GBIO 1000 Final Exam Study Guide Fall 2024 PDF

https://quizlet.com/750059492/bio-exam-4-flash-cards/ GBIO 1000 Study Guide Final Exam. Directions: You may use this study guide several ways. (1) Fill in responses and information for each question/heading using your notes and textbook. Use the compl...

https://quizlet.com/750059492/bio-exam-4-flash-cards/ GBIO 1000 Study Guide Final Exam. Directions: You may use this study guide several ways. (1) Fill in responses and information for each question/heading using your notes and textbook. Use the completed form as your revised notes to prepare for the exam. (2) Use the form as a pretest – see what you know and don’t know about the material. The questions/headings that you responded incorrectly or not at all then become the focal point of your preparation. (3) After preparing for the exam use the study guide as a practice test. Be sure to use figures and tables from the text which are listed in the lecture outlines Be sure to consult the Active Learning Exercises used in class. They have been returned to the folders outside the lab. Also avail yourselves of the resources on the class website. Topic 10 Ecosystems: Chapter 20 Give a full description of what an ecosystem is and its components i.e. differentiate between the abiotic and biotic components. [Eugene Odum’s description] Any area of nature that has living and nonliving components that are interacting to produce and exchange materials Explain the generalized ecosystem model from your lecture outline including examples of what each arrow represents. 1+3=exchange of material 2+4= Interspecific relationships 5=Intraspecific relationships competition: When the species are fighting for the same resource, since there is not enough of that resource. There are eight major terrestrial biomes. Identify the factors that determine the type of biomes found in an area. What is a biome in relationship to an ecosystem? Biomes are distinguished by their predominant plant communities and are associated with particular climates. Ecosystems are classified into biomes. Ecosystems are the specific interactions between biotic and abiotic organisms, whereas a biome is the wide classification of an area based on its species, temperature, etc. List and describe the relationship between two biological processes that are foundational to energy flow through an ecosystem. Which of the two is the key reaction? Photosynthesis is the primary production (key reaction) the foundation process drives other reactions in the ecosystem. Fixing H to CO2 with sunlight and chemical bond energy. 2. Respiration - (in ecosystem) that produces such as water, carbon dioxide and energy Describe the concept of productivity. GPP - R=NPP} The total energy produced minus respiration (What the plant needs and uses)= the energy accumulated. Productivity is measured in biomass (renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals and used as fuel) The rate of primary production determines the rate of energy supply to the rest of the ecosystem. o Interpret the equation GPP – R = NPP. o Gross Primary production- respiration =net primary production Gross primary production- total energy assimilated by primary producer( total sunlight/ energy taken in primary producers)  Respiration ® Net primary production energy accumulated in stored form by primary producers. o What environmental factors determine the level of GPP in an ecosystem? (2 primary factors) Precipitation- more Precipitation=more productivity Temperature- temp Increase= productive increase o What is used to measure the productivity of an ecosystem? Biomass o What limits the number of consumers in any given ecosystem? The level of primary production limits the maximum secondary productivity of an ecosystem. o Rank the following in order of most productive to least productive ecosystems: Temperate forest, desert, temperate grasslands, tropical forest, tropical savanna (see Topic 08 slides for the answer) o Tropical forest o Temperate forest o Savanna o Temperate grasslands o Desert Energy flow in an ecosystem is not cyclic but rather it is linear; heat energy leaves the ecosystem through work and heat. __. Describe trophic structure of an ecosystem and a food chain and distinguish between autotroph and heterotroph; producers and consumers. Trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. The food chain is the succession of organisms that eat each other organisms and may be eaten themselves. The trophic level of an organism is the number of steps it is from the start of the chain. Autotrophs= producers ; heterotrophs= consumers What is the difference between a grazing food chain and a detrital food chain? How are they connected? Grazing- the lowest trophic level has its energy gathered through photosynthesis and adds energy to the ecosystem. Detrital- starts with the dead remains of organisms. Decomposing organisms provide energy for plants and they fertilize the soil. How does a food web differ from a food chain or ecological pyramid? food chain-outlines who eats whom food web- is all of the chains in an ecosystem ecological pyramid- represents the productivity of new biomass at each trophic level in an ecosystem. Food web is the o Using a food web explains two traits of an ecosystem - stability and resilience. o stability- resistance to perturbations (change w/in an ecosystem) o resilience- ability to bounce back after a perturbation o What is meant by the complexity of a food web and how is it related to the stability and resilience of an ecosystem? The complexity is the number of species at each trophic level at the number of trophic levels in a community. The more complex and interconnected a community is, the more stable and resilient it will be in the face of disturbances or perturbations.  