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Study Guide: Final our final exam consists of 100 scantron pts and 1 extra credit question. The scantron portion Y consists of 10 cases in a different format than you are used to – please see below for a sample. The extra credit will brief...
Study Guide: Final our final exam consists of 100 scantron pts and 1 extra credit question. The scantron portion Y consists of 10 cases in a different format than you are used to – please see below for a sample. The extra credit will briefly summarize a recent study and ask you to analyze it. cantron section: Fill in the blanks from the termsbelow each question and then bubble in the S corresponding letters on your scantron. For terms that have more than one letter, bubble in both letters on your scantron. Terms may be used more than once. Also, not all terms will be used. Case #1: our patient is a 70 year old woman who was found on the floor of her bedroom by her family. Y She is very drowsy. Her skin is cold, pale, and dry. Her pulse is 64 bpm, regular, and weak. Her respirations are 12, regular rhythm, shallow volume, and unlabored. Her blood pressure is 160/90. You suspect that she is hypothermic, so you measure her body temperature and it is 85.3°F. he sensor(s) for hypothermia is/are___bthermoreceptors_, which send information to the T integrating center in the __d hypothalamus __. This area stimulates the effectors, in this case the __ae skeletal muscles __, to bring the body temperature back to setpoint. This integrating center also sends out signals that cause blood vessels in the skin to __bc constrict __. This explains her skin signs. he danger of hypothermia is that __ce molecules move slower at lower temperatures __. T Reactions will slow down, including all of those involved in the generation of ATP through __abd aerobic respiration __. Without ATP, __ace cellular work__ can’t occur. In addition to its effect on reaction rates throughout the body, hypothermia will specifically affect the respiratory system by decreasing _ade gas exchange __, and will specifically affect the nervous and muscular systems by decreasing __bcd movement of ions and neurotransmitters__ that are directly needed for generating signals. Cardiac electrical conduction will also slow down, resulting in dangerous __cde arrhythmias __. . Chemoreceptors a b. Thermoreceptors c. Baroreceptors d. Hypothalamus e. Brainstem ab. Thalamus ac. Diaphragm ad. Sweat glands ae. Skeletal muscles bc. Constrict bd. Dilate be. Sweat cd. Protein and DNA denature ce. Molecules move slower at lower temperatures de. Cold directly inhibits action potentials abc. Gene expression abd. Aerobic respiration abe. Osmosis acd. Filtration ace. Cellular work ade. Gas exchange bcd. Movement of ions and neurotransmitters ce. Diuresis b cde. Arrhythmias abcd. Confusion Answers:1. b, 2. d, 3. ae, 4. bc, 5. ce, 6. abd,7. ace, 8. ade, 9. bcd, 10. cde Know: H ow to design controlled experiments and observational studies, terminology associated with each, and pros and cons of each Scientific Method -a process used to design and performexperiments that minimizes experimental errors and bias Hypothesis -Testable and falsifiable explanation,clearly define the variables and expected outcome, DOES NOT include anything not being tested or explanation Observational Study -Form hypothesis → 2 variables:Explanatory Variable: the one that may have an effect and Response variable: the outcome → Gather data → Draw conclusions Correlation does not mean causation Controlled Experiment -Form hypothesis → 3 variables:Independent variable - variable you are testing Dependent variable: outcome you are measuring Controlled variables: those you keep constant → Avoid bias: random groups, double-blind (placebo) → Draw conclusions The power of placebo not Negative and positive feedback, terminology associated with each, and examples of each Negative feedback - defense of the body Physiological parameters - set point X Sensors detect change in X Effectors try to get back to original X xamples: Body temperature , blood sugar, blood pressure e Body temperature - Set point: 37c , Sensor: Thermoreceptor , Effector: Sweat glands/muscles lood sugar - Set point: 5mmol/l, Sensor: pancreatic cells, Effector: insulin and B glucagon lood pressure - Set point: normal blood pressure, Sensor: baroreceptors, Effector: B heart and arteries Positive feedback - does not maintain homeostasis - occurs in body when amplifying a process example: childbirth our homeostasis worksheet: what homeostasis is and how (in detail) and why it is Y maintained for all the parameters discussed in class (body temperature, pH, osmolality, blood pressure, potassium concentration, calcium concentration, partial pressure of oxygen, glucose concentration) Homeostasis - Maintaining a relatively constant internal environment Why protein structure is important and what can denature it rotein structure - 2 amino acids one with carboxyl group and another with amino group P → dehydration reaction (loss of H2O) → = peptide bond of dipeptides (two peptides) Considered a polymer with infinite variety olypetide chains form a 3D protein this shape is called“conformation” P consists of 4 structures Denatures or is sensitive to - high temp, high and low pH, prions roteins set the foundation for its interactions with other molecules in the body P determining its function The pH scale and understand what it means when pH is high or low H- concentration in H+ (hydrogen ions) p Chemicals that