Comparative Politics PDF

🥑 How research in compo is done Induc&ve vs Deduc&ve Induc5ve: from a specific case → theory Deduc5ve: theory, hypothesis → evidence Issues with Compo controls: you can’t control everything → Leave space for further research case limita5ons: only a limited amount of cases/c...

🥑 How research in compo is done Induc&ve vs Deduc&ve Induc5ve: from a specific case → theory Deduc5ve: theory, hypothesis → evidence Issues with Compo controls: you can’t control everything → Leave space for further research case limita5ons: only a limited amount of cases/country access: hard to access the policies in different countries as some are transparent and some are not Selec&ve bias Select one case → form hypothesis ⇒ having a natural bias by selec5ng that case Endogeneity issues A cause B or B cause A 🥑 Research trend in compo Grand theory (past): moderniza*on theory → rela between democracy and capitalism (if you modernized → you democra5zed) → not so true (due to variables in moderniza*on, such as inequality, and resources alloca5on) Approach: ins5tu5onal analysis → individual analysis (focus on iden5fying causali5es) Now: post-behaviorism (no grand theory) o qualita5ve methods: narrowly focused, deep inves5ga5ons of one or a few cases drawing from scholarly exper5se o quan5ta5ve: wider use of cases unbound by area specializa5on, greater use of sta5s5cal analysis, and mathema5cal models oOen drawn from economics. 🥑 Basic concepts Ins*tu*ons, what are they? o any organiza5on or paRern of ac5vity that is self-perpetua5ng and valued for its own sake (taxa5on, army, elec5ons, the state, etc.) o set the stage for poli5cal behavior by influencing how poli5cs is conducted o vary from country to country o embody norms or values considered central to people’s lives and thus are not easily changed or dislodged (Below) is what compara&ve poli&cs is about Each regime, democra5c and non-democra5c, finding the balance between equality and freedom o Democra5c lies somewhere in the middle of the spectrum The rela5onship between zero-sum: Zero-sum (a situa5on in which one person or group can win something only by causing another person or group to lose it.) 🥑 The state The state  Differences between country, regime, and state Country: combina5on of everything State: should be sovereign (machinery of poli5cs) o a monopoly upon a territory o highly ins5tu5onalized Sovereignty: o The core element of a state o The ability to carry out policies within a given territory o What do you need to have sovereignty? § Power § Ins5tu5on § Influence o external vs internal sovereignty: Internal sovereignty refers to the authority to make the laws and to carry on administra5ve tasks in a way that the popula5on recognizes. External sovereignty refers to foreign powers recognizing a government's claim to independence and therefore self-government. § External sovereignty: § the ability of a country to conduct its own foreign affairs and make decisions about its rela5onships with other countries § the equal power every state posses to exercise their authority within a territory without any external interference. A state cannot give and receive orders from any other state in its internal affairs. § Internal sovereignty: § the power that a government has within its own territory and the ability to exercise control over its ci5zens o High internal sovereignty + low external sovereignty = hard to bargain/trade with others → loss of economic growth (Myanmmar: have good military but hard to deal with other countries)/(North Korea dont want to give upon nuclear weapon → maintain high external sovereignty) § As you can borrow self-defense capacity from others → you have to sacrifice par5ally your internal sovereignty. o How does lowered internal sovereignty in one state affect another: § Refugees (Ukraine people coming to Germany, where the refugee accep5ng system is good) → If you have the capabili5es to interfere but don’t → consequences o Would states willingly give up their sovereignty → Yes § Low external + internal sovereignty → give up (post-war: Korea, Japan) § Cant pay IMF back → listen to them = give up sovereignty § Dont have the capacity to fulfill tasks → ask a third party = give up sovereignty o The solu5on for such “failed” states as an interna5onal community: § Transna5onal advocacy  Regime (programming of poli5cs): decide which part of the spectrum (freedom-equality) will they lie on (decipher which direc5on) Government (the operator of the poli5cs): leaders in charge of leading the states Power, and ins*tu*ons are necessary to achieve some basic goals. The state is an important causal variable to development. Regime: fundamental rules and norms of poli5cs. Long-term goals of equality and freedom – find the balance. They are important for the larger state framework. —> So in sum, the state is a monopoly of force and a set of poli5cal ins*tu*ons to secure the popula5on and generate policy, then the regime is defined as the norms and rules regarding the proper rela5onship between freedom and equality and the use of power toward that end. The rise of states Why do we have states? → compe55on, innova5on o First, have monopoly over the resources and territory, increase control and capacity (?) → clear boundaries, concentrate resources to focus on innova5ons, can tax people to increase capacity → Efficient → Increasing states How do we explain the varia&ons in the quality/power of states Legi*macy: a value whereby someone or something is recognized and accepted as right A legi5mate ins5tu5on is widely accepted and recognized by the public 3 types of legi5macy o Tradi5onal o Charisma5c o Ra5onal-legal Strong state, weak state, failed state o High autonomy + High capacity: China (strong state) o Low autonomy + High capacity: US, Korea o Low autonomy + Low capacity = failed state: Somalia o High autonomy + Low capacity = state is ineffectual How do states maintain their legi*macy? o Recogni5on (?)