Communication Skills COMS 1010 - University of Mauritius - 2014 PDF

Communication Skills – COMS 1010 COMMUNICATION SKILLS COMS 1010 August 2014 Centre for Innovative and Lifelong Learning UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS 1  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 COMMUNICATI...

Communication Skills – COMS 1010 COMMUNICATION SKILLS COMS 1010 August 2014 Centre for Innovative and Lifelong Learning UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS 1  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 COMMUNICATION SKILLS COMS 1010 COURSE MANUAL Centre for Innovative and Lifelong Learning UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS 2  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 CONTRIBUTORS Communication Skills, COMS 1010 was prepared for the Centre for Innovative & Lifelong Learning, University of Mauritius. The University of Mauritius acknowledges the contribution of the following course authors from the Faculty of Social Studies and Humanities: Dr M Auleear Owodally Mrs C Chan-Meetoo Assoc Prof (Dr) M Paroomal The manual was reviewed in 2014 by the following resource persons: Ms T Auckle Dr M Auleear Owodally Mrs C Chan-Meetoo Mrs G Narrainen Assoc Prof (Dr) M Paroomal August 2014 All rights reserved. No part of the work may be reproduced in any form, without the written permission from the University of Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius. 3  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABOUT THE COURSE Unit 1: Professional Communication: An Introduction Unit 2: Effective Use of Academic English Unit 3: Writing Skills Unit 4: Non-verbal Communication Unit 5: Informative Speeches; Speeches on/for Special Occasions Unit 6: Modes of Speech Delivery Unit 7: Presentation Aids Unit 8: Persuasive Speeches Unit 9: Perception and Listening Skills Unit 10: Business and Technical Writing REFERENCE LIST ASSIGNMENT FILE 4  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 ABOUT THE COURSE Welcome to COMMUNICATION SKILLS (COMS 1010), a module for Year 1 students in the various Faculties. The aims of this module are to help you  Improve your oral communication skills  Improve your written communication skills with special focus on:  Academic writing  Business and technical writing LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE COURSE By the end of the course, you will be able to do the following: Unit 1 Understand the importance of professional communication. Unit 2 Identify the appropriate tools to better your use of English. Unit 3 Use specific skills required to write for academic purposes. Unit 4 Make effective use of non-verbal cues for oral presentations. Unit 5 Design and deliver speeches for informative purposes and speeches on/for special occasions. Unit 6 Identify appropriate modes of speech delivery. Unit 7 Make effective use of presentation aids. Unit 8 Make use of persuasive speeches in an ethical manner. Unit 9 Improve perceptual accuracy and listening skills. Unit 10 Practise different types of formal writing: memos, business letters, technical reports, etc. 5  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 HOW TO PROCEED COURSE MATERIALS The CD is self-contained. A Reference List is provided at the end of the manual if you want to deepen your understanding of communication skills. HOW DO I USE THE COURSE MATERIAL? Take a few minutes to glance through the entire manual to get an idea of its structure. Notice that the format of the different units is fairly consistent throughout the material. For example, each unit begins with an OVERVIEW, and LEARNING OUTCOMES sections. The OVERVIEW provides a brief introduction to the unit and indicates prerequisite skills and knowledge you will have to possess to proceed successfully with the unit. You should then read the LEARNING OUTCOMES. These outcomes identify the knowledge and skills you will have acquired once you have successfully completed the study of a particular unit. They also show the steps that will eventually lead to the successful completion of the course. The learning objectives also provide a useful guide for review. WHERE DO I BEGIN? You should begin by taking a look at the TABLE OF CONTENTS. The table provides you with a framework for the entire course and outlines the organisation and structure of the material you will be covering. The Course Schedule indicates how you should allocate your workload and what you should be working on in each week to be ready for the respective tutorial. You should stick to the Course Schedule to ensure that you are working at a steady space and that your workload does not pile up. 6  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Proposed * Course Schedule (COMS 1010) Session Student’s Workplan Tutorial 01 Read Unit 1 Introduction to module 02 Read Unit 2 Discuss Unit 1; submission of topic for mock essay (Assignment 1) 03 Read Unit 3. Do Assignments in Unit 3, Discuss Unit 2 Parts 1, 2,3 04 Do Assignment in Unit 3, Parts 4,5 Discuss Unit 3 05 Read Unit 4. Do Assignment in Unit 3, Submit Assignment 1 (Portfolio) Part 6 Discuss Unit 4 06 Read Unit 5 Discuss Unit 5 07 Prepare/ Practise for Assignment 2 Assignment 2 due 08 Read Unit 6 Discuss Unit 6 09 Read Unit 7 Discuss Unit 7 10 Prepare/ Practice for Assignment 3 Assignment 3 due 11 Read Unit 8 Assignment 3 due 12 Read Unit 9/ Work out Activities 1-3 Discuss Unit 8 13 Read Unit 9 work out activities 4-5 Discuss Unit 9 14 Read Unit 10 and work out activities Discuss Unit 10 15 Revision Revision * Any change will be communicated by your respective tutor in class. YOUR TUTOR A one and a half hour tutorial class will be held as specified in the Course Schedule. Refer to the course schedule to check the unit(s) you must prepare before attending your tutorial. Remember that a tutorial class is not a formal lecture and to make the most of tutorial classes, it is vital that students come prepared in the way indicated below:-. Preparation required:  studying the course notes and readings for the relevant unit.  working through the activities which are sprinkled throughout the units. Your response to these activities will be discussed during the tutorial. Your tutor will keep a close watch on your progress and any difficulties you may have, and provide you with whatever assistance you may need in the tutorial class. 7  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Note that tutorials are also opportunities for you to discuss your views and ideas with your fellow classmates. The feedback you get from the tutorial sessions can further enrich your comprehension of certain concepts and you can influence the way others think about a certain issue too. So feel free to discuss the answers to the activities with your peers and the tutor. NOTE: a) You are not expected to learn the course manual by heart. You are expected to read, understand, experience, observe – all of which to be done critically and all of which must contribute to your overall knowledge and skills. b) You are encouraged to bring to the class discussions and to your assessed work additional readings from academic sources (with precise references), as well as experience and observation from real life situations. c) For this module you are required to submit/present three assignments. Refer to the Assignment File for more information. ASSESSMENT COURSE GRADING SCHEME: Continuous Assessment: 50 marks Examinations: 50 marks CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT: Assignment 1 (Written Assignment Portfolio) 20 marks Assignment 2 (Speeches on/for Special Occasions) 10 marks Assignment 3 (Informative Speech) 20 marks FINAL EXAMINATIONS: Scheduled and administered by the Registrar’s Office A two-hour paper at the end of the Semester. 8  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 STUDY TIPS Much of your time in the course will be spent reading. Your comprehension and assessment of what you read are likely to be best if you heed the following tips: 1. Organise your time. It is best to complete each assigned reading in one sitting. The logical progression of thought in a chapter/unit can be lost if it is interrupted. 2. Be an active reader. Use question marks to flag difficult or confusing passages. Put exclamation marks beside passages you find particularly important. Write short comments in the margins as you go. For example, if you disagree with an author’s argument or if you think of examples which counter the position presented, note your opinions in the margin. If you prefer to leave your book pages unmarked, you can make your notations on “post- it-notes”. 3. Read critically. You must evaluate, as well as appreciate and understand, what you read. Ask questions. Is the author’s argument logical? Are there alternatives to the author’s explanations or to the conclusions drawn? Does the information fit with your experience? 4. Take notes. If you make notes on an article or chapter right after finishing it, you reap a number of benefits. First, note-taking allows you an immediate review of what you have just read. (You will find that this review helps you recall information). Second, it gives you an opportunity to reassess your flagged or margin comments. Finally, it gives you a second shot at deciphering any confusing passages. 5. Review your scribbling! Whether or not you make separate notes on your readings, review your flags, underlining and marginalia. Study closely those passages you considered significant or difficult. 6. Write down your ideas in a course journal. As you progress through the course, the new information you absorb will stimulate new thoughts, questions, ideas, and insights. These may not be directly related to the subject matter, but may be of great interest to you. Use these ideas to focus your personal involvement in this and other courses. 9  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 7. Your ability to explain the subject matter to others is a good test of your true comprehension of the material. Try explaining the material you are learning to others, classmates or friends, without resorting to jargon. Even if some of them are not directly involved with the techniques discussed in this course, many of the concepts may be of interest to them. 8. Activities found in units will not be marked. We strongly recommend that you do not skip any of them. They will help you prepare for the graded assignments. Now, it’s time to get to work. Good luck and enjoy the course! 10  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 UNIT 1 PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION: AN INTRODUCTION Unit Structure 1.0 Overview 1.1 Learning Outcomes 1.2 Professional Communication 1.2.1 What is Professional communication? 