived, allowing River deltas are beneficial for the them to absorb groundwater and not reach great environment, providing habitats, vegetation, and distances. absorbing run-off from heavy rain and flooding. The Fly River in Papua New Guinea is an example However, they provide significant of a river delta. environmental benefits, such as maintaining groundwater levels, providing more water for Subterranean Rivers other rivers, and promoting vegetation growth by moving sediment through the environment. Due A subterranean river is a river that flows to their shorter-lived nature, most ephemeral partially or completely underground, either rivers don't have a defined river bed. naturally or man-made. 14  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT Examples include the Puerto- Water Cycle and Ocean Currents Princesa Subterranean River in the Philippines, which is part of a UNESCO Water cycle Heritage site and provides habitat for The hydrologic cycle, or water cycle, various plants and animals. collects, purifies, and distributes the earth’s fixed In London, underground rivers like the supply of water. The water cycle is a global cycle River Westbourne were converted into sewers because there is a large reservoir of water in the due to poor water quality. atmosphere as well as in the hydrosphere, especially the oceans. Troglobites, animals with adapted senses of smell and hearing, have adapted to live in caves and subterranean rivers systems, despite often having weak eyesight. Rivers provide important benefits like drinking water, irrigation, and more. As homes for fish, plants, and wildlife, rivers are essential for the survival of many species—including our own. Local Inland Surface Water 1. Laguna de Bay (Tectonic Lake) 2. Agusan Marsh (Freshwater Marsh) 3. Iloilo River (Permanent River) 4. Guintic-gan Stream (Tributary Stream) 5. Concepcion Mangrove Swamp (Saltwater PROCESS OF WATER CYCLE Swamp) 6. Wright Park Pond (Man-made Pond) 1. EVAPORATION: a. The process where liquid water Water can be found both above and below the changes into water vapor (gas). ground. Subsurface water is water that's hidden 2. CONDENSATION beneath the Earth's surface. This includes things like a. The process where water vapor groundwater, which is water that fills the spaces (gas) changes into water droplets between rocks and soil. Inland surface water is water (liquid). that's found on the land, but not connected to the 3. PLANT UPTAKE: ocean. This includes rivers, lakes, and streams. a. Water taken from the Rivers carry water from the mountains other bodies of groundwater flow and soil water. They're important for transportation, providing moisture. power, and supporting life in their ecosystems. Lake 4. TRANSPIRATION are like pools, holding water in place. They're great for a. Evaporation of liquid water from swimming, fishing, and providing drinking water. plants and trees into the Streams are smaller rivers, often found in forests and atmosphere. countryside. They're important for supporting wildlife 5. TRANSPORTATION: and providing water for plants. a. The movement of solid, liquid and gaseous water through the All of these water bodies are vital for our planet's atmosphere. health. They provide us with resources, support 6. RUNOFF: ecosystems, and help regulate our climate. It's a. River, lake, and stream transport important to protect and conserve these precious of water and transport of ice in resources for future generations. glaciers. 15  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT 7. PRECIPITATION: TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENTS a. Water that falls to the earth. Ocean currents can be classified as either horizontal Most precipitation falls as rain but or vertical. includes snow, sleet, drizzle, and hail. 1. Horizontal Currents 8. GROUNDWATER a. These include surface and deep- a. Underground water flow water currents. (aquifers). 9. DEPOSITION Surface Currents a. The process where water vapor They are currents that occur on the top layer (gas) changes into ice (solid), of the ocean and are primarily driven by wind. skipping the liquid phase. They affect the water in the upper 300m of the 10. SUBLIMATION ocean. The currents mirror the large-scale a. The process where ice and snow circulation of air, mostly derived from unequal (solid) change into water vapor heating of the planet’s surface by the sun. (gas), skipping the liquid phase. 