Biomagnification is a consequence of a food web. Explain biomagnification and bioaccumulation and use a pyramid to illustrate the concept. Biomagnification- primary consumers start out with a little toxin, and the farther up you go on the food chain, the more the toxin starts to grow in higher consumers because each level higher, they have to consumer more and the toxin doesn't leave their system- it just accumulates o Using the ecological pyramids, explain the 10% rule as it relates to an ecological pyramid and sustainability. On average 10% of the biomass or productivity of one trophic level is represented in the biomass at the next higher level. Describe in general a biogeochemical cycle – what is a reservoir regarding the cycle? The biogeochemical cycle is the cycle of nutrients and minerals between biotic communities and the physical earth a reservoir is a place where essential elements are sequestered for long periods of time (like rock layers and soil) o Why are detritus food webs or chains crucial to a biogeochemical cycle? o Detritus food webs/chains are crucial to a biogeochemical cycle because they return Nitrogen back to the atmosphere. They recycle nutrients back into the soil.Detritivores and decomposers reintroduce vital elements such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and potassium back into the soil. Describe the nitrogen cycle and identify its abiotic reservoir, (Also describe the terms associated with the cycle). Be familiar with the diagrams in the slides related to the cycle. abiotic reservoir --> the atmosphere Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into many forms, consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the atmosphere. atmospheric fixing- biological fixing- nitrate- nitrification- denitrification Describe the practices of Industrialized Agriculture including the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution was characterized in agriculture by the use of high-yield seeds, increased use of chemicals and mechanized farming. The Green Revolution had positive and negative consequences for both human populations and the environment. o What are the benefits/positive outcomes to industrialized agriculture? o higher yields- food production has been able to keep up with population growth o 2) food prices- food became more affordable o What are the negative outcomes or unintended negative consequences? 1) Env't damage- Green Revolution is not sustainable. double cropping resulted in intensive use of land and drained topsoil of its natural nutrients. This made farmers more dependent on chemical fertilizers (which are hazardous to ecosystems & drinking water) 2) Gender roles in the developing world- much of farm labor in the developing world was done by women. As the Green Revolution introduced new technologies, women were further marginalized. 3) Impact on farmers- MDCs transferred technologies to farmers in LDCs. However, GMO seeds, fertilizers, & machines also increased the cost of production. For many local farmers, the cost became too expensive as MNC corporations moved in. Topic 11 Biodiversity and Environmental Ethics: Chapter 21 List and describe the three types of biodiversity discussed in class. genetic-diff in genes species richness in an ecosystem- complexity of ecosystem, amount of species. ecosystem diversity due to climate> biomes o What factor(s) may determine the type of ecosystems found in a region? precipitation, vegetation or plant life, geography, temperature, climate in general o What is habitat heterogeneity? Which type of ecosystem or biome provides the greatest amount of habitat heterogeneity? HH- diversity or variety of habitat types tropical ecosystem or tropical rainforest biomes o What is the relationship between habitat heterogeneity and species richness? The closer you move to the equator, the higher species richness will be. this is because the hh is higher because the warm and moist climate supports more species o Describe the latitudinal gradient as it relates to species richness. species richness increases as you move further from the cold areas and toward the center of the earth; the pattern of having lots of species at the equator with diversity dwindling off towards the poles List and briefly describe with examples four reasons why “biodiversity” is important to humans? 1) Goods! Food, fuel, medicine, etc vincristine and vinblastine regulate cell cycle and treat types of cancer 2) Services! Pest control, recycling minerals, pollination 3) Information! Genetic engineering, less biodiversity=loss of information 4) Psycho-Spiritual or aesthetic beauty; biophilia! the innate human instinct to connect with nature and other living beings What is the value of biodiversity to an ecosystem? [see Topic 10 review questions on ecosystem stability] -Genetic variability within a species permits flexibility and survival of a population in the face of changing environmental selection -natural selection → microevolution -stability and resilience of ecosystems depend on the complexity of the ecosystem-this deals with the number and variety of species Chapter 21 covers a host of human impacts on ecosystems. The acronym HIPPCO can be used as a mnemonic device to recall a list of human impacts. Refer to your notes for describing each impact represented by HIPPCO. Be familiar with and explain each factor identified with the HIPPCO mnemonic