1.2.2 The Importance of Professional Communication Skills 1.2.3 Challenges 1.3 Elements or Components of the Communication Process 1.3.1 Communicators or Participants in Communication 1.3.2 Message and Meaning 1.3.3 Code/Sign Systems and Channel 1.3.4 Noise 1.3.4.1.1 Mechanical Noise 1.3.4.1.2 Environmental Noise 1.3.4.1.3 Internal Noise 1.3.4.1.4 Semantic Noise 1.3.5 Feedback 1.4 Communication Settings or Contexts 1.4.1 Intrapersonal communication 1.4.2 Interpersonal: Dyadic and Small-Group 1.4.3 Institutional or Organisational Communication 1.4.4 Public Communication 1.4.4.1 Mass-Mediated Communication 1.5 A Few Points to Remember 1.6 Answers to Activities 11  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 1.0 OVERVIEW This Unit introduces one*of the two main components of the manual, Professional Communication or Communication for the Workplace. Some main elements of the communication process and different levels of communication will be examined and certain key aspects pertaining to communication effectiveness will be introduced. (* The other component, academic writing skills, will be developed in the units to come) 1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this unit, you should be able to do the following: 1. Define professional communication; 2. Explain the importance of communication skills in today’s work setting; 3. Identify communication challenges facing professionals in the work context ; 4. Gain awareness of certain general principles and aspects of effective and appropriate communication in the professional context; 5. Learn about different components and levels of communication and their specific nature; 6. Assess your strengths and weaknesses in professional communication skills; 7. Practise principles of effective communication and other knowledge gained to improve communication competency. 1.2 PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION 1.2.1 What is Professional Communication? Communication in the work context or for work settings can be termed “Professional Communication”. This term encompasses a variety of workplace situations and forms, amongst others:- technical writing; organisational communication; marketing; public relations; corporate communication; print and video production; crisis communication management; communication 12  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 involving scientific or technical professionals on one hand, and others within or outside the organisation or institution, on the other hand. Professional communication in this module will focus on the latter, that is, communication of expert practitioners in scientific and technical fields, in different settings and situations, with people from diverse backgrounds: technical or scientific peers or professionals in the same field; or with different training and experience; other professionals not in the same technical arena; non-technical and non-scientific colleagues; laypersons; people from the same country or not, etc. This communication skills module will not examine nor discuss specialised communication knowledge or skills. Communication skills and standards explained in this manual will be of a general nature, trying to meet the needs of scientific and technical experts who need to improve their communication competency in the work context. Class interaction and assignments can supplement the needs of specific fields. Communication in the work context involves a whole range of ways in which people convey or receive information or messages. Communication for the workplace encompasses written, oral, visual and digital communication. It is important to point out that the ways and means of sending and receiving is not a matter of personal choice or merely of aesthetics; they have to be appropriate (for instance you may be required to present a project orally in 5 minutes using a few slides to convince a partner institution to work with your organisation on a project) and as effective as possible. In the rest of this manual, specific units focus more on written language, namely Units 2, 3 and 10, while the others focus more on oral communication (including visual and digital media). However, the information or skills contained in all units often apply to both oral and written communication. 13  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 The basic principles of professional communication skills are much the same as for social communication skills (or communication skills in social context). Therefore, the effective communication skills pertaining to professional contexts as discussed in this manual often apply to social contexts as well. However, social contexts are usually informal and more flexible than the work context where there are norms and requirements that one has to meet. Each person usually communicates in his/her own style and in ways in which (s)he usually feels more comfortable. At the workplace, although you might be more comfortable with writing and making elaborate drawings of your work, you may often be required to present your work orally at meetings with partners, funding representatives, etc. This will require that you become more proficient in oral communication skills, where you will be required to talk clearly and confidently, to summarise a project or situation, etc. Trained professionals need to be skilled communicators. Some people are inherently an effective communicator but others can learn to be one. Improving your communication skills is an excellent investment in yourself. 1.2.2 The Importance of Professional Communication Skills Effective Communication skills constitute a fundamental skill for: - employability of future graduates: to secure work placements and to enter the workforce; - job performance: the work environment in which you will find yourself often calls for exchange/communication with peers who may be from different disciplines, backgrounds, countries. Effective Communication enhances professional performance; - the competitive advantage of the organisation to which as an individual you contribute. The professional and organisational communication responsibilities of the scientific or technical specialists today include communication with internal and external customers (convincing others about your ideas and programmes, internal and external funding sources, etc); - career advancement; it can mean furthering one’s career within the same organisation or being able to change jobs within and across industries. 14  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Today, higher professional standards of scientific and technical experts necessarily include high communication efficiency in the work context. Amidst a sea of ever-increasing information and communication, organisations/institutions and professionals have to be proficient and efficient both in processing information and in communicating with different partners or stakeholders. Communication efficiency helps improve general efficacy at the workplace. Reflect on the following two statements: Whether in social contexts or at the workplace: 1) we all communicate  TRUE 2) we all communicate efficiently  NOT NECESSARILY TRUE We all communicate but we are not always effective in our communication. 1.2.3 Challenges One of the most important challenges facing professionals and organisations in the business world today is considered to be effective communication. The professional environment is a competitive environment where effective communication skills increase your ability to compete. Poor communication can have a very negative impact on the performance of the individual and on the results of the organisation. Today, communication is considered to be potentially one of the greatest strengths of an organisation or one of its biggest weaknesses. The work environment demands increasing and more intensive collaboration and consultations with one another, not only in critical communication situations, but on a day-to-day basis. As an individual, your communication competence contributes to the general efficacy and image of the organisation. Very few technical and scientific professionals can afford to work with little 15  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 or hardly any interaction with others. Without effective communication skills, it is increasingly difficult to perform the scientific and technical tasks with peers at work. Sharing technical information with non-technical people as well is becoming an increasing necessity. Communication must be precise, concise and timely. Working within deadlines, submitting information requested as and when it is needed, responding with factual and useful information in a crisis situation, etc are examples of situations where you cannot afford to be late. Inappropriate timing can have serious consequences. Forgetting to mention an essential piece of information about a procedure, a requirement, or expecting that the partner/peer/counterpart will necessarily “know” or fill in the implicit information may result in loss of precious time. The risks and possible consequences of miscommunication can be very damaging. People do not always have the same understanding of the terms or phrases as these are sometimes equivocal. (open to more than one interpretation; ambiguous) A simple example can be taken from a Children’s activity book in which stickers have to be stuck on specific pages. One instruction/activity reads as follows: “Pour empêcher Chipeur* de chiper le collier de sirène de Dora, accrochez 2 homards bleus à sa queue !” In the said activity, it is not clear whether “sa queue” refers to Dora the mermaid’s tail or Chipeur the fox’s tail. But, in this case, whether the child chooses one or the other does not entail any serious consequence. [SOURCE: *“Dora L’exploratrice - Mes aventures à la mer Hors-serie no 2, Viacom International Inc, p. 9”] The possible consequences are more costly and dramatic when in the professional fields - especially in highly technical or scientific fields - people misunderstand a message or an information. 16  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 The following is an example of catastrophic miscommunication: The NASA Mars Climate Orbiter lost in September 1999. “The § 125 million dollar spacecraft malfunctioned and was destroyed because of a basic and catastrophic miscommunication. NASA navigators assumed a contractor was using metric measurements when in fact English units had been used. NASA converted to the metric system in 1996, and apparently this change of standard was not effectively communicated to every person and organization involved in this mission.” (Chambers, 2000, p. 6) Activity 1 Form groups of 3 to 4 persons. Each group must come up with a few examples of communication situations (experienced personally or by others) that have led or can lead to misunderstanding, conflict, or other serious consequences. The group must also try to identify the root of the problem. 