→ maintain monopoly o Tradi5onal legi5macy: long-established customs, historical precedent, tradi5onal authority figures Ex: monarchies o Charisma5c legi5macy: From excep5onal personal quali5es, mys5cal appeal of a leader → Charisma5c figure can inspire = the force of their personality o Ra5onal-legal legi5macy Belief in the legality, procedures, and ra5onal bureaucra5c nature of the poli5cal system → Power is seen as legi5mate if it is exercised in accordance with established laws and norms. ⇒ Difference btw state power distribu5on: not military or GDP >< the ability to mobilize its own resources How the power is distributed within states? o depends on the state’s level of autonomy and capacity  o States autonomy: can make decisions without considering the public (?) → autonomist (should be from the entrepreneurs, elites, etc) o States capacity: ability to monopolize and mobilize its own resources effec5vely High autonomy: don’t need to care about public reac5ons High capacity: the ability to monopolize and mobilize its own resources → implement policies Three advantages of states o Encouragement of economic development o Technological innova5on o Domes5c ability → the basis of developments Encouragement of economic development, technological innova5on, domes5c stability (→ State → Monopolized power → Taxa5on → Economic growth) 🥑 Na5ons and society Differences and Similari&es Ci*zenship: a poli5cal iden5ty, developed explicitly by states and accepted/rejected by individuals (defined as the rela5on to the state) Ethnic iden*ty: iden5ty based on your culture (bound by ethnicity) Na*onal iden*ty: bound by poli5cal aspira5on → hard to get na5onal iden5ty without ethnic iden5ty → may have many ethnic iden55es but only 1 na5onal iden55es Ethnic iden5ty, Na5onal iden5ty, Ci5zenship o Similari5es: § a group of people binded together o Differences: § ethnic: based on customs, languages, religions, etc. § na5onal: based on poli5cal aspira5ons, usually based on § ci5zenship: a poli5cal iden5ty, developed explicitly by states and accepted/rejected by individuals Na*onalism na*onalism: the pride in one’s people and the belief in their own sovereign poli4cal des4ny Na*ons A na&on is a large type of social organiza5on where a collec5ve iden5ty, a na5onal iden5ty, has emerged from a combina5on of shared features across a given popula5on, such as language, history, ethnicity, culture, territory or society. Some na5ons are constructed around ethnicity (ethnic na5onalism) while others are bound by poli5cal cons5tu5ons (civic na5onalism) (wiki) The concept of a na&on-state na5on-state: a state driven by a na5on Na*on-state: a sovereign state encompassing one dominant na4on that it claims to embody and represent Ethnic conflict vs na*onal conflict Ethnic conflicts: between ethnic groups (ex: religion)  Na5onal conflicts: seek and achieve independence, sovereignty that they belong to before (two na5ons under 1 state, na5ons aspire to become state) Poli*cal aItudes and related ideologies extreme conserva5ve → reac5onaries extreme liberal → radicals Conserva5ve - Liberalism Radical - Communism Liberal - Social Democracy Reac5onary - Fascism Radical - Anarchism The role of religion and fundamentalism fundamentalism as “the affirma5on of religious authority as holis5c and absolute, adminng of neither cri5cism nor reduc5on fundamentalism is oOen associated with violence How fundamentalism affects the rela5on of equality and freedom? o Some fundamentalist views emphasize collec5ve equality and reject individual freedom in favor of submission to God; others posit an expression of individual freedom made possible through a poli5cal system based on faith and are less concerned with specific economic or social inequali5es between people. o Some forms of fundamentalism see the possibility of a religiously correct state; for others, that very no5on of the state is incompa5ble with faith → this aspect of the “return of God” may prove to be one of the most important developments in compara5ve poli5cs. 🥑 Poli5cal economy Economic ins*tu*ons: Economic ins5tu5ons: market, banking system etc. o structure of property rights o presence and perfec5on of market o as the most cri5cal factor behind development or underdevelopment o are endogenous - outcome of collec5ve societal choice → poli5cal power affects economic ins5tu5ons, which are property rights and perfec5on market → depending your poli5cal ins5tu5ons you have different distribu5on of resources. ⇒ ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS DIRECTLY INFLUENCE POLITICS, AND VICE VERSA ⇒ THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS IN ANY COUNTRY WILL AFFECT THE PROSPERITY OF THE CITIZEN **** Markets, property, public goods Market: o Normally: physical place to buy/sell goods → only in seRled communi5es ⇒ MARKETS = THE RISE OF CITIES AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS  Social scien5sts: the interac5ons of supply and demand o ⇒ MORE THAN ONCE SELLER/PRODUCER → GENERATE COMPETITIONS AND INNOVATIONS Property: o the ownership of goods/services exchanged through markets (lands, buildings, items, etc) o Sets of property rights: rights to buy/sell proper5es ⇒ WITHOUT STATE POWER FUNCTIONING IN A FAIR MANNER, PROPERTY IS INSECURE o can be physical and tangible (a song, a innova5on) Public goods o The priva5za5on of goods (ex: network of roads) may limit economic developments in terms of impeding trade o Defini5on: goods, provide and secured by states, available for society but invisible for private uses → generate equality as they share broadly the benefits o Examples: roads, na5onal defense, healthcare and primary educa5on but this may vary according to different na5ons/states Alloca*on of na*onal wealth How is wealth allocated? o Gathered through tax o Reallocated through social expenditures o Social expenditures provide public goods (road) Central Banks → Infla&on/Defla&on Central Bank: the lender of last resort as they don’t want bank and the market to fail o Regulate the market and provide public goods o Why there is central banks? → “the lender of last resort” (give money to bankrupted banks) → control interest rates and cash flow o the higher the demand → the lower the interest rates (as they dont have to pay much money) o banks borrow money from the central banks every minute o central banks offer lower interest rates to the banks than the market’s interest rates → help banks earn money o if many banks go bankrupt and the central banks cannot afford to help every single bank → print more money (to keep the banks and economy survive) → infla5on (going into a spiral) o government debt: central