device including examples presented in class. H-habitat destruction I- invasive species P- pollution P- population growth (amount of humans increasing) C- Climate change O- over exploitation of resources Below are terms/concepts used in our discussion of HIPPCO. Be familiar with the terms and use them in a description for the appropriate component of HIPPCO. o Species area curve-the relationship between the area of a habitat, or of part of a habitat, and the number of species found within that area o Native and non-native species-species that migrate into an ecosystem or are deliberately or accidentally introduced into an ecosystem by humans. Not  necessarily invasive.exotic species are invasive and causes environmental harm/harm to human health o Surface Water contamination-occurs above ground, big cities from pavement o a tire losing rubber in a pool of water which drains into the lake ▪ Point source pollution-(liquid waste from an industrial plants and sewage treatment) ▪ Non-point source pollution-(agricultural runoff, urban runoff due to development) ▪ Pavement- an impervious surface(artificial, water-resistant)→ runoff, flooding, channel erosion ▪ Deforestation and erosion -cut down trees lose a little bit of soil or rocks due to water ▪ Acid deposition-any form of precipitation with acidic components that alters pH of soil and water o Eutrophication of aquatic systems- sewage and excess fertilizers creates excessive richness of nutrients in a body of water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen o Explain the rationale for agriculture and the term monoculture.-rationale for agriculture-efficiency of supplying food to a local population; supports large populations o monoculture- a single crop in a single area; growing the same crops year after year on the same land increases vulnerability to pest and disease attacks. The more the crop and genetic diversity, the more difficult it is for insects and pathogens to devise a way to pierce through plant resistance; easier on the soil to rotate crops o Scientific considerations for the growing human population ▪ Ecological footprint-amount of natural resources needed to supply the population in a given area or country with natural resources to sustain current quality of life ▪ Sustainable use of resources.-Allows full natural replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction and use ▪ Which is more efficient at supplying food to the world population: grain based diet or meat based diet – use the ecological pyramids to assist in responding to this. o List evidence of global climate change o increased temperatures across the globe over the past 100 years. o changing and increasing precipitation trends over the past 100 years. o decrease in the number and size of glaciers & Shrinking Polar Caps and related "ice" events. o sea levels in the last century have risen 6-8 inches. (U.S. EPA). o Deep water temperatures in the oceans have slightly increased as have tropical ocean water. o Bluefin Tuna present in Arctic waters Describe the following treaties/legislative acts with regard to conserving biodiversity: o CITES-Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species o makes it illegal to export or import elephant ivory, rhino horns, tiger skins, or live endangered birds, lizards, fish, and orchids  o ESA - Identify successes and controversies associated with the ESA In the US., the ESA (endangered species act) provides mechanisms for reducing species losses. identify species at risk; recover/delisted species It provides: 1. criteria for identifying species at risk 2. directions for planning their recovery 3. assistance to landowners to help them find ways to meet both economic needs and the needs of a rare species 4. enforcement of measures for protecting species and their environment What is a biodiversity hotspot and what is their importance in conserving biodiversity/ o Identify endemic species in your response. areas w exceptional concentrations of diverse species, unusually high endemism, important in conserving biodiversity because these are where many rare species live and where a lot of biodiversity lives Describe ethics as articulated by Aldos Leopold. ethics in bio puts a limit on freedom of what we can do. ethics limits self-serving behavior for the sake of Articulate the biblically based rationale discussed in class for our care of God’s creation and differentiate between intrinsic and instrumental value in your rationale o Be familiar with the 4 commands given to Adam by God in Genesis 1 and 2. Know the specifics of the meaning and import of each command given. Genesis 1:28, 2:16- Humans do not have absolute dominion or sovereignty over creation. Subdue=kabash Dominion= Rada Dress=abad keep=shamar Francis Schaeffer introduces the idea that Humans are separated from creation yet united with creation. Explain this concept. we have been created unique from nature (made in the image of god) -we are united with creation because god has created us both and we are confined to living within the creation take care of land to get the benefits/outcomes of it Compare and contrast the four different views of the environment and its populations using the chart in the slides. Describe the cost-benefit analysis approach to conservation. We present a three-step framework for identifying and recording the relevant economic costs and bene-fits of conservation interventions where the user (1) describes the costing con-text, (2) determines which types of cost and benefit to include, and (3) obtains values for these costs and benefits... What is