1.3 ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS Communication concerns the sending and receiving of messages and meanings. By examining the elements or components of the communication process, we can understand better what happens during communication and this can help to improve the effectiveness of communication. 1.3.1 The Communicators or Participants: Source/Sender and Receiver/Recipient/ Audience Although there usually is an original source or sender, i.e., one party who initiates communication, in most communication situations, the persons who communicate are both sender and receiver. For example, in oral face to face communication situations, usually one is sending and receiving messages simultaneously. While the “original source” or sender is talking, 17  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 the “receiver” or recipient or audience is often “sending” silent messages for instance by nodding (which can mean “I understand” or “I agree”) or smiling (which can mean “I am amused by what you are saying”) or frowning (which can mean “your explanation is not very clear to me”). When the “original receiver” in turn becomes the “speaker”, the same silent messages are often sent by the one who is then listening. (the use of non-verbal communication is used in this instance e.g. body language) The communicators can be in each other’s presence, or separated both in space and time (e.g., an email you send to a counterpart abroad, whose time zone is 4 or 8 hours behind). The communication can take the form of a one-to-one or one-to-many (an internal survey carried out by the Human Resource Officer and involving all staff). The communicators may or may not know one another personally e.g., an individual filling in a form of application for funds which is then sent to an “institution” (one or more persons at the receiving end responding, and doing the follow up). The original source can be the Management of an organisation which, with the help of an advertising agency, sends out a message in the form of an advertisement using radio and television, to try to persuade the general public to buy a product. In the workplace context, the communicators, purpose of communication and nature of communication can take various forms, and the types of exchange are of varying degrees of complexity. 1.3.2 Message and Meaning The message is the physical written, visual or oral product that is transmitted, (a) e.g., “a letter inviting you to attend a meeting to discuss a project”. (b) e.g., a graph or table circulated to all members of the organisation and which shows the high revenue generated by a specific department. (c) an advertisement aired on television. 18  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Because individuals have different life histories, educational and social backgrounds, experience, etc, the message sent is not received/understood in identical ways. The meaning received is not the same for everyone. For instance, in case (a) above, the letter sent is welcomed by one colleague/counterpart as an interesting initiative in which to participate whereas the same letter can be received/interpreted by another colleague/counterpart as an inferior being summoned to join in a project already decided upon by “others”. (this is why there are often riots: because the message wasn't understood) The case of (b) above can be interpreted by members of another department (X) as management favouring the specific department (Y) when highlighting its good results whereas results of department X which were almost as good in the previous year did not get the same recognition. Case (c) above of a message in the form of an advertisement aired on television can make a good (it's about perspective impression upon many members of the audience, make them smile and incite them to try the. that is why it is product advertised. However, some other members of the audience may interpret the meaning important to be clear very differently; they may find the language used or the portrayal of a character derogatory and and this may even discourage them from buying the product. concise) It is important to remember that the meaning intended is not necessarily what is received, and meanings conveyed can sometimes be unintentional. Hence, the Sender and the Receiver need to be cautious about the messages sent and received, about the different forms or codes that are used to communicate. 1.3.3 Code/Sign Systems and Channel/Medium To convey messages and meanings to one another, human beings use signs and codes. Human beings do not transfer messages and meanings directly from one mind to another. A sign is a symbol, letter, written word, sound, etc., which alone or combined with others, conveys meanings, not by any law of nature but through conventions. A code is a set of signs which are organised and structured in a certain fashion to carry meaning, and which functions as a system. The driving code is a set of signs (which include symbols like 19  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 the red, orange and green lights, yellow or white lines drawn on the ground, words like STOP, NO PARKING, etc) to convey meanings. The most common codes that we use in everyday life or at the workplace are written or spoken languages: English, French, Creole, Hindi, etc. When you write in the course of your University studies at the University of Mauritius or for the workplace, you usually use the English language (written) code. When writing a report or presenting results of a study, we often include lists of figures which we present in the form of graphs and tables. This is another code which we agree - by convention - to use and draw in a certain fashion. Channel or Medium Signs and codes are conveyed through a channel or medium1. The Channel is the physical medium or means that transports or transmits the messages to be conveyed. The channel can be face to face oral communication, or mediated communication through a written letter or other written/printed documents, the internet (email, website, social media, etc) or intranet, traditional telephone, mobile phones using the latest technologies and applications, etc. The same message using one or more codes can be conveyed using different channels. For example, an organisation has decided to “rebrand” its image or to communicate its new vision and strategy to its staff, partners and external customers. This will probably require the use of different channels (and codes) to reach each segment of the audience targeted in the most effective way possible: for instance a face to face oral presentation (oral explanation supported by a slideshow projecting written words and pictures) for its staff at the main plant; a video- conference with the staff in distant places where telecommunications facilities are readily 1 Strictly speaking, the terms channel and medium do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing. Here they are considered as equivalent. 20  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 available at a reasonable cost; a communication campaign using the main traditional media (print, radio, television) and the new media (e.g. social media) targeting the general public; a dinner-conference for its strategic partners; etc. Different channels of communication or medium (or media) have different qualities or advantages as well as limitations. Usually, the cost and availability, the original sender or source, the recipients/receivers, the purpose of the communication, etc will determine the channels selected. This choice must be made as far as possible with a view to be as effective as possible. Activity 2 An organisation involved in a very highly technical field has decided to show its commitment to the district in which its main plant is located, and especially to environmental matters. Form groups of 4-5 students. Each group must come up with:- (i) a main message that the organisation wants to convey (to its staff, partners, and the general public). (ii) the different channels and codes to be used to reach the different target audiences (adapting the message in each case). 1.3.4 Noise Noise is any factor or stimulus that impedes the communication process especially at the level of delivery or reception. It is much more than mere sounds and can take other forms. We can distinguish four main types of noise, although there can be some overlapping between them. 21  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 1.3.4.1 Mechanical Noise This usually occurs when a physical device used to send and/or receive the message is the source of disturbance or hindrance. For example, a) during a telephone conversation, the telephone apparatus may be faulty and prevent the communicators from hearing one another clearly; b) while using the internet or mobile telephone to talk or chat, communication is hampered because the communicators cannot hear each other very well, or the conversation is frequently interrupted due to faulty connection, or given that the sound waves being transmitted are so unclear that the message is distorted. 1.3.4.2 Environmental Noise This refers to stimuli in the environment that distract the attention of the receiver, preventing one from “receiving” fully what is being communicated. This can be in the form of sounds, sight or other stimuli. Examples are: a) too many people sitting in front of you in a conference room and this prevents you from seeing the slides being shown to illustrate an exposé; b) in a restaurant, the other people in the surroundings are all talking and making so much noise that it is difficult for you to hear your counterpart; c) a distracting sight such as an insect crawling up the sleeve of the person interviewing you; d) a bad odour, a place that is too cold, etc. 22  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 1.3.4.3 Internal Noise This usually occurs inside the mind of the receiver and prevents the latter from receiving fully the information sent. This can be due to: a) Selective attention caused for example by daydreaming, physical pain or worry, feelings of happiness or depression, or one’s attention focused on stimuli other than those of the communication situation. This kind of situation prevents the receiver from paying attention to all the stimuli sent. The receiver may miss an important information. b) Selective distortion occurs when receivers twist the message to hear what they “want” to hear. People often have set attitudes and expectations about what they will hear or see due to stereotyping, prejudices and bias. They will thus distort the message received so that it fits into their belief system. c) Selective retention refers to receivers retaining only a fraction of the message that reaches them and neglecting or “forgetting” other aspects of the message. 