11. INFILTRATION The currents, therefore, form rotating a. Movement of water into the systems in the middle of the ocean systems, called ground from the surface. gyres. Surface currents are responsible for 12. PERCOLATION redistributing heat at a planetary scale. a. Movement of water past the soil going deep into the groundwater. OCEAN CURRENTS Ocean currents refer to the steady movement or flow of surface ocean water in a prevailing direction. Various forces act upon ocean water, causing it to move. They include the wind, temperature, breaking waves and tides, and sometimes underground forces like earthquakes. Deep-water Currents Ocean currents are the movements of ocean water due to gravity, the As opposed to surface currents that occur on rotating earth (Coriolis effect), water the upper surface of the ocean, deep-water density, the sun, and wind. The currents occur deep inside the ocean, beyond 300 various forces determine the size, speed, meters. As they occur far below the surface, they direction, and shape of ocean currents. are not influenced by the wind. The water can either move However, they arise as a result of variation in the density of the ocean water and are controlled o horizontally – known as by the temperature and salt content of the water currents, o vertically – known as downwellings or upwellings. Ocean currents are responsible for heat transfer, biodiversity variations, and the planet’s climate 16  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT hydrogen sulfide, and only a handful of benthic 2. Vertical Currents animals would survive such toxic conditions. a. This category of currents can either be upwelling or downwelling. Upwelling Currents Upwelling currents are currents that move from deep in the ocean, heading towards the surface. They are responsible for bringing organic matter from below the ocean towards its surface. For instance, they sweep nutrients upwards, helping some marine life. It can be seen when there are tremors or earthquakes on the Causes of Ocean Currents surface below the ocean, and the waves are pushed upwards Some of the common causes include the following: In Antarctica, upwelling currents pump nitrogen and phosphates up from the deep sea to blooms 1. Solar Heating of algae and other plants. a. Solar heating causes water to expand. The water around the The planktons can then be eaten by crustaceans equator is roughly 8cm higher called krill, which in turn are eaten by penguins, than in middle latitudes. It causes seabirds, seals, and the baleen whales, the largest a slight slope in the water and animals on earth. flows down the slopes. Warm water flows towards the cold Polar Regions, and cold water flows towards the warmer equatorial regions. 2. Wind a. The wind is responsible for ocean currents as it blows the water on the surface, causing the currents. It is also responsible for surface currents, where ocean water is Downwelling Currents redistributed based on its density These currents move material from the and temperature. ocean’s surface towards its floor. Surface water 3. Gravity can be forced downwards by the pressure of the a. Gravity tends to pull items water when currents converge, or wind drives the towards the surface of the earth. ocean against a coastline. When the wind blows ocean water, the water piles up in the It is important as the dissolved oxygen in the direction of the wind. In this sediments and water below would quickly be used scenario, gravity acts against the up by the decay of organic matter. Additionally, pressure gradient, pulling the anaerobic bacteria would take control of water down the ‘hill. decomposition, contributing to a build-up of 17  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT 4. The Salinity of The Water the North Atlantic Drift brings a. When water moves towards the rainfall to Western parts of poles, it gets cold and freezes into Europe, resulting in rains ice, leaving a share of salt behind. throughout the year. This makes the underlying water 2. They Can Also Cause Deserts saltier, making it denser. The cold, a. Cold currents do not give rise to saltier and denser water sinks to moistureladen winds, so there is the ocean floor and is replaced by no rainfall in the coastal regions. surface water The conditions cause 5. Temperature desertification in the affected a. Warm water tends to stay on the coastal regions, such as the surface of the ocean. When the Kalahari and Patagonia Deserts, denser, saltier, and colder water because of the cold Benguela and moves towards the warmer area Falkland currents, respectively. of the equator, it warms up and 3. Currents Can Destroy Marine becomes less dense, rising to the Wildlife ocean’s surface, resulting in a. Some currents might be too upwellings. strong and end up destroying 6. Coriolis effect plankton and other see creatures. a. Coriolis effect refers to the For instance, El Nino currently rotation of the earth. It produces destroys plankton along the forces on all bodies moving Peruvian coasts. It also brings with relative to the earth. As the earth it several diseases that kill fish. is spherical, the forces are greatly 4. Currents Help with The Continuity felt at the poles and least at the of Life equator. The Coriolis effect also a. In Antarctica, strong upwelling results in the wind changing currents pump nitrogen and direction, with Northern phosphates up from the