banks purchase them → lend money to the governments Lower the interest rate → banks lower their own interest rate for businesses and individuals → loans become less expensive → spend more → s5mulates economy growth due to the amount of money that is ac5ve Higher interest rate → vice versa (as people want to make the most of the interest and have more savings)  Infla&on: demand > supply → their money buy less and savings lose their values Hyperinfla5on: infla5on that is higher than 50% a month for more than two months in a row (ex: Zimbabwe, Venezuala) o Print more money to cover the debt as the lack of tax revenues to cover basic expenditures o Collapse of legi5macy (no longer a strong state to support the currency) Control: increase interest rates → reduce spending and lowering prices Defla&on: supply > demand → businesses cannot make profit as a liRle money can buy a lot of goods (ex: Japan, North America) Control: lower interest rates → s5mulate Managing “public bads” “public bads”: o monopoly (as 1 country dominates and controls 1 industry → can decide their own prices + eliminate every other company to enter the field) o regula5ons too much public goods → communism Could trade be a “public bad” Non-tariffs, tariffs, etc. o tariffs, which are basically taxes on imported goods o quotas, which limit the quan5ty of a good coming into the country; o nontariff regulatory barriers, which may create health, packaging, or other restric5ons and whose purpose is to protect a state’s ci5zens and make it difficult or expensive for foreign goods to be sold in the local market o States may favor tariffs as a way to generate revenue, and they may see such barriers as a way to s5mulate or protect local industries and firms. o Those who oppose trade barriers argue that trade leads to more compe55on, innova5on, and compara&ve advantage—the ability to produce a par5cular good or service more efficiently than other countries. Ideologies maTer liberalism (USA, Australia, UK) (reduce regula5ons as much as possible, want people to play on a fair ground, almost no coordina5on), social democracy (finding balance between business, labor, and states), communism, mercan5lism (Japan, SK): priori5zing state interest, punng a lot of effort into the success of business, usually excluding labor (their priority is growth) (however its not so good as the growth depends on consumerism = labor) Measuring wealth Measuring wealth, using GDP (Gross Domes&c Product) o The total market value of all goods and services produced in a country of a period of one year o As it includes things like government expenditures it is not the same as personal income although it provides a basic benchmark for the average per capita income in a country o They are problems and limita5ons due to cost of living, currency exchange rates in different space and 5me, quality of life  o PPP (Purchasing power parity) → compare buying power using similar costs (food/housing) o GDP calcula5on = Y = C (consump5on) + I (investment) + G (government) + NX (Net export) Measuring inequality and poverty o The Gini index: tell us how wealth is distributed among the popula5on o Complete equality = 0 → Complete inequality = 100 o From the Gini index: § Rela5onship between Wells and any quality is not automa5c: more wealth does not make a country more or less equal § Poli5cal economic systems do maRer o Poverty and inequality is not the same thing § Poverty tends to be measured in terms of absolute wealth § Inequality tends to be measured by rela5ve wealth o Current trends: § grow wealthier overall § Extreme poverty has fallen and inequality decreased Human Development Index (HDI) o HDI: assess health, educa5on, and wealth of popula5on o HDI shows a strong correla5on between standard of living in a countries GDP (highest na5onal incomes = highest level of educa5on and life expectancy) Happiness o The core of the human ac5vity, and also the result of the interac5on between freedom and equality o Richer countries tend to be happier, but beyond the point of basic needs, happiness stagnates o Manufactures contribute to happiness such as level of development, cultures, geography, social support, etc. o It's not always necessary for happiness (Brazil, Costa Rica, Argen5na) 🥑 Democra5c regimes Main democra*c ins*tu*ons 3 ins*tu*ons trying to reach a balance to reach democracy: o Execu5ves: government + passing law o Legislature: Law-makers → unicameral and bicameral (upper house and lower house (usually have more power than the upper house)) o Judiciaries: check and review § Abstract review: hold the review on its own demand § Concrete review: based on the demand of other (execu5ves) (in case the execu5ves dont like what the legislatures just did) Head of state vs. government Bicameral vs. unicameral systems (upper chamber as a check on the lower chamber) Diet for Japan, house of rep, councilors (2/3 agree, then passed), Parliament for UK (house of lords, commons), Congress for US (house of representa5ves, senate)  Cons5tu5onal court (is legisla5on compa5ble to cons5tu5on), and difference between concrete vs. abstract review. Explana&ons Why was moderniza*on linked to democra5za5on o moderniza5on → more urban, educated, poli5cally sophis5cated → democracy o beRer educated and more sophis5cated economically → need greater control over the state to achieve and defend their own interests. → strong correla5on between socie5es that lack modern ins5tu5ons and nondemocra5c rule → socie5es that are poor/poorly developed are less likely to have democracy: o the role of the middle class: “no middle class, no democracy” → no middle class = polariza5on between those in power and a wider popula5on that is weakly organized o some5mes, moderniza5on can lead to nondemocra5c rule/replacing exis5ng democra5c regimes § moderniza5on can be disrup5ve and uneven § urban areas: transform drama5cally >< rural areas: lag behind § people enjoying technology, infrastructure >< others lack these benefits § disrup5ve shiOs in economic ins5tu5ons (agri → industrial) or social ins5tu5ons (changes in gender rela5ons) → instability § bring infla5ons, unemployment, weakening economic development, destabilizing poli5cal order → can bring down a democra5c regime if the leaders fail to handle the situa5on o these non-democra5c