1.3.4.4 Semantic Noise Semantics refers to meaning. Semantic noise occurs when people involved in a communication have different meanings for the same words and phrases, when certain words or phrases are ambiguous (can mean different things) or when people do not understand the meaning of certain words due to jargon and technical terms used in a specific field. The source of interference is the difference in the meaning, the ambiguity of words, the ignorance of the meaning, or the misunderstanding or difficulties that result in the communication process. 23  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Semantic noise can also be caused by meanings that are too closely associated with certain words. The activity below is one example of this type of noise. Try it and read the remarks in the section “Answers to Activities” at the end of the unit. Activity 3 Write on a sheet of paper the names of the different colours indicated below, using a pen of a different colour from that referred to in the word. White black red (using red, blue and green respectively) Grey blue yellow (using blue, green and red respectively) Now, show your list of words to a person fluent in English and ask the person to name, in the horizontal order and in quick succession, the colour of the ink or pen used to write each word. What do you notice? 1.3.5 Feedback “Feedback is the receiver’s verbal and non-verbal response to the source’s message” (Pearson & Nelson, 1994:13). In communication situations, feedback is important as it helps to ensure the accurate comprehension of the message sent, and it allows the Sender to adjust or modify the message initially sent. As Senders are simultaneously or successively Receivers and vice versa, therefore feedback allows the communicators to mutually adjust their messages. Hence, feedback helps improve communication effectiveness. 24  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 “Feedback is very important to communication because it lets the participants in the communication setting see whether ideas and feelings have been shared in the way they were intended” (Weaver, 1949). Feedback can be positive or negative: - Examples of positive feedback are smiles or nods while a person is talking. Positive feedback does not necessarily mean approval. It usually encourages the speaker to go on speaking and shows the speaker that the receiver is listening and able to follow. - An example of negative feedback is a raised eyebrow, a bored expression on the face, or frowning to show difficulty in understanding. The above examples of feedback are non-verbal (without the use of words). Feedback can also be verbal (use of words). Examples of verbal feedback are questions asked while someone is talking or afterwards; or sarcastic remarks to show that one does not approve of a project being discussed (negative feedback in this case). Feedback can be immediate or delayed, direct or indirect. - An example of immediate feedback is an interaction between a Head of Department (HOD) and an officer of the department where the latter asks a question regarding an instruction given by the HOD. A delayed feedback is, for example, when a viewer writes and posts a letter to congratulate the producer of a TV show after it has been aired. - Indirect feedback can be in the form of accounts from other people about how pleased the HOD was, regarding the work done by the Officer to whom (s)he gave instructions. Feedback also acts as a regulator in the case of sources of noise that interfere with the transmission of the message. For instance, in the case of semantic noise, the receiver’s reactions or feedback gives an important indication to the sender. With the raised eyebrows or puzzled reply, the sender becomes aware that the message did not get across properly: s/he will then adjust by finding new ways to send the message anew or by using alternative means. 25  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Feedback can be misleading. For example, all students respond positively when the teacher asks if the lesson just presented has been well understood. However, a question to the class, on the lesson just discussed, immediately after, reveals that this is in fact not the case. It is useful to remember that communication involves more than sending a message. To be an effective communicator implies one has to be open to feedback (receive feedback and adjust accordingly where possible or necessary). 1.4 COMMUNICATION SETTINGS OR CONTEXTS “The number of people involved in communication affects the kind of communication that occurs” [Pearson & Nelson, 1994: 14-5]. Communication occurs in different settings or contexts. Each setting or context involves a varying number of people. This in turn will determine the channels used, the degree of formality, the goals of communication, the expectations of communicators, the possibility of sharing roles as speaker/sender and listener/recipient, the opportunity for feedback, etc. It is not always easy to draw the line between certain communication settings, and they are not mutually exclusive. 1.4.1 Intrapersonal Communication “Intra” means within or inside. Hence, intra-personal communication refers to communication that occurs within the self. The individual is the speaker and listener at the same time. Examples of intra-personal communication are: talking to oneself, thinking, making a decision, planning your day, trying to make sense of the world around, self-congratulation, feeling regret for not having been able to help a friend, etc. 26  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 In intra-personal communication, messages circulate within one’s brain with feedback to oneself: for example, you feel a lot of apprehension regarding the tasks given to you but you immediately tell yourself that you have no choice and you must complete the tasks to meet your employer’s expectations… Most often, intra-personal communication occurs unconsciously. It is the most intimate communication context. Since one is talking to oneself, there is no need for conscious formulation or pre-structuring of messages. But intra-personal communication is not restricted to moments when we are alone. It occurs even when and as we speak to others, e.g., you have almost completed your internship in an organisation, and during a conversation with your placement supervisor, you are saying to yourself: “Shall I tell him/her now or later that I would like to stay on for a few more weeks if the organisation is willing to have me?” Intrapersonal communication (i.e. our thoughts, our decisions, our feelings, etc) has an impact on our interaction with others. 1.4.2 Interpersonal Communication The term “inter” means “between”. Hence, interpersonal communication refers to communication between two persons or more. Small-group communication can be intra-group, i.e., communication occurring amongst members of the same group. Or, it can be inter-group, i.e., communication between members of different groups, e.g., a meeting involving a few members from two or more organisations. Interpersonal communication involves verbal and non-verbal exchanges and a sharing of roles of speaker/sender and listener/receiver. A great deal of interaction and feedback can take place, and relationships can be established between individuals (which is less the case of public communication explained further in the section). 27  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Interpersonal communication can be informal (e.g., involving friends, relatives) or formal (e.g., a job interview involving employer and prospective employee). Some people are endowed with very good interpersonal skills, meaning that they can easily interact with other people. Good interpersonal skills require a high level of self-awareness. Interpersonal skills can be learnt and improved. Understanding your personal style of communicating can help you create and maintain good relations with others. At least three basic communication styles can be identified: 1. Assertive Style: The individual speaks clearly and firmly, using "I" statements, and shows respect for self and for others. He or she uses an upright confident body posture and a pleasant, firm voice for communicating with others. 2. Passive Style: The person is constantly hesitating or apologising and usually says nothing or easily gives in. Often, the person avoids eye contact and speaks in a shy or timid voice, or mumbles. 3. Aggressive Style: The communicator constantly interrupts, exaggerates, blames, makes demands or uses sarcasm. Voice volume can be very high and thus difficult to bear for the counterparts. Other people's feelings are not rated very high with the aggressive person. The assertive style is the style one should strive to cultivate. However, very few people are all one or another style. In fact, the aggressive style is vital in some cases, for example, during emergencies (for rapid decision-making). Passiveness can also help, for example, when an issue is minor or when there are highly emotional situations demanding that we stay calm and take the time to regain perspective. 28  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Activity 4 Identify your interpersonal style(s) with the help of the checklist below. Answer: Do you have more: () , ( ) or ( ) ? CHECKLIST OF COMMUNICATION STYLES 1. Mottos and Beliefs  I have rights and so do others." Believes self and others are valuable.  "Don't make waves" and "Don't disagree" "I'm always right and others are just fools." 2. Communication Style Interrupts and monopolises attention, poor listener.  Active listener, expresses self directly, honestly and checks on others feelings.  Indirect, always seems to agree, doesn't speak up. 3. Characteristics  Apologetic, self-conscious, doesn't express own feelings, allows others to make decisions for self. Domineering, bullying and patronising.  Confident, trusts self and others, non-judgmental, sense of humour. 4. Behaviour Bossy and puts others down - know-it-all attitude.  Self-effacing, complains without taking action, never takes sides in conflicts.  Consistent, fair, just, operates from choice. 29  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 5. Non-verbal Cues  Direct eye contact, open and natural gestures, varied rate of speech, interested facial expression. Critical, loud, yelling tone of voice with fast, clipped speech.  