deep sea Hemisphere winds and currents to blooms of algae and other moving towards the right while plants. The planktons are eaten by Southern Hemisphere currents crustaceans called krill. The krill, are deflected to the left. in turn, feed penguins, seabirds, 7. Underwater Earthquakes seals, and the baleen whales – the a. Underwater earthquakes can largest animals on earth. trigger ocean currents, moving 5. Currents Save up On Time and masses of water inland. Costs Earthquakes can also trigger a. It goes to the advanced downslope movements of water knowledge of currents by sailors. saturated sediments, resulting in When currents are in their favor, strong turbidity currents. they can reach their destinations in time. They can also reduce Effects of Ocean Currents shipping time and fuel costs. The occurrence of ocean currents doesn’t go However, if they are against the without effects. Some of the effects include: sailors, it will take more time battling them, and use more fuel 1. They Result in Rain to sail past those currents a. Warm currents lead to 6. Currents Can Result in Deaths evaporation, which turns into rain a. Ocean currents can also result in for the coastal areas. For instance, deaths and destruction of 18  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT property if they are strong highly sustained and influenced by enough to overpower ships in the ocean currents ocean. Of course, to do so, they 5. Transportation By Humans have to be very strong and a. Humans rely on ocean currents to probably accompanied by tremors move some sea vessels, such as or lightning, but in the end, they boats, on water. Currents are can lead to disastrous results. also important as they help when docking and undocking boats, Importance of Ocean Currents speeding up shipping lanes, and Some of the significance of ocean currents include keeping the ships safe, primarily in the following: narrow waterways. b. The direction of currents can 1. Controlling the Climate also help in search and rescue a. Ocean currents are responsible missions and environmental for moving the heat from the disaster clean-ups. equator and towards the poles. As such, they maintain the natural order and balance of the climate. 2. Critical to Marine Life a. Marine wildlife is heavily dependent on the balance created by the ocean and is maintained by ocean currents. The currents carry nutrients and food organisms, feeding the plants and animals that depend on them. b. Marine wildlife is heavily dependent on the balance created by the ocean and is maintained by ocean currents. The currents carry nutrients and food organisms, feeding the plants and animals that depend on them. 3. Currents Are Vital for Ports in The Polar Regions a. Warm ocean currents are responsible for keeping the ports in polar regions operational. It is because they keep the ports ice- free. The North Atlantic Drift, for instance, keeps most of the European ports ice-free and operational. Norway is a prime beneficiary of this drift. 4. Dispersal of Life Forms a. Ocean currents are also important as they disperse many life forms. For instance, the lifecycle of the European eel is 19  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT mass of the atmosphere is in the troposphere. Most types of clouds LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE are found in the troposphere, and WHAT IS ATMOSPHERE? almost all weather occurs within this layer. The troposphere is by far The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that the wettest layer of the atmosphere surrounds the Earth. It helps make life possible In the troposphere, there we can by providing us with air to breathe, shielding find the: us from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation o all forms of life coming from the Sun, trapping heat to warm the o commercial flights planet, and preventing extreme temperature o hot air balloon differences between day and night. Without the o weather (hurricanes, tornado, atmosphere, temperatures would be well below rain) freezing everywhere on Earth's surface o lightning and thunder o clouds (cumulus, stratus, cirrus, and cumulonimbus The layers of the atmosphere is like a multi-layered cake. The bottom layer can be cholocate, other can be STRATOSPHERE strawberry, and other can be carrot. They all have their different flavors and key ingredients to become uniquely Located between approximately 12 and different 50 kilometers above Earth’s surface, the stratosphere is perhaps best known as home to Earth’s ozone layer, which LAYERS OF EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE protects us from the Sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. The stratosphere is the layer of highly stratified air that extends for roughly 40 km above the MNEMONICS tropopause and contains approximately The Silly Monkeys Twirled Endlessly 10% of the mass of the atmosphere. It contains