movements are driven by direct beneficiaries of moderniza5on (students, urban intellectuals) o Nondemocra5c regimes run the spectrum of levels of wealth and moderniza5on § Singapore and Persian Gulf: nondemocra5c and modern/economically advanced § India and South Africa: democra5c but poor Other intervening variables o resource distribu*on § The roles of poli5cal elites § middle class is the central significant segment § distribu5on of wealth: economic assets are concentrated in the hands of those in power § sources of wealth may not fixed → no value in clinging to power → take some wealth + stepping aside → democracy o civil society § civil society: organized life outside the state, an organiza5on, not necessarily poli5cal, of people defining their own interests § this circle serves as a vehicle for democra5za5on by allowing people to promote what is important to them § civil society → ideas and tools of poli5cal ac5ons → allow small-scale democra5c prac5ces to spread o interna5onal rela5ons  § IR = globaliza5on, trade, foreign investment § IR → moderniza5on → democracy § How influen5al it is depends on how open to, and dependent on the outside world that the society is. o culture § from historical, religious, and philosophical culture → democracy § poli5cal culture, while not necessarily determining democracy, can shape its par5cular character in each country Differences between the models and the balance between the three ins*tu*ons in each Models: o Parliamentary: Legislature chose the PM § in most democracies § fusion of powers between the execu5ve and the legisla5ve § two basic elements: § prime ministers and their cabinets (the other ministers who make up the government) come out of the legislature § the legislature is the instrument that elects and removes the PM from office § poli5cal power is divided between head of state and head of government § HOG (PM): majority of power (execu5ve branch) § HOS (President): directly/indirectly elected by the public/legislature, rarely exercise power → ceremonial figure § A unicameral or bicameral legislature § formulates legisla5on and domes5c/interna5onal policies § involves mul5ple par5es (the ruling party is determined by the majority of the parliament) § PM and their cabinets need a majority of support to stay in office o Presiden5al: § a minority of most democracies § clear separa5on of powers between the execu5ve and legisla5ve branches → neither branch has the ability to easily remove the other § The President serves as both HOS and HOG → na5onal symbol § The President is able to choose a cabinet § The President is elected by the public (direct) separately from the legislature § A bicameral legislature § involve two-party system → more stable government § the president and legislature serve for a fixed term (4-7 years) o Semi-presiden5al: both § have become widespread for 50+ years (less common than the other two) § Combine elements of aforemen5oned systems § A president shares execu5ve power with a PM and a cabinet § mixed electoral systems → balanced distribu5on of powers § Example: Russia, Taiwan, etc. Poli&cal Par&es “in every poli5cal society, par5es are unavoidable” several reasons: o an organiza5on that brings people together, serving 2 func5ons § help establishing the means by which the majority can rule § enact policies are oOen diverse → unable to fully dominate poli5cs Electoral systems Cons&tuencies: the whole body of voters who elect one representa&ve to a legislature or all the residents represented by one. (a group of people with shared interests or poli&cal opinions.) Single-member districts (Plurality): vote for the candidate → two-party systems (because win takes all, if you want to be strategic so you just vote between the best 2 par5es) Mul5-member districts (Propor5onal): vote for the party, not the candidate → alloca5on of seats → mul5 par5es systems (you can vote for the party you like) → you have to be compromise in this electoral system Mixed electoral systems Referenda and ini&a&ves Referendum: allow the public to make direct decisions about policy itself by punng certain issues before the public and allowing them to decide and use their input and thoughts on the subject. Ini5a5ve: a collec5on of sugges5ons or ideas/proposals made for the public. helps public get recognized within their input Civil rights, Liber&es, and Rules of Law civil rights consist of things like the right to vote, equal treatment under the law, and access to public things like schools or transporta5on without the face of discrimina5on on race gender or religion. civil liber5es will talk more about individual freedom like freedom of speech, religion, privacy, etc. civil liber5es give individuals the freedom to express themselves without government being involved. Civil liber&es protect people from undue government interference or ac&on. Civil rights, on the other hand, protect people from discrimina&on Why the rule of laws is so important in the making of democracy: men5oning England → England is ruled by law, not by king States gain their legi5macy through laws as 🥑 Non-democra5c regimes Defining authoritarianism What is authoritarianism, or nondemocra5c? o restricted par5cipa5on, restricted compe55on, restricted liberty o controlled by a small group of individuals who exercise power over the state without being cons5tu5onally responsible to the public o source of legi5macy may differ A democracy = a balance between 3 branches: legislature, execu5ves, and judiciaries  Non democracy omits cons5tu5ons (which are the legislature and the judiaciaries) authoritarianism: the belief that people must obey completely and not be allowed freedom to act as they wish Different models of non-democra*c regimes Dictator/Dictatorship o A dictatorship is a government or a social situa5on where one person makes all the rules and decisions without input from anyone else. Dictatorship implies absolute power — one person who takes control — of a poli5cal situa5on, a family, a classroom or even a camping expedi5on. Where does their legi5macy come from? Totalitarianism: o based on an ideology, very centralized, controls everything o Totalitarianism: different from other nondemocra5c regimes § totalis5c ideology § connotes violence and terror § destroy enemies of the totalitarianism § eliminate an individual’s ability to aspire for freedom § a highly centralized state whose regime has a well-defined ideology § seek to transform and fuse ins5tu5ons of state, society, and economy § use violence as a tool for remaking ins5tu5ons § oOen emerge when: those in power opt for a drama5c/revolu5onary change and reject the status quo Source of authoritarianism Moderniza*on: o Why does not moderniza*on always led to democra5za5on o Is it always true? Gender gaps, rural-urban gaps § some5mes, moderniza5on can lead to nondemocra5c rule/replacing exis5ng democra5c regimes § moderniza5on can be disrup5ve and uneven § urban areas: transform drama5cally >< rural areas: lag behind § people enjoying technology, infrastructure >< others lack these benefits § disrup5ve shiOs in economic ins5tu5ons (agri → industrial) or social ins5tu5ons (changes in gender rela5ons) → instability § bring infla5ons, unemployment, weakening economic development, destabilizing poli5cal order → can bring down a democra5c regime if the leaders fail to handle the situa5on § these non-democra5c movements are driven by direct beneficiaries of moderniza5on (students, urban intellectuals) § Nondemocra5c regimes run the spectrum of levels of wealth and moderniza5on § Singapore and Persian Gulf: nondemocra5c and modern/economically advanced § India and South Africa: democra5c but poor  Elites and non-democra5c rule: what’s their considera5on? o Equitable distribu5on of resources is what maRers. o powerful people don't want to share their power because they are afraid of losing their own money and opportuni5es → longevity of nondemocra5c o Not only would they have to give up their wealth, but they might also face severe consequences, even death, if they were to lose power. o The threat of a revolu5on makes these systems unlikely to allow much par5cipa5on, compe55on, or freedom for the people. Resource trap? → Na&on that has more resources → failed economically Civil society and populism o No civil society makes the state as the primary arena for social organiza5on o Many authoritarian systems are characterized by the absence of civil society § result from: those in power want to monitor/destroy any form of independent ac5on § hindered by ethnic or other societal divisions that dissuade people from forming organiza5ons → form a society that views the state as the primary arena for social organiza5on (populism) o Populism: the emphasis on the state § Not a specific ideology, draws power from an an5-ins5tu5onal approach § Characteris5cs: § the view of elites and established ins5tu5ons not represen5ng the will of people § a new movement led by a charisma5c leader, can usher in a new order § Populism do not lead to an an5democra5c outcome, but it destabilize democra5c prac5ces Types of autocra&c rule (differen&ated by…) Poli*cal control o Coercion § Coercion: compelling individuals by threatening their lives or livelihoods. § Examples: loss of their jobs or access to certain resources, arrest, deten5on without trial, torture, and death § death squads (La5n America) → abducted and murdered these individuals § purges (Soviet Union) → widespread arrests that decimated the ranks of the Communist Party and the state bureaucracy § targets of purges: Former leaders of the 1917 revolu5on, city mayors and local party bosses, high-ranking officers in the army and navy, university professors, scien5sts, diplomats, writers, ar5sts, students, farmers, and workers → when everyone is fear that they could be arrested → the public could be controlled § Surveillance: a close watch over the popula5on § Characteris5cs § to prevent opposi5on from organizing  § to ins5ll uncertainty among the popula5on — who is being watched § is conducted through “secret police” spying on individuals suspected of poli5cal ac5vity hos5le to the regime § Examples: telephone tapping, huge networks of public informers, electronic communica5on surveillance o Co-opta&on § Co-opta5on: the process by which individuals outside an organiza5on are brought into a beneficial rela5on- ship with it, making them dependent on the regime for certain rewards § Characteris5cs: § states have a number of prequisites to use on co-op5ng individuals: § jobs within the state or in state-run sectors of the economy § business contracts or licenses, public goods § kickbacks and bribes → rent seeking: poli5cal leaders essen5ally use parts of the state to extract income for their supporters, giving them preferred access to public goods that would otherwise be distributed in a nonpoli5cal manner § co-opta5on > coercion (success rate) § there are limita5ons § corpora5sts and clientelists can run out of benefits § produc5ve resources are siphoned off to secure the acquiescence of the public § worst, such a regime can decline into a kleptocracy (“rule by theO”) § Corpora5sm as a form of co-opta5on (monopoly over representa5on) § each organiza5on: have a monopoly of representa5on over a given issue or segment of society (meaning that no other organiza5on may act in that area or speak on that issue) § state, society, market = a single organic body that each ins5tu5on performs its own specific and limited role § give the public a limited influence in the policy-making process § For individuals: a state-sanc5oned org > none at all → States effec5vely control the public, civil society is marginalized § Clientelism as a form of co-opta5on (special benefits to a few number of people § Characteris5cs: § clientelism: relies on individuals >< corpora5sm: relies on organiza5ons o Personality cults § Defini5on: promo5on of a leader, who: § not as a poli5cal figure but as someone who embodies the spirit of the na5on  § possess wisdom and strength § portrayed in a quasi-religious manner as all-wise, all-seeing, all- knowing → generate a charisma5c form of authority for the poli5cal leader § Characteris5cs: § The media and culture play a vital role: spreading flaRering images § May also be coupled with coercion (when the charisma5c power has faded, become a facade and held up only by force) § Results: the cult might crack → rapid poli5cal decompression (Romania) § Is taking a weaker but s5ll powerful form § Examples: § Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei (Iran) § Vladimir Pu5n (Russia) § China’s President Xi