Nods head often as if pleading, downcast eyes, low voice volume, rapid pace when anxious; slow and hesitant when doubtful. 6. Verbal Cues  "What are my options?" "What alternatives do we have?" "You must (should, ought better)."  "I can't..." "You have more experience than I do." 7. Confrontation and Problem-Solving Operates from win/lose position, Must win arguments.  Sullen, withdrawn and silent, agrees externally, while disagreeing internally.  Negotiates and compromises. 8. Feelings Felt  Enthusiasm, even tempered, sense of well-being. Anger, hostility and frustration.  Powerlessness, wonders why doesn't receive credit for good work. 9. Effects Forces compliance with resentment and provokes alienation from others or counter- aggression.  Others know where they stand, increased self-esteem and self-confidence.  Slowly loses self-esteem and builds dependency relationships. 1.4.3 Institutional or Organisational Communication Institutional or organisational communication refers to the sets of communication flows occurring within an organisation or institution (including firms, non-profit organisations and governmental bodies). 30  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Formal vs. Informal communication In the internal communication flow of organisations and firms, there are at least two types of communication:  Formal communication: This communication follows the lines of the firm's chart. The communication flows downwards (from managers to subordinates) and seldom upwards (from employees to employers). Formal downward communication leaves little room for feedback from employees. (the organogram)  Informal communication: Informal communication entails no written documents. However rigid the structure, there will always be an informal network of information and communication inside an organisation. The main characteristic of informal communication is that there are no traces for record - the communication somehow has no permanent character, except in the minds of people. In fact, the more rigid an organisation is, the more chances there are that informal communication will develop with the rapid circulation of rumour and hearsay. This type of communication is essentially horizontal as compared to the vertical flow of communication imposed by hierarchical status. 1.4.4 Public Communication The public communication setting generally involves one or more speakers identified or acknowledged as such, and a large number of listeners (one-to-many basis). Usually, this type of communication setting entails a rather formal communication. The possibilities of sharing roles as speaker and listener, and of sending feedback, are controlled and limited. Simultaneous feedback (i.e., while the speaker is delivering the speech) is usually non-verbal (the audience laughs, claps, whistles, nods in agreement or may even leave). Verbal feedback (e.g. questions or remarks) if it is to occur at all must usually wait until after the “official” speaker has finished talking. 31  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Public communication or public “speeches” usually call for pre-structuring of messages, or at least a conscious choice of ideas or points to be addressed. This implies at least some reflection or preparation beforehand regarding what the speaker will talk about. When face to face, the public communication takes place in a specific location and it can be a hall, lecture theatre, stadium or other wide open space where the mass of people can gather. However, the speaker may sometimes decide to change the above parameters for public communication. For instance, the public speaker in a room may encourage listeners to become more active in order to obtain immediate feedback and inject more dynamism in the interaction. In this case, the communicator needs to have the following qualities: good coordination skills, excellent ability to manage crowds, capacity to process and adjust to feedback very rapidly. 1.4.4.1 Mass-Mediated Communication Mass denotes great volume, range or extent. Mass-mediated communication implies large numbers of people who are scattered (geographically), heterogeneous and most of whom are anonymous (unknown to one another or to the speaker). Public communication can be mass-mediated, i.e., mediated through mass communication technologies, traditional or newer ones. Traditional mass communication refers to radio, television, press, etc. and new forms of media refer to the combined use of information and telecommunication technologies. Today, a public speech can be sent and received through a website or through Facebook, using computers, mobile phones, etc. The possibilities of feedback in the case of traditional mass communication used to be rather limited (for example, a delayed feedback by phone call or a letter sent to the media outlet after the public communication has taken place). However, today the possibilities of sending feedback - even for a public communication transmitted through traditional media- whether almost instantly or delayed, on the part of a greater number of people, has greatly increased due to new technologies. With new media and technologies, listening to or watching a public communication event after it has taken place is also a new feature of mass communication. In 32  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 fact, new communication technologies and new forms of media in recent years have added a new dimension to most communication contexts: from interpersonal setting to public communication. Activity 5 Under what communication context or setting would you place the following examples of communication? i. The Prime Minister’s address to the nation on television on the occasion of Independence and Republic Day. ii. A telephone conversation between two close friends. iii. A letter sent by the Financial Manager of a company asking employees to reduce wastage of stationery. iv. The mental notes a student makes to the following week’s revision schedule. v. A commercial firm’s advertising spot on radio. vi. A brainstorming session between five students who form part of a team for a project competition. vii. The conversations two colleagues have during lunch to share the latest “who dates whom in the office” news. viii. The leader of a new political party who decides to post a pre-recorded talk to the hundreds of “friends” on his/her Facebook page. 1.5 A FEW POINTS TO REMEMBER 1. We all communicate but we do not all communicate efficiently. 2. Professionals at work need to communicate effectively with both technical peers as well as non-technical people. 3. High professional standards include high communication efficiency. 4. Communicators need to adapt their communication to the needs and/or expectations and/or interests of their counterpart or audience. 33  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 5. Miscommunication can have serious consequences. 6. Awareness of the components of the communication process can help improve the effectiveness of communication. 7. The communication setting or context affects the kind of communication that occurs. 1.6 ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES Activity 1 To be done in class, followed by discussion and feedback. Activity 2 To be done in class, followed by discussion and feedback. Activity 3 Often, you will notice that the conflicting information caused by the ink colour and the word referred to leads to some confusion. The reader tends to read the words although this is irrelevant to the activity of naming the colour of the ink/pen for each word. Activity 4 - Aggressive Style  - Passive Style  - Assertive Style 34  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Activity 5 Communication contexts or settings: i. The Prime Minister’s address to the nation on television on the occasion of Independence and Republic Day.  Mass Communication. Public Communication on Mass Media. Formal Speech. ii. A telephone conversation between two close friends.  Interpersonal Communication (intimate nature). iii. A letter sent by the Financial Manager of a company asking employees to reduce wastage of stationery.  Institutional Communication. Formal & downward (top to bottom). iv. The mental notes a student makes to the following week’s revision schedule.  Intrapersonal Communication. Thought processes. v. A commercial firm’s advertising spot on radio.  Mass Communication. Use of Mass Medium (TV). vi. A brainstorming session between five students who form part of a team for a project competition.  Intragroup Communication. vii. The conversations two colleagues have during lunch to share the latest “who dates whom in the office” news.  Interpersonal Communication. Institutional but Informal (rumour & hearsay). viii. The post of a pre-recorded talk on a Facebook page with public access  Public Communication/Mass Communication 35  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 UNIT 2 EFFECTIVE USE OF ACADEMIC ENGLISH Unit Structure 2.0 Overview 2.1 Learning Outcomes 2.2 World Englishes 2.3 Registers 2.4 Style 2.4.1 Written/Spoken Style 2.4.2 Features of the Academic Writing Style 2.5 Vocabulary 2.5.1 Effective Word Choice in Academic Writing 2.5.2 Tools Needed 2.6 Grammar 2.6.1 Verb Tenses 2.6.2 Active/Passive Voice 2.6.3 Subject-Verb Agreement 2.6.4 Dangling Modifiers 2.6.5 Punctuation 2.6.6 Sentence Structure 2.7 Tone in Academic Writing 2.7.1 Writing Impersonally 2.7.2 Make Tentative Statements 2.7.3 Adopt the Appropriate Attitude 2.8 A Few Points to Remember 2.9 Answers to Activities 36  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 2.0 OVERVIEW This Unit will encourage you to see English as a versatile language: English is used around the world, it has various functions and it is used in various domains. This Unit will also introduce you to the sub-skills that need to be developed in order to help you improve your academic skills – both written and spoken. This Unit will focus on the language features that will help you write better essays, assignments, reports, dissertations, and why not, academic papers! 2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this Unit, you should be able to do the following: 1. Be aware of the different varieties and styles of English; 2. Be conscious of the sub-skills required to produce academic texts; 3. Use the relevant tools to improve your English; 4. Avoid the common pitfalls of grammar; 5. Use vocabulary judiciously. 