the Principle of Mass Balance? How does it relate to care of the environment? As the chemical reaction rate depends on temperature it is often necessary to make both an energy balance (often a heat balance rather than a full-fledged energy balance) as well as mass balances to fully describe the system. Describe the environmental impact model represented by I = P x A x T A classic attempt to explain the relationship between a human population and its impact on the environment is the IPAT equation. The equation maintains that impacts on ecosystems (I) are the product of the population size (P), affluence (A), and technology (T) of the human population in question. Topic 12: Biological Evolution [Chapter 11:3 and Chapter 12:2] Identify the three “facts” that Krough maintains that the Theory of Evolution has established and identify how they are in opposition to the Biblical account of origins. -Man has no higher ranking than any other living thing - We do not live in a fixed world. Ex. birds have not always been birds - Life has been shaped by a process with no mind / goals. Natural selection has no intentions / is indifferent. (The idea of consciousness) How does origin science differ from other science according to Mayr? It has to be inferred from observation. You cannot document it like you could chemistry or something of the like. Case for the Creator chapters 3 and 8 would be a valuable resource to consult and use preparing for the final exam as many of the ideas and criticisms below are explained more fully. The Scientific Community claims the Theory of Biological Evolution is supported by a number of pieces of evidence. Describe how each is used to support the theory of biological evolution (data and interpretation of the data) and describe a critique or anomalous data which erodes the supposed evidence. Species are not immutable nor static – they do change. >Descent with modification. Evolutionary processes can be extended to account for all or nearly all the diversity of life. – >Inference is a common ancestor. The primary mechanism of change is natural selection. > Underlying Presupposition: Naturalism Embryology List 2 claims inferred from embryology Embryos of all vertebrates have deep structural similarities and these deep similarities are said to clearly show evidence for evolutionary relationships. Early stages of vertebrate embryos exhibit features common to the phylum before developing the distinguishing characteristics. Describe the hourglass conundrum- embryos are most similar in the middle of development but they are very different in the beginning and end What is the scandal connected to this line of evidence? Haeckel's drawings were FAKED!! - Haeckel’s drawings misrepresented the features of the embryos, exaggerating their similarities,  - Left out the earliest stages of the embryo development The Fossil Record Macroevolution predicts 2 observations in the fossil record? - No transitional forms - punctuated equilibrium / huge gaps What is the view of Mayr and Gould concerning the fossil record and transition forms? - Mayr and Gould view- We should see more complex fossils at the top of the younger layer What explanations are proposed by Mayr and Gould as the problem(s) with the fossil record? - Mayr and Gould explanation- The fossil record documents saltations (jumps), fossilization is a rare event, there are no missing links Describe Gould’s punctuated equilibrium hypothesis and what it attempts to explain. What evidence does it rest upon? - Gould's hypothesis- There are isolated instances of rapid speciation in the fossil record. evidence-Rapid speciation in a small population has less chance of being preserved. Molecular Homologies Describe how cytochrome C and its appearance in many different species is used to argue for a common ancestor. Cytochrome C is found in the mitochondria of many different species and used to argue for a common ancestor due to its commonality and uniformity throughout the tree of life. What are the major criticisms of using molecular homologies to argue for macroevolution and a common ancestor? - Criticisms- Looking at different molecules gives different results, sometimes the complete opposite! Based on Michael Denton’s re-organizing of the cytochrome c data (see the table in the ppt slide) critique what evolution would predict about the “distance” between groups of organisms. - Michael Denton's re-organization- critiques what evolution should say about the "distance" between organisms. One gene gives the "tree of life," while the other gives a very different version. - Similarities between a horse and a bacteria equal to that of a bacteria and a fish, etc. Morphological Homologies Explain what morphological homologies using limbs of different species of vertebrates and how this is used to support macroevolution. There are parts of different organisms that serve different functions but have the same internal structure and develop from the same embryonic pathway. Used to infer a common ancestor. What is Mayr’s comment about homologies? Mayr's comment- They cannot be proved so they must be inferred. Organisms are not necessarily related just because they have different bone structure. How would an interventionist look at the evidence of morphological homologies? What logic or rationale would support such a view? - Interventionist- Common designer because of a common ancestor Evidence - Parts that are not homologous but have a similar function should be regulated by a non homologous master gene, but they are not! Ex. squid and insect eyes. - Irreducible complexity Using the