Jinping Models of non-democra&c rule Personal/monarchical rule/patrimonialism o Based on the power of a single strong leader (charisma5c or tradi5onal authority) ⇒ The ruler is not a subject of the state; rather, the state and society are subjects of the ruler o Patrimonialism as a form of clientelism (a patrimonial leader trades benef its for poli5cal support) o Ideology may be weak or absent → rulers jus5fy and act on the pp’s behalf Military rule/bureaucra5c authoritarianism o the monopoly of violence → military as the strongest means of control o Control of the armed forces (with business and state elites → bureaucra5c authoritarianism: state bureaucracy and the military share a belief that a technocra5c leadership, focused on ra5onal, objec5ve, and technical exper5se, can solve the problems of the country—unlike “emo5onal” or “irra5onal” ideologically based party poli5cs.) => Poli5cal par5es and most civil liber5es are restricted → Lack both a specific ideology and a charisma5c or tradi5onal source of authority o Increasing polariza5on in poli5cs → leaders and the state bureaucracy to advocate military rule to prevent working class and peasantry from gaining power over gov Theocracy o From their claim to rule on behalf of God. o Religious leadership and poli5cal leadership fused into single sovereign authority Illiberal/hybrid regimes o The basic structures of democracy exist but are not fully ins5tu5onalized and oOen not respected o Fall somewhere between democra5c and nondemocra5c regimes. 🥑 Review  Four factors affec5ng rela5onship between moderniza5on and democra5za5on o cultures o civil socie5es o interna5onal rela5ons o resources alloca5on single and mul5-member districts o single: polarized policy making o mul5: broader policy making 🥑 Keywords Poli5cal diversity (in advanced democracies) Different phases of human history development (which leads to communism) The poli5cal structure of communist regimes The legacies of imperialism on development Import subs5tu5on vs. export-oriented industrializa5on Financial suppression Industrial policy State autonomy State capacity Causes of poli5cal violence Different types of poli5cal violence Terrorism Revolu5ons Economic globaliza5on 🥑 Advanced democracies Defining advanced democracies Simply defined by those that have achieved democra5za5on and industrializa5on simultaneously (not many) Ins5tu5onalized liberal democracy (par5cipa5on), personal liber5es (liber5es), private property rights, free markets (compe55on), high level of industrial and services development Balance of freedom and equality → Which comes first then, industrializa4on or democra4za4on? Is there an order of things? Poli&cal diversity in Advanced Democracies The ques&on of sovereignty among advanced democracies (poli&cs) Integra5on between countries: shared sovereignty Devolu5on of state power Case in point of EU o Suprana5onal system  o Monetary unions, some tradeoffs o Cons5tu5onal reform: failure → These things are not sta5c, however, focus on poli5cs, social, and economic ins5tu5ons to look at what causes these changes Modernism vs Postmodernism societal transi5ons o modernism: innova5ons, ra5onalism, material goods o Postmodernism: quality of life (health, environment, leisure) economic ins5tu5ons o ques5ons on statehood and immigra5on o shiO from manufacturing to service based industries § manufacturing: experience + educa5on = harder to replace → more valuable, working long-term § services: easier to replace → Do advanced democracies stand separate from one another en4rely? The welfare state ShiOing more towards “equality” and ques5ons on its sustainability The middle class and the mo5va5on to exploit the rich and the fear of being exploited by the poor Why do PR systems help the middle class side with the poor? PR systems and rela5onship to different poli5cal economic systems Which party gains more support when inequality rises? 🥑 Communism and Post-communism Communism Karl Marx and the surplus value of labor – source of differen5a5on and inequality. Why? → Poli4cal leaders extract from labor surplus through coercion Rela5ons between actors as a key way of seeing the world Base: technology and rela5ons between classes Super structure: religion, culture False consciousness Dialec5cal materialism, dictatorship of the proletariat, communism, vanguard of the proletariat every human society will become a communist (revolu5ons need to be present between stages, not radical) shouldn’t be a jump from an underdeveloped country → communist country (because social consent) natural development of the community brings about communism Different phases of human history development (which leads to communism) Technology is the driving change the role of technology: advancement, innova5on → value of labour goes down How are things changing in each step?  o Capitalists prevail first o Laborers get dissa5sfied → gain consciousness → no state Socialism as a transi5onal phase revolu5on → the superstructure is broken down In the end, many communist regimes became very totalitarian Because they tried to erase the superstructure and create “ar5ficial” communist utopia Communism in prac&ce Lenin and Mao, their approach to communism How did their approach differ from Marx’s ideology? → Vanguard of the proletariat Why did Communist regimes become so totalitarian? → No cons4tu4onal way to remove the party What were the means of maintaining power in these regimes? → Coopta4on and Coercion Where did power rest at as a result? → The nomenklatura The governance structure Party as the state General secretary of the party Politburo (cabinet) Central commiRee (legislature) Cells, unions Communist ideology as a ‘super structure’ or theocracy Means of doing this? Economic and social ins&tu&ons Central planning and state monopoly Suppression of freedom, freer gender rela5ons, restric5ons on ethnona5onalism (very important for China) Collapse and post-communism Demand for reform Why change in Soviet Union and Eastern Europe but not China? → differences in leadership and social … (legacies)? Leadership and civil society Varied results in changing poli5cal ins5tu5ons Changes in economic/societal ins&tu&ons Priva4za4on and marke4za4on How did exis5ng communist ins5tu5ons affect the process of these two things? China – restric5ng poli5cal change while introducing economic change Recrea5ng societal ins5tu5ons What is happening in China Authoritarian delibera5on What is it? How is this different from compe55ve authoritarianism? Ins5tu5onaliza5on of decision-making procedures 🥑 Less developed and newly industrializing countries Less developed and NICs Differences between advanced democracies and post-communist states: Lower state autonomy and capacity Mixture of premodern and modern ins5tu5ons (societal, economic, and poli5cal ins5tu5ons) Difference between NICs and LDCs What caused the difference in development? The poli5cs of development o Society o Rela5onship with the previous colonizers Imperialism and Colonialism as independent variables Imperialism/colonialism and the rise of empires China vs European empires: differences because China expanded by sea not by land, and the ruler at the 5me Modern imperialism and its ins5tu5ons The impor5ng of the state (bureaucracy, single language, ect) and its different consequences New social iden55es o Rule senng o The divisions of country based the the colonizers’ interests o The ideas of na5ons Economic ins5tu5ons that create dependencies - development of infrastructure specifically aimed towards extrac5on o Extrac5ve situa5on: the next step of infrastructure → dependency rela: you can only buy from me and I can only take from you Elimina&on of imperialism and its consequences Building the states (capacity and autonomy) o Autonomy: dependency rela in economy, external forces o Capacity: lack of unified social iden5ty + power imbalance between ethnics + dont have any social consensus (no one ruling the party) How/Why was doing this an issue? Lack of a unified social ideniRy Breaking through the dependency structures and strategies Import ins5tu5on vs Export-oriented growth Why the choices of different strategies? Changes and structural adjustments. Democra&za&on and development of these countries What promotes or undermines democra4za4on in these countries? Borders and ethnicity Resources Governance Solu&ons Building states and good governance, which model suits best? Building society Building economic prosperity  The informal economy — undermining state capacity Property rights should be established The aOermath of colonialism Import subs5tu5ons and export promo5on 🥑 Compara5ve poli5cal economy of East Asia Be crea5ve + market + choose the right industry → the developmental state has become a liberal state Late development in East Asia The state’s strategic role in taming domes5c and interna5onal forces for na5onal ends Focus on industrializa5on over profitability What’s needed for this? o strong and ra5onal state, and guided investments based on planning o But should markets be completely suppressed for this purpose? → did not suppress the market, but the finance (only control the flow of capital not the flow of market) → there is s5ll free compe55on Strong and ra5onal state, and guided investments based on planning But should markets be completed suppressed for this purpose? The developmental state in East Asia Was this a product of cultural and historical circumstances? Does the developmental state require a specific regime type? Is the developmental state incompa4ble with democracy? What is its future? Is this model transferrable? o Some specific characteris5cs of East Asian developmental states o Communist threat and the constant demand for constant legi5miza5on o Massive ini5al redistribu5on o Preferred access to capital and interac5on with already developed states o Exclusion of labor How all of this is governed o Underlying commitment to private property and market dynamics but with heavy interven5ons in capital movement o This is done by a super-efficient bureaucracy (the MITI in Japan and the EPB in Korea) o strong link between the bureaucracy and poli5cs o why was this model successful then? → meritocracy o any differences between the developmental states § The case of Japan: they have strong control over the banks (threaten or sth) § The case of Korea: complete control over banks § The case of Taiwan: they have control over banks too but no every bank (don’t base on performances but base on their targeted industries) High investment in selected industries, but not subsidies. Exposure to compe55on abroad.  One more ques4on to ask is how do maintain discipline? Stringent performance requirements. The government’s unwillingness to bail out companies. Differences in the intensity of the state’s control over capital (Japan, Korea, and Taiwan) Who won? Coali5on of poli5cs and domes5c industry and exclusion of labor Tight direct and indirect control/coopera5on over major conglomerates, banks, and others (on limited sectors of the economy) o As there is only a limited number of sectors → easier to keep an eye on This leads to high degrees of bureaucra5c autonomy and public-private coopera5on. Differences with La4n American countries? o The most dis5nguishable difference: the absence of labor Where did this all come from and Who kept an eye on the progress/system? A compara&ve lens Authoritarian corpora5sm: Korea, Taiwan Social corpora5sm: Japan Who provides then? Change in developmental states since the 21st century. Are the states s4ll developmental? Wong (further reading) the adap5ve developmental state financial liberaliza5on democra5za5on interna5onal concerns on excessive state interven5on 🥑 Poli5cal Violence What is poli&cal violence The transfer of the right to use violence from the individual to the state Poli5cal violence is violence prac5ced outside of the state’s control that is poli5cally mo5vated This is different from other forms of violence Causes of poli&cal violence Ins5tu5ons: self-perpetua5ng organiza5ons or paRerns of ac5vity. Any example of this? → winner takes all systems increase the likelihood of social marginaliza4on and conflict Idea5onal: ideas that jus5fy or promote the use of violence. Any example? → religious fundamentalism Individual: psychological or strategic factors that lead people to prac5ce violence. Any Example? → income disparity (can be a result of ins4tu4onal reasons), humilia4on A comparison between the three causes Forms of poli&cal violence Revolu5on and Terrorism Revolu5on as a public seizure of the state in order to overturn the exis5ng