37  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 2.2 WORLD ENGLISHES Compare the texts provided below: “Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum; “When I took the first survey of my Si þin nama gehalgod undertaking, I found our speech copious to becume þin rice without order, and energetic without rules: gewurþe ðin willa wherever I turned my view, there was on eorðan swa swa on heofonum. perplexity to be disentangled, and confusion urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg to be regulated; choice was to be made out of and forgyf us ure gyltas boundless variety, without any established swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum principle of selection; adulterations were to and ne gelæd þu us on costnunge be detected, without a settled test of purity; ac alys us of yfele soþlice” and modes of expression to be rejected or received, without the suffrages of any writers The Lord’s Prayer in Old English (450 – of classical reputation or acknowledged 1100 AD) authority.” Extract from Samuel Johnson’s 1755 Preface to ‘A Dictionary of the English Language’ “I want one of my sons to join these people “Whan that Aprill with his shoures sote and be my eyes there. If there is nothing The droghte of Marche hath perced to the in it you will come back. But if there is rote, something there you will bring home my And bathed in every veyne in swich licour, share. The world is like a Mask, dancing. Of which vertu engendred is the flour.” If you want to see it well you do not stand G. Geoffrey Chaucer, The General in one place. My spirit tells me that those who do not befriend the white man today Prologue to the Canterbury Tales (14th will be saying had we known tomorrow.” century text) Chinua Achebe, Arrow of God (1964, Nigeria) A comparative analysis of the above texts shows that ‘English’ is a vague, but convenient term, which we use to refer to a language that has been spoken and written over the past 14 centuries by people in different parts of the world for different purposes. Born in the 6th century in England, spread to the colonies from the late 17th century to the early 19th century, English is now a global language used as a first, second, third or foreign language. With the spread of English worldwide, and the nativisation of English in some countries, there 38  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 are now several varieties of English. Some of these Englishes, like American English, are standardised. American English has its own spelling system, which is different from British English and it has its own dictionary. Other Englishes, like Indian English, have their specificities and have been popularised through the media. Each variety differs in terms of pronunciation and vocabulary and more rarely, in terms of grammar. Crystal estimates that around 60-70 new ‘Englishes’ have emerged since the 1960s in countries across the globe. There are an estimated 400 million people who speak English as a first language and 7-800 million people who speak English as a second language. Around a billion more speak English as a foreign language. This means that now there is just one native speaker to every five non-native speakers of English — an unprecedented situation in the history of languages. It also means that people are no longer exclusively looking to Britain. British English is now a minority amongst the many ‘Englishes’ that are spoken around the world. http://blog.britishcouncil.org/2014/06/13/whats-the-future-of-english/ [Accessed 15 June 2014]. The variety of English which is popular in Mauritius is British English because we were a British colony and we still sit for British exams. However, with globalisation, we tend to mix features from the different varieties of English, such as British English and American English. Some obvious differences between American and British English are illustrated below: Spelling: American English: center, honor, analyze, program British English: centre, honour, analyse, programme Vocabulary: American English: mad, fall, trunk, apartment British English: angry, autumn, boot (of the car), flat Grammar: American English: Did you do your homework yet? I have to go now. 39  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 British English: Have you done your homework yet? I’ve got to go now. (Examples from http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/grammar-reference/british-english-and- american-english) When writing a formal or academic text, we should not shift from one variety of English to another. However, we should be true to the original texts when quoting materials (Refer to 3.4.3). For instance, if we are writing an essay in British English and we need to quote an American author within our essay, we must remain faithful to the original spelling of the quotation(s) that we include in our work. 2.3 REGISTERS Registers refer to the particular kind of language being produced in a particular social situation. For instance, the kind of language used in a medical pamphlet is different from the kind of language used in a legal document. The two differ in terms of:  vocabulary – a specialised jargon for medicine and law  grammar – the grammatical structures found in a legal document will be more complex than the ones in the medical pamphlet  structure of text – each paragraph in the legal document will contain a central idea that will have been unambiguously phrased, even though the meaning might appear obscure to the common reader The two texts are different because each has its own communicative purpose. The first aims to inform a general audience, while the second one is geared towards a more restricted audience in a very specific setting – a court room, for example. 40  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Activity 1 Consider the two texts below and analyse the ways in which they differ in terms of vocabulary and grammar, and structure of text. Bear in mind the communicative purpose of each text. Text 1 I. INCOME TAX ACT 1995 19. Expenditure incurred on interest in the production of income (3) The Commissioner may refuse to allow a deduction on expenditure incurred as interest where he is satisfied that – a. The interest is payable to a non-resident who is not chargeable to tax on the amount of the interest; or b. The interest is not likely to be paid in cash within a reasonable time. Text 2: SMS TO MY GIRLFRIEND hi, hd a gr8 time, 2min mo trouv twa. I  u.  Sunil Given that each field of study has its own ‘register’, you will learn to use the register that is appropriate to your subject area - technical vocabulary, grammatical constructions, text structures – by observing what is being used in books and articles from your own field. 41  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 2.4 STYLE Style is the way in which something is said, done, expressed or performed. Everyone has his/her own particular style; however, one’s style often has to be bent to suit the topic, the purpose and the audience. For instance, we communicate in totally different manners when we speak to our parents at home, when we are at the university talking to our lecturers or when writing an academic essay. In the following subsections, we consider some elements of style, with a focus on elements of academic style. 2.4.1 Written/Spoken Style Spoken style and written style differ in that the former involves at least two people exchanging discourse at one point in time while written discourse allows time for thinking and rewriting. This fundamental difference affects and determines the form of both styles. As far as sentence structures are concerned, a spoken style favours short sentences while a written style favours longer sentences. Furthermore, a spoken style allows for the omission of grammatical particles such as pronouns and auxiliary verbs at the beginning of sentences, while a formal written style does not. Finally, a spoken style tends to accept contractions and colloquialisms like don’t, a lot, mate which a formal written style is more cautious in using. Because the spatio-temporal context of both styles is different, a spoken style differs significantly from a written style. 42  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 2.4.2 Features of the Academic Writing Style Writing styles vary depending on the context of the writing process as well as the aims and objectives of the writing activity. We will now consider four writing styles that are often used in communication, providing an example of their use in academic writing:  Narrative style is used when writing fiction, biographies, autobiographies, history books, travel books and television documentaries, to mention but a few. Narrative paragraphs may also appear in academic essays to illustrate an idea. Narrative style in creative writing Narrative style in academic writing It was a calm night and I was studying in my Introduction (Narrative Vignette) room. I smelt something burning and heard Four upper‐elementary‐aged children sit some noise. Looking out of my window, I around a large table eating lunch; three of was shocked at the sight. A house nearby them gaze at the large screen, eagerly waiting had caught fire, the flames were leaping out for the images from the digital book trailer of the windows, screams could be heard in they have created together to appear and the the darkness of the night. I ran out of my mysterious music to eerily fill the otherwise room to wake up my parents. I telephoned empty classroom. Luna, in her usual black the fire brigade before we all rushed out of sweatshirt adorned with self-drawn mystical the house. creatures and bits of fabric sew, gazes down at a partly drawn image of a dragon on a piece of notebook paper in her lap. BUCHHOLZ, B. 2014. “Actually, that’s not really how I imagined it”: Children’s divergent dispositions, identities, and practices in digital communication. Working Papers in Literacy, Culture, and Language Communication, 3, 25 - 53 It is fairly rare to use a narrative style in academic writing; descriptive, analytic and argumentative styles are used more often within the same piece of academic writing. 43  Communication Skills – COMS 1010  Descriptive style – descriptions represent in words our sensory impressions caught at a moment of time. In a lot of descriptive writing, visual imagery predominates. Descriptive passages are commonly used in academic essays to support analysis. Descriptive style in creative writing Descriptive style in academic writing “As I ate the oysters with their strong taste of Private tuition is an issue of growing concern the sea and their faint metallic taste that the and is practised in both developed and cold white wine washed away, leaving only developing countries. Although it has certain the sea taste and the succulent texture, and as positive effects, it imposes a considerable I drank their cold liquid from each shell and financial burden on parents and often gives washed it down with the crisp taste of the rise to abuses. The present study, which wine, I lost the empty feeling and began to be focuses on the primary level, addresses a happy and to make plans.” number of questions, such as the extent of the practice, its implications, the various forms Ernest Hemingway, A Moveable Feast, that it takes, attitudes towards it, why children take private tuition, why teachers provide it, and policies to deal with the issue. The discussion ends with a plea for more research on private tuition in order to provide a basis for policies to address the problem. FONDUN, A. R. 2002. The issue of private tuition: An analysis of the practice in Mauritius and selected South-east Asian countries, International Review of Education 48 (6), 485 – 515. 