slides from class and Chapter 8 from Case for the Creator explain Behe’s idea of irreducible complexity. - If something is irreducibly complex it cannot work without all components present, therefore it could never have existed in a simpler state. Ex. flagellum and cilium. LAB 7: Biotechnology Lab Using the lab handout and slides presented in the lab (found in Canvas): Explain how the process of gel electrophoresis works and its uses. gel electrophoresis is “to carry with an electrical current” - used to separate DNA molecules based on their size - Cathode: Negative charge - Anode: Positive charge - Buffer: composed of different ions that conduct electricity Analyze a gel and interpret the results in the context of identifying an unknown. Articulate the concepts and principles that are presented in the lab introduction. If you completed the study guides for Exam I, use it to prepare for the final exam. Below are the specific questions/topics that will be addressed in the Final Exam from Topics 01. Topic Outline 01: The Nature of Science and Biology Chapter 1.2 Science for All Americans – ER What is the biblical metanarrative and what is its relationship to science literacy and biology? Being scientifically literate is required for the following: (the 3 “knows”) -know yourself - know your word - Know your God Describe in a sentence or two what the general goals of science are. Science is an activity or process, the underlying aim of which is to further our understanding of why things happen the way they do in the natural or created world. The aim of science is theory. List the 6 key ideas or “aspects” that characterize science as a way of knowing and describing in detail what they are or how they work. Below are questions related to the aspects that you are expected to answer. Science for All Americans Ch 1 – ER is a resource to consult for additional details to the list generated in class. Aspect #1: Science is characterized by its demand for empirical evidence for its conclusions. Aspect #2: Science is characterized by its demands for logical reasoning. Aspect #3: Science gives tentative or contingent knowledge. Aspect #4: Science has an epistemological framework which includes a set of presuppositions. Aspect #5: Science as a Human activity has limits Aspect #6: Science takes place within the values and norms of the culture and is subject to the biases of its practitioners. Science is a way of knowing. Describe the way of knowing that characterizes science. Your description should include the following: What is empirical evidence? Distinguish between observation and inference. Empirical Evidence: information received by means of the senses, particularly by observation and documentation of patterns and behavior through experimentation (physical) Inferences are an explanation for an observation you have made. They are based on your past experiences and prior knowledge. Inferences are often changed when new observations are made. Observations are information we gather directly through our five senses - inferences help explain those observations What is meant by communal objectivity and peer-reviewed work? Peer-reviewed journals are publications in which scientific contributions have been vetted by experts in the relevant field. Peer-reviewed articles provide a trusted form of scientific communication. Peer-reviewed work isn't necessarily correct or conclusive, but it does meet the standards of science. Describe the general method of how science obtains knowledge i.e. the methods of science. Include the role of inductive and deductive reasoning. 1. Observing 2. Describing 3. Inferring 4. Proposing explanations 5. Testing Explanations Inductive reasoning: moves from specific instances into a generalized conclusion. Deductive reasoning: moves from generalized principles that are known to be true to a true and specific conclusion. Describe “experimental research” done within the scientific community. Include such terms as treatment, control, independent variable, dependent variable and controlled variables. Refer to the medical model presented in class and the active learning exercises, the paper towel ALE. o Hypothetico-deductive basis to science. Hypothesis : a proposed explanation or prediction, generally lacks evidence/support but it is Testable and potentially falsifiable Law: generalizations or description related to the way some aspect of the natural world behaves under certain conditions. Often expressed in a mathematical representation. Theory: are inferred explanations of some aspect of the natural world; not laws, rather theories attempt to explain laws; not collections of facts - they are models of the world; Repeatedly tested, well supported by the empirical evidence. Explain non-experimental tests such as an “ex post facto” research design using the example of second-hand cigarette smoke as an example. What is correlational research? What are the advantages of experimental research over correlational research? Describe how to interpret the scale for a correlation i.e. r = -1 to +1. Ex Post Facto Research ◦ The test is the correlation between the variables ◦ Correlation is the measure of the degree of the relationship between two variables **Measure of deviation Differentiate between theory, law and hypothesis. Is there a hierarchical relationship between them? Hypothesis : a proposed explanation or prediction, generally lacks evidence/support but it is Testable and potentially falsifiable Law: generalizations or description related to the way some aspect of the natural world behaves under certain conditions. Often