the ozone layer which is Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere responsible in protecting life on Earth by Thermosphere Exosphere absorbing harmful UV rays from the sun. The lower portion of the stratosphere is nearly isothermal, whereas TROPOSPHERE temperatures in its upper levels increase with altitude. As you go All weathers occur in this region higher in the stratosphere, the Earth’s troposphere extends from temperature increases due to the Earth’s surface to, on average, about absorption of ultraviolet (UV) 12 kilometers in height, with its radiation by ozone height lower at Earth’s poles and o OZONE higher at the equator. Yet this very ▪ The stratosphere is often shallow layer is tasked with holding all referred to as the the air plants need for “ozone layer, ” photosynthesis and animals need because of the to breathe, and also contains about relatively high 99 percent of all water vapor and concentrations aerosols. produced by The troposphere is the lowest layer photochemical of Earth's atmosphere. Most of the reactions in this region 20  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT of the atmosphere. THERMOSPHERE Ozone, derived from the Greek word meaning “to The thermosphere is the fourth layer of smell, ”. A pungent Earth's atmosphere. It begins smell the same as copy approximately at an altitude of 85-90 machines and laser kilometers and has no clearly defined printers. upper boundary. The thermosphere where About 19 percent of the earth’s total the auroras, such as the Northern greenhouse gases are contained in the Lights and Southern Lights, occur. The stratosphere. International Space Station orbits The upper crust of the stratosphere Earth in this layer. contains 90% of the ozone layer. This A significant portion of the thermosphere is ozone layer is critical for man’s survival, known as the ionosphere. In this region, as well as the survival of life on Earth. atoms and molecules are ionized by The stratosphere is very dry, with very solar radiation, creating electrically little water vapor in the air. Jet charged particles. This layer is crucial aircraft and weather balloons achieve for radio communication, as it reflects their highest operating altitudes in the radio waves back to Earth. stratosphere as a result of this. EXOSPHERE MESOSPHERE The exosphere is the outermost layer The mesosphere is the third layer of of the Earth's atmosphere. It is the Earth's atmosphere. It extends uppermost region of the approximately from an altitude of about atmosphere and gradually transitions 50 kilometers to 85 kilometers above into the vacuum of space. The the Earth's surface. Weather balloons exosphere is where weather, and other aircraft cannot fly high navigation, and communication enough to reach the mesosphere. satellites are found. Satellites are Satellites orbit above the mesosphere strategically placed in orbit within the and cannot directly measure the traits exosphere to perform their various of this layer. functions. The mesosphere is the coldest layer of We can best describe the exosphere as Earth's atmosphere, with temperatures “The last layer of the atmosphere reaching as low as -90°C (-130°F) near before space. ” the top. The air in the mesosphere is In this layer, we can also find a faint, extremely thin, making it difficult for glowing cloud of hydrogen atoms surrounding aircraft or weather balloons to reach this Earth, called GEOCORONA. layer It is where noctilucent clouds are found. It is the burning ground of the meteor. The atmosphere consists of layers of gases that surround the Earth. The earth is divided into 5 Mesosphere is influenced by atmospheric layers with different properties that atmospheric tides. The mesosphere is change with the increase in altitude. These layers, from where most meteors burn up as they the troposphere closest to the surface to the enter the Earth and creating bright exosphere furthest away, play crucial roles in regulating light streaks we often see in the night sky Earth's climate, protecting life from harmful radiation, and enables us to appreciate the delicate balance of our planet's environment. 21  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT BASIC METEROLOGY THREE TYPES OF WEATHER Weather And Climate, Clouds, Precipitation SUNNY Meteorology, Scientific study of Sunny weather occurs when there is atmospheric phenomena, particularly of the little to no moisture in the air and minimal troposphere and lower stratosphere. cloud cover, allowing sunlight to shine through Meteorology entails the systematic study of unobstructed. weather and its causes, and provides the basis for weather forecasting Crucial for plant and crop growth, as sunlight provides the energy necessary for Meteorology is an interdisciplinary photosynthesis, the process by which plants science that draws on physics and chemistry produce their food. to understand the atmosphere. It has