government and regime o The public plays a larger role here compared to coups o Seizure of the state  o Objec5ve is to remove the en5re regime, not only those in power Causes of revolu4on?: Individual, Idea5onal, Ins5tu5onal (many people focus on this as state, being an ins5tu5on themselves, also reinforces and perpetuates themselves). Ideas can play a role in causing revolu5on but if you look deeper then there is always ins5tu5ons Condi5ons that allow revolu5ons to happen o Inner state conflicts o Weak state facing interna5onal pressure → Government spoil their ci5zen to compete on the interna5onal level (internal security is threatened) and as they are weak they cannot suppress all prac5ces of poli5cal violence → Weak state + Interna5onal pressure = A friendly environment for revolu5on Do revolu4on always lead to progress? → No Terrorism as the use of violence by nonstate actors against civilians in order to achieve a poli5cal goal Can states be terrorists as well? State can do something really similar to terrorism but we just dont consider it in the chapter State-sponsored terrorism Difference between guerilla war: Small military coups against states Cause of terrorism? Ins5tu5onal, Individual (the most prevail interna5onally), Idea5onal → What mo5vates terrorism to happen? (norms and ideas can s5ll affect but as they affect each person differently → not the most prevailing) Authoritarian states do foster terrorism but if they are strong enough they can s5ll suppress it → limited terrorism Democra5c states: people have a chance to raise their voices → opt for other methods rather than terrorism Illiberal/transi5onal states: weak state capacity, instability and limited democra5c ins5tu5ons → opportuni5es and mo5va5ons for terrorism → terrorism is more likely to happen due to domes5c and/or interna5onal support There are, however, other forms of violence – assassina5ons, riots, rebellions, coups, civil war, ethnic conflict The rela5ve depriva5on model as a poten5al cause of revolu5ons Disturbance of ini5al power structures as the cause? Weak state and interna5onal pressure as the main causes – why in this case? How about the role of individuals? Religion and poli&cal violence Religious fundamentalism as a source of poli5cal violence Hos5lity towards modernity, and the view that moderniza5on humiliates beliefs, Countering poli&cal violence Are certain regimes more resilient against poli5cal violence? Should we give up some degree of freedom to reduce poli5cal violence?  Some5mes we have to make trade-offs between freedom and limita5on of poli5cal violence 🥑 Globaliza5on (Economic) The topic of economic globaliza5on generates many debate and controversy The BreRon Woods System: economic regime created to manage interna5onal economic rela5ons, whose instability was commonly cited as a driving force behind the Great Depression and World War II → vital component of economic globaliza5on Three important ins5tu5ons emerged from this system: o IMF (Interna5onal Monetary Fund) o WB (World Bank) o GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), later replaced by WTO → Main objec5ve: expand and manage economic rela5ons between countries IMF: manage exchange rates between countries + provide loans to states in financial difficulty WB: provide loan + technical assistance to advance development WTO: oversee trade agreements of the member states to lower tariffs and remove nontariffs barriers. → the deepening of economic globaliza5on over the past two decades was enabled by the BreRon Woods system and catalyzed by the policies of the Washington Consensus. The emergence of The BreRon Woods System + The Washington Consensus brings about: o Globaliza5on of interna5onal trade § Technological changes + Crea5on of global liberal-economic regime → na5onal economies have grown more deeply → foster trade o Integra5on of capital and financial markets § Money is more mobile § Investments and loasn can be made from, and to many more places o Deepening of the connec5ons between workers, goods, and health. The growth of economic globaliza5on, examples: o From 3mil dollars in 1992 → over 19mil dollars in 2015 o FDI under $200mil in 1992 → $2 trillion in 2017 o Large firms, with the support from open markets and reduced transporta5on costs → rival the GDP of many countries o Through financing: around one-third of the United States’ $19 trillion in state debt is held interna5onally, with the biggest owners being China and Japan. Global economy has undergone significant transforma5on o driven by: expanding communica5on technologies and economic liberaliza5on o result in: reduced tradi5onal economic barriers, allowing people and businesses to more easily access and compete in global markets o major developments: § Increased openness of markets, with firms and workers facing greater interna5onal compe55on.  § Greater mobility of investment capital across borders, as firms, states, and individuals can rapidly move money interna5onally. § The rise of offshore outsourcing, where companies can outsource work to loca5ons with cost advantages, such as call centers, data processing, anima5on, and soOware programming. This has grown from $1.3 billion in 2002 to around $500 billion currently. § India has emerged as a major provider of outsourced labor, but other regions like Eastern Europe, La5n America, and Africa have also become ac5ve in this trend. Op5mis5c view: a vehicle for great global prosperity o expansion of interna5onal economic connec5ons → allocate goods, services, labor, finance o Ability to export what they produce best o Innova5ons, specializa5on, lower costs are encouraged o Crea5on of jobs due to capital flows and transna5onal corpora5ons o Wealth is diffused more effec5vely through open markets o Decline in extreme poverty, especially in export-oriented countries in Asia → Globaliza5on = a posi5ve, liberalizing trend, a global division of labor Not-so-op5mis5c view: suspicion o rising inequality o firms moving overseas to take advantage of cheaper labor/lower levels of regula5on → loss of jobs o businesses are able to avoid government taxa5on, oversight and public account ability → Globaliza5on = weakens state capacity and autonomy → a global economy that lacks sovereign control → freedom and equality are thus compromised