expressed in a mathematical representation. Theory: are inferred explanations of some aspect of the natural world; not laws, rather theories attempt to explain laws; not collections of facts - they are models of the world; Repeatedly tested, well supported by the empirical evidence. What are some limitations of Science? (4) Limited to physical/natural causal explanations of observable events Cannot make value judgments Cannot address ultimate questions of purpose Teleology How is confidence established in science concepts, facts, etc.? conclusions regarded by a single study must be confirmed with lasting, data analytics, before accepted into science. Compare replicability to reproducibility Replicability or repeatability refers to reconducting the entire study to ensure the outcomes’ reliability. Reproducibility refers to reconducting the analysis to ensure a fair analysis. Differentiate between anecdotal evidence and scientific evidence. Anecdotal evidence stems from personal experiences and lacks systematic testing, making it less reliable. Conversely, scientific evidence arises from methodical observation, experimentation, and statistical analysis, making it more reliable. Scientists’ inferences, models and views of the natural world are shaped by … (4 things) 1. philosophical communities 2. religious beliefs 3. political values 4. professional interests What is a presupposition? Give an example and explain. A presupposition is a non testable assumption which are the foundation to a set of beliefs, world views and philosophy. Genesis 1:1- presupposes that there is a God. List and describe four presuppositions of science from our discussion in class. Identify which presuppositions both the scientific community and people of faith would hold. Identify the one presupposition that people of faith would deny. (Both) The real world does exist independent of the knower (us). The physical universe exists, whether we can sense it or not. The physical universe is not a construct or matrix. Mayr's Principle of Objectivity. - (Both) Humans can accurately perceive and understand the physical universe. Nature is understandable to humans. - (Both) Nature is uniform and orderly. Processes & patterns seen on a limited scale hold universally. [Uniformitarianism]. Natural processes operate the same way everywhere in the universe, and at all times - in predictable patterns..  - (Faith denies) Natural processes are sufficient to explain the natural world. Non- natural causes are unnecessary. [Naturalism.] "... scientists do not invoke supernatural causation or divine revelation." List key presuppositions that are foundational to a Christian worldview of science in regards to creation. creation- god created natural world, god is actively involved in maintaining created order, creation does & is revealing God humans- image bearers of God who to exercise stewardship, reasoning & understanding, sin affects scientific endeavors scripture- science is not the only method to gain knowledge about he physical universe, science is girded by biblical revelation, natural causes don't tell all. Topic Outline 01 Shared Properties of Living Things. Chapter 1.1 Biology is the study of life. List the Shared Properties of Living Things: *Organisms are constructed of some kinds of atoms/molecules *Organisms consists of one or more cells *Organisms use energy from the environment to survive and reproduce *Organisms regulate homeostasis *All organisms have the capacity to reproduce and pass on genetic information *Living organisms adapt to the environment Describe and list biological universals. Describe the terms common ancestor, descent with modification, and natural selection in the context of Darwin’s biological evolutionary theory. What inference would a theist make regarding these universals? Why the difference in inferences or interpretations using the same observations? biological universals: —-> Biodiversity Common chemicals of life Cells DNA & the Genetic Code Common metabolic pathways Energy Production – ATP Lipid bilayer cellular membrane All living creatures are modified descendants of a common ancestor that lived long ago. Every species that has ever appeared can be explained by descent with modification. Modifications are the result of natural selection acting on random genetic mutations Theist's inference regarding universals: God created the natural world and is actively involved in maintaining it. Inference occurs after observation, where the observed data is utilized to form a logical conclusion. Whereas observation requires data gathering, influence requires reasoning, critique, and analysis skills to interpret and explain observations that have been made. List 4 unifying theories in biology and summarize them as presented in the class slides. The Cell Theory  all organisms are composed of at least one cell the cell is the most basic unit of life all cells come from pre-existing cells The Gene Theory genetic information is encoded in molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) genes encode specific proteins or RNA or act to regulate other genes the proteins and RNA encoded by an organism’s genes determine what it will be like in terms of form and function The Theory of Heredity Genes are passed down generations as discrete units Mendel’s theory of heredity gave rise to the field of genetics Chromosomal theory of inheritance located Mendelian genes on chromosomes The Theory of Evolution All living organisms are related to one another in a common tree of descent Theory of evolution explains the unity and diversity of life