been studied since ancient times, when civilizations kept Additionally, regions that receive more records of weather conditions for agriculture and sunlight typically experience higher average curiosity. Today, meteorology plays a role in many temperatures compared to those that receive areas, including: less. Transportation: Meteorology helps CLOUDY determine how to control the transportation of Cloudy weather occurs when water contaminants in the environment. vapor in the atmosphere condenses into Severe weather: Meteorology helps droplets, forming clouds. develop better warnings for severe weather These clouds can develop at various systems like hurricanes and tornadoes. elevations, from low to high, with fog typically Weather safety: Meteorology helps forming near the ground. improve safety by planning around severe The condensation process creates water weather. droplets that cluster together, resulting in clouds WEATHER that can be found up to 12 miles above sea level Weather refers to the short-term RAINY atmospheric conditions in a particular location, Rain, a form of precipitation, occurs varying over minutes, hours, days, and weeks. It when water vapor condenses into large includes elements such as temperature, droplets within clouds. When these droplets precipitation, humidity, wind speed and direction, become too heavy, they fall to Earth as rain. and atmospheric pressure. Intense rainfall often accompanies Most weather activity occurs in the thunderstorms, which may also include lightning, troposphere, the layer of the atmosphere closest thunder, and strong winds, along with hail. to the Earth’ s surface, and is influenced by various factors, including air pressure and temperature Hurricanes are more severe storms changes. characterized by extremely powerful winds and heavy rainfall, making them significantly more Weather conditions differ worldwide due damaging than regular rainstorms due to their to these varying factors and are constantly high wind speeds. changing, making weather prediction essential for activities like agriculture, transportation, and disaster preparedness. 22  EARTH SCIENCE / NSCI 201 S.Y. ‘24 - ‘25 | SEM 1 | PPT WHAT ARE THE FACTORS conditions. They form when water vapor AFFECTING WEATHER? evaporates from sources like oceans and lakes, then condenses into water droplets or ice crystals TEMPERATURE when cooled to a certain level. Studying clouds in Temperature measures the kinetic energy detail using scientific equipment helps produce in the air, manifesting as heat or cold. It's one of accurate assessments of atmospheric conditions. the most noticeable weather factors, as we Identifying specific types of clouds and their quickly sense changes in warmth or chill. associated weather can be valuable for analyzing Temperature is measured in Celsius, Fahrenheit, weather based on visual cues. or Kelvin, typically using a thermometer. PRECIPITATION ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE Precipitation is essential for life on Earth, Atmospheric pressure results from the as it replenishes water sources like rivers, lakes, weight and density of the air. It changes with and groundwater, which are vital for humans, animals, and plants. lIt occurs when water temperature which is warm air, being less dense, droplets in clouds become too heavy to remain leads to lower pressure, while cold air leads to airborne and fall to the ground. Precipitation can higher pressure. Pressure also decreases with take various forms, including rain, snow, hail, and altitude, as there’s less air above. High-pressure graupel. The processes of evaporation and systems typically bring clear, cool weather, while condensation are fundamental to the formation of low-pressure systems often bring warmer, precipitation, transforming water vapor into liquid unsettled weather. or solid states that contribute to the Earth's water supply. WIND Wind is the movement of air from high- pressure areas to low-pressure areas, driven by CLIMATE pressure differences in the atmosphere. The greater the pressure difference, the stronger the Climate is defined as the long-term wind. Wind is a major force in weather, average of weather conditions in a specific contributing to events like fronts, clouds, area, encompassing factors such as temperature, precipitation, humidity, and wind over extended thunderstorms, and hurricanes. periods, typically 30 years. It describes the typical weather patterns and conditions for different HUMIDITY seasons in a region, allowing for expectations Humidity is the amount of water vapor in about general climate trends without predicting the atmosphere, directly influencing both weather daily weather. patterns and human comfort. Although it is invisible, humidity can be sensed and plays a For example, climate indicates whether summers crucial role in weather formation. Warmer air are hot and humid or winters are cold and sno