44  Communication Skills – COMS 1010  Analytic style: analysis (literally, separating into parts) refers to a rational, logical, and systematic way of thinking in order to arrive at an informed decision. Analytic writing presupposes detective work: the writer examines and analyses the pieces of evidence, finds clues, pursues the trail from one place to the next in order to make certain claims. Analytical style in secondary school Analytical style in academic writing writing The flight chosen is Trans Ocean Airlines as The results of this study document a strong it offers direct flights, most suitable for Mr. and systematic relationship between amount Romero’s fear of take-offs and landings, for of exposure to a language and performance in there will be only two of each. The family that language. The relationship is seen clearly will reside at the King’s Hotel. It has rooms in the curve fitting in Figures 1 to 3. As available as from noon, only thirty minutesrelative amount of exposure to English after their arrival. It is near a natural park, a increases, English scores increase. The same volcano and a religious site as well as being is true for French. Comparison of the top and within walking distance of a town which is bottom panels of each of Figures 1 to 3 fairly active with some evening activities.allows comparison of the English and French The family’s appreciation for a good meal performance of the children. Together, the will be fulfilled by the wide variety of food two graphs reveal that children with similar available. The swimming pool will be good levels of exposure to both languages have for Mrs. Romero and she will not strain hersimilar levels of performance in both recovering leg from having to walk a lot and languages, whereas children with unequal will not suffer from car sickness. patterns of exposure perform considerably more strongly in the language to which they Example candidate response- Grade a7 have been exposed more than in the other University of Cambridge International language. Examinations. 2012. Example Candidate Responses (Standards Booklet). Cambridge THORDARDOTTIR, E. 2011. The International AS Level General Paper, 8001 relationship between bilingual exposure and and 8004. vocabulary development. International Journal of Bilingualism, 15 (4), 426 – 445. 45  Communication Skills – COMS 1010  Argumentative style - This style of writing usually requires you to establish your position on the topic assigned and provide justification for this position by discussing the ideas (and counter ideas) related to that topic. Argumentative style in secondary school Argumentative style in academic writing writing The world population is expanding at the Using the concept of vernacular or ordinary rate of 1.2% per year; the world population multiculturalism (Wise and Velayutham, 2009), I has grown from 1 billion in 1800 to 7 billion argue that young Creoles articulate identity in in 2012. With such an increase, there are terms of everyday life negotiations that seek to increasing concerns about impending social circumvent race. However, the silencing of race problems such as food provision, health as a mechanism of exclusion leaves them on the facilities, educational facilities and housing fringe of a nation where rights attached to problems. Despite religious, cultural and citizenship are prevalently formulated in relation moral objections, birth control is probably to ethnic membership. Following Butler (1991), one of the most appropriate ways of this paper will understand identity categories as controlling the growing world population. partial, contingent and provisional, and discuss young Creoles’ erasure of race as a form of resistance from being pegged in terms of a fossilized racial logic. LALLMAHOMED-AUMEERALLY, N. (2013). The problematics of ethnic categories: A reading of naming practices pertaining to Creoles. http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/at-the- interface/wp- content/uploads/2013/07/aumeerallymcbpaper.pdf [Accessed 14 June 2014] Activity 2 Refer to a book chapter or an academic article provided by your tutor. Analyse how the different writing styles have been used. 46  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 2.5 VOCABULARY 2.5.1 Effective Word Choice in Academic Writing Words are like clothes. Clothes serve a function: covering the body; words have a function: communicating a message. But clothes are also cultural symbols, so are words. Lorry and truck mean the same thing; when the former is used, one knows that it is probably a user of British English while when the latter is used, one knows that it is probably a user of American English. The social aura accompanying a word contributes to its connotations. The choice of words is thus central in the image that one wants to project of oneself. When we are writing for academic purposes, we aim to: - Choose formal words, without sounding pretentious or bombastic; - Use words carefully, while avoiding slang and clichés; - Invest time in selecting the precise and appropriate word that suits the context and the purpose of the assignment.  Precision We all understand thousands of words, but the challenge is to use these words with precision. For communication to be effective, it is crucial to choose the word that best suits the purpose and that has the desired impact on the reader. For example, if we take the word ‘nice’, it is one of these words that is vague enough to be used in a number of contexts. ‘Nice’ can be replaced by more precise words depending on the situation. That is where a thesaurus comes in handy. Consider these two sentences: 1A: He feels uncomfortable at the whole situation. 1B: He feels guilty for having disturbed his father. 2A: There are "a lot of people" in Mauritius. 2B: There are nearly 1.3 million inhabitants in Mauritius. 47  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 The A examples are vague and the B examples are specific.  Use in-group jargon, but avoid bombastic words Although one should aim at being as precise as possible when choosing words, one should be careful about falling into the trap of using big, bombastic words which one thinks will impress. Simplicity is often clarity. Where you can, use everyday words as you want to express ideas clearly rather than impress your readers, with the risk of antagonising them. However, if you are writing for members of a community who share the same academic interest (astrophysics or linguistics) as you, you will be expected to use the specialised vocabulary used by this group of individuals. Think of your target audience when using specialised jargon. Will your audience understand the technical terms you are using or are you obscuring your message by overloading your assignment with technical terms? When you are writing the first draft of an assignment, write freely, follow your flow of ideas; when you are editing your assignment, take the time to use the most appropriate word(s)!  Words/Expressions to be avoided There are a number of words, phrases and expressions that need to be avoided in academic writing. Some of these are: colloquialisms, slang words, clichés and texting/SMS language. Colloquialisms are words and expressions that tend to be used in spoken English only: ain’t, gonna, cos, folks, stuff, a lot of, thing, sort of are acceptable in spoken English but not in formal writing. Slang (words like pro, econ, cram, poly, the pits, y'all, yinz, cool….) or idiomatic expressions (pull someone's leg, spill the beans, something smells fishy) or contracted forms (isn’t, can’t, shan’t, mustn’t) should be avoided in formal academic writing. Such words and expressions make your writing sound informal and lack seriousness. Clichés are trite expressions mechanically reproduced, like for instance, first and foremost, slowly but surely, short but sweet, D-day arrived. 48  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Texting/SMS language is words and spellings that you use when sending messages on your mobile telephones or on social networks. Some examples are: nxt, lol, b4, u, nite, gr8, thx, doc, prof. Below, the B examples are more academically formulated than the A Examples: 1A: She tried to show that it is possible to lose weight at the same time as to eat her favourite food. 1B: She attempted to argue that losing weight while eating one’s preferred meals is feasible. 2A: Foondun (2002) says that in Mauritius, people take more and more tuition. 2B: Foondun (2002) claims that tuition-taking is on the rise in Mauritius. Activity 3 Replace the underlined words/phrases with more formal synonymous words/phrases: 1. They have got to find better alternatives. 2. There were lots of people ….. 3. Most of the informants….. 4. The suggestions that were made were bad. 5. A number of solutions have been found. 6. The researchers carried out an investigation. 7. The situation got worse. 8. Three candidates turned up at the interview. 9. Interest rates are going down. 10. This study tries to find out the causes of pollution 49  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Activity 4 Fill in the right hand column of this table with simpler, more direct words. Possible answers are found at the end of the Unit. Abatement/abate Absence of Accede to accelerate acknowledge aforesaid ascertain cognisant comprises Due to the fact that henceforth hereunder In lieu of Notify Subsequent to 2.5.2 Tools Needed Whenever you are writing English, you need: (i) A good dictionary: it provides information about thousands of words and helps you understand them and use them correctly. Suitable dictionaries for native speakers of English are, among others: Shorter Oxford Dictionary, Concise Oxford Dictionary, Chambers, Collins English Dictionary, Penguin English Dictionary, Webster International Dictionary (American English). Dictionaries 50  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 which are aimed at second language learners of English are: The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English and The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. You may also use online dictionaries: Oxford Dictionaries Online (http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/) and Cambridge Dictionaries Online (http://dictionary.cambridge.org/) are reputable sources of information. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) can be accessed online (http://www.oed.com/), however , you need a paid subscription to the service before you can make optimum use of its services. (ii) A good translating dictionary (English/French): for instance, The Robert/Collins or Harraps. Sometimes you have to use a translating dictionary if you know a word in French but not its equivalent in English. Note, however, that it is advisable to check the English word in the English dictionary, as some words can only be used in specific contexts and some words have connotations. Think of the French word ‘aimer’ - the translating dictionary gives us two English words: ‘like’ and ‘love’ and you will agree that they have quite different connotations. (iii) A thesaurus – it is important to vary your vocabulary as it makes a text less boring to read and it allows you to find the precise word needed. As in the case of the translating dictionary, if you decide to use a word which you are not familiar with, it is better to check the word in a dictionary - there are words which will fit a context but not another one. For instance freedom and liberty are synonyms but you can say “I am at liberty to say what I want’ but not “I am at freedom to say what I want”. A thesaurus that you might want to use is: Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases. You may also use an online thesaurus: Oxford University Press provides a free, basic thesaurus, accessible on http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/thesaurus/ (iv) Grammar books - for you to verify grammatical rules. Cassell’s Students’ English Grammar and A University Grammar of English are interesting works to consult in case of doubt. 51  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Activity 5 Consider the following words and see whether the individual words have the same connotations: 1. friend, boyfriend, young man, lover 2. dine, eat 3. upbringing, conditioning, brainwashing 4. antiabortion, pro-life, pro-abortion, pro-choice Technical Support: 1. Dictionary Although Word 2013 is not equipped with a built-in dictionary, it allows you to connect to the Office Store so that you can pick a free dictionary or buy one from a collection. To choose and install the dictionary you want, right-click any word and click Define. 52  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 Or click Review > Define. Sign in if you are prompted to (if this is your first time using the Office Store, you may need to follow the prompts in order to create your own account), and look over the choices in the Dictionaries list, and then click Download to install the dictionary you want. After it downloads, the dictionary will open automatically in Word. From then on it will open whenever you click Define. 2. Thesaurus You may also use the built-in thesaurus on Microsoft Word2. The following instructions apply for Microsoft Word 2013. For earlier versions, please visit the Microsoft Office webpage on office.microsoft.com for additional support. To go straight to the thesaurus, click Review > Thesaurus. The Thesaurus list opens with a list of synonyms for any selected word. To insert or copy a word from the Thesaurus, pause over the word so you can click the dropdown arrow, and then click Insert or Copy. To keep looking, click any word in the Thesaurus list to switch to synonyms for that word. The other way to find synonyms is to simply right-click any word in your document and click Synonyms. This opens a short list. If you see a word you like, click it to replace the original word. If none of the words provided fit the context, click Thesaurus at the bottom of the list to see more possibilities. 2 Microsoft Word is here cited merely as an example. Other software exist. 53  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 54  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 3. Spelling and Grammar Check All Microsoft Office Programmes are endowed with the ability to check the spelling and grammar of your files. In Microsoft Word 2013: Click Review > Spelling & Grammar to start the spelling and grammar checker. Choose from these options as the spelling and grammar checker goes through each word:  Check the spelling and grammar all at once; checking all the spelling and grammar in your document is useful when you want to do a quick review of your text. You can check for possible mistakes and then decide if you agree with the spelling and grammar checker.  Check spelling and grammar automatically, as you type.  As you type, Word will, by default, highlight mistakes in spelling and grammar either in red or in green.  You can also customise the proofing options available to you. This includes choosing the way in which the autocorrect feature works in your documents. Very often, for those who do not disable or override the default options set on Word 2013, autocorrect will automatically change the spelling of their words from British to American English. This can be especially problematic if you are expected to use British English.  To customise the proofing options available to you, click the File tab, and then click Options. If you are using Outlook, click Mail and then click Spelling and Autocorrect. Click Proofing. 55  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 If you wish to customise the autocorrect feature, go on the Tools menu and click AutoCorrect Options. Recheck the words you previously checked and chose to ignore (but changed your mind). After you click Spelling & Grammar you can fix each error that Word finds in different ways. In the task pane at the right of your document, you will see the spelling and grammar choices. For instance, you can: 56  Communication Skills – COMS 1010  Fix the error using Word’s suggestions: If you want to fix the error by using one of the suggested words, select the word in the list of suggestions and click Change. (You can also click Change All if you know you have used this word incorrectly spelt throughout the document so that you do not have to address it each time it pops up.)  Create a dictionary entry: If the word is a real word that you use and one that you want Word — and ALL of the Office Programmes — to recognise too, click Add.  Ignore the word: Click Ignore or Ignore All. You can also force a recheck of the words and grammar that you previously chose to ignore.  Open the document that you want to recheck.  Click File > Options > Proofing.  Under Correcting spelling and grammar in Word, click Recheck Document.  When you see the following message This operation resets the spelling checker and grammar checker so that Word will recheck words and grammar you previously checked and chose to ignore. Do you want to continue? click Yes and then click OK to close out of the Word Options dialog box.  Then, in your document, click Review > Spelling & Grammar. 4. Apps Cambridge Dictionaries Online offers a few helpful apps that can be downloaded free of charge or for a small fee. Please visit their webpage on http://www.cambridgeapps.org/, select the apps that you want and follow the links to either the google Play Store for all Android phones or the Apple App Store for Ipads and Iphones. Feel free to browse through the list of free Apps for additional support. Purdue University also provides writing resources and instructional material free as a free service of its Online Writing Lab (OWL). You can visit their webpage on https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/. Alternatively, you can also browse their youtube channel (http://www.youtube.com/user/OWLPurdue) for their instructional videos 57  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 2.6 GRAMMAR 2.6.1 Verb Tenses Early in your writing/speaking process, you should establish a ‘base’ tense; you will shift away from it only if there is a good reason to do so. Find below some of the main tenses (in the active and passive voices) used in English: ACTIVE VOICE PAST PRESENT FUTURE SIMPLE Wrote Write/writes Will write PROGRESSIVE Was/were writing Am/are writing Will be writing PERFECT Had written Have/has written Will have written PERFECT Had been writing Have/has been Will have been PROGRESSIVE writing writing PASSIVE VOICE PAST PRESENT FUTURE SIMPLE Was/were written Is/are written Will be written PROGRESSIVE Was/were being Is/are being written written PERFECT Had been written Has/have been Will have been written written PERFECT The cells that have been left empty indicate that these forms are PROGRESSIVE very rarely used. Note: When you speak, you will usually use the active voice; when you write for academic purposes, you will use the passive voice more. When you speak, you often use contracted forms 58  Communication Skills – COMS 1010 like don’t, won’t, shan’t, but when you write you will avoid using these and use do not, will not, shall not. 2.6.2 Active/Passive Voice We use the active voice when we want to emphasise the doer of an act rather than the act; we use the passive voice when we want to emphasise the act rather than the doer, or when we do not want to disclose the identity of the doer. The passive voice is useful in academic writing, which requires writing to be as objective and detached as possible. Different ways of forming the passive voice are: 1. Passive without agent: in this case, the agent is vague or unknown, the main focus is on the action and not on the doer, you want to state facts: Active- They speak English all over the world. Passive - English is spoken all over the world. Active- Someone can easily collect quantitative data Passive- Quantitative data can be collected easily. 2. Passive with agent: if you want to emphasise the act/product rather than the doer. Active- Keats wrote a poem Passive- A poem was written by Keats 3. Passive with ‘to-infinitive’- verbs like ‘claim, understand, think, believe’ are followed by the infinitive when in the passive voice: Active- People say that cats have seven lives. Passive- Cats are said to have seven lives Active- They assumed that the questionnaires had been filled in. Passive- The questionnaires were assumed to hae been filled in. 4. The passive using the ‘it is’ form – statements in the active voice that contain ‘there is’ are introduced in the passive by ‘It is’ Active- People fear that there will be another world war. Passive- It is feared that there will be another world war.