add H+ to aqueous solutions = acid Chemicals that remove H+ from aqueous solutions = base or alkaline each unit of change in the scale is 10x change in H+ concentration ivings cells have a pH of 7.4 L cannot survive in the change of pH buffers prevent changes in pH The chemical equation for the main buffer in the body Carbonic acid-Bicarbonate buffer icarbonate buffers excess acid: B HCO3- + H+ ⇆ H2CO3 ⇆ CO2 + H2O Carbonic acid buffers excess base OH- + H2CO3 ⇆ HCO3- + H2O Which factors can affect enzyme function, how and why Temp - As temperature increases enzyme function activity increases until it reaches its ideal temp, high temperature causes the enzymes to lose shape and stop working while too cold temp causes the enzyme from functioning by decreasing activity levels H - there is an ideal pH , same for temp it can either slow down the enzyme from p functioning or it can denature it by changing the interactions of amino acids in the enzyme changing its shape concentration of enzymes - the less enzymes the less a product concentration will be oncentration of substrate - C Higher the substrate the higher the reaction rate - determines the direction of the reaction COncentration of end-product of a metabolic pathway or example F is needed for protein synthesis , but there is a condition where protein F synthesis is slowing down now the cell does not need a lot of F to do that. So the cell reduces the rate of the whole metabolic pathway. The end product (F) will inhibit Enz3 to reduce metabolic pathway when there is excess amino acid but not much of a need for protein synthesis, but when there is less amino acid and a more need for protein synthesis there will be less inhibition of an early stage enzyme to increase metabolic pathway ffected by inhibitors and activators A activators - binding a cofactor (non protein molecule) phosphorylation (adding phosphate group) inhibitors - Competitive - block active site Non-competitive - bind allosteric site and prevent function How aerobic respiration differs from fermentation Aerobic - depends on oxygen 1 molecule of glucose = many ATP molecules and CO2 and H2O respiration - metabolic processes to obtain energy from organic molecules 1 molecule of glucose = 2 ATP molecules and lactic acid Where and how ATP is made from aerobic respiration Steps to convert glucose into ATP 1. glycolysis (initial breakdown of glucose) net yield 2 pyruvate 2 atp 2 nadh glucose→ pyruvate Needs NAD+ to continue cycle if oxygen is present , oxygen oxidizes NADH+ and H+ without oxygen (fermentation), Pyruvic acid oxidizes NADH+ and H+ forming lactate and glycolysis can continue 2. transition step Pyruvate moves to mitochondria matrix → pyruvate converts to Acetyl CoA → Co released = 2 NADH 3. krebs cycle (further breakdown of glucose, fats and proteins) 2 acetyl CoA → Co2 released = 2 ATP , 6 NADH, 2 FADH 4. Oxidative phosphorylation (final step for energy production) Reducing coenzymes oxidation of coenzymes results in phosphorylation of ADP On the ETC on the inner membrane of mitochondria, reduced NAD will give 2 electrons to the first protein of the ETC oxidizing it, moving down the train , the result is that the electrons energy gets used by the proteins pumping H+ (protons) from the matrix into the intermembrane space. The beginning electrons combine with Oand H2 to make water. Oxygen is the final terminal electron acceptor. Concentration of H+ is greater in the intermembrane rather than in the matrix, this generates ATP. The enzyme ATP synthase is found on the inner mitochondrial membrane and contains and ion channel. Protons move through the channel and the energy from that ATPase creates ATP from ADP and Pi T he role of oxygen in aerobic respiration, and what happens when oxygen is not present he role of oxygen is the final acceptor in the electron transport chain which synthesizes T ATP from nutrients - if not present glycolysis continues and continues fermentation to create lactic acid W hich major atoms and molecules are found in high concentration inside versus outside the cell Which atoms and molecules can diffuse across the plasma membrane O N Proteins Nucleic acids Ions Other charged, polar or large molecules ES Y Lipids Gas Waters The major types of cellular transport Passive Diffusion Movement of permeable solute molecules across membrane from area high to low concentration Facilitated diffusion Diffusion of substances with/down their concentration gradient using a carrier protein or channel Osmosis Diffusion of water from a less concentrated to a more concentrated solution, equalizing the concentrations Active Active transport se energy to transport substances up/against a concentration gradient U using protein carriers rimary active transport - ATP is directly used to pump against the P concentration Secondary active transport - The energy needed for uphill movement of a molecule is provided by the downhill movement of another molecule endocytosis and exocytosis Large amounts of material packaged in membrane bound vesicles What happens to cells when the extracellular osmolality decreases or increases hen osmolality increases outside the cell the water will begin to exit the cell causing W crenation When osmolality decreases outside the cell the water will flood into the cell causing cytolysis (swelling) W hich direction ions will flow when membrane permeability to that ion increases, and how that will affect the membrane potential ICF and ECF fluid compositions are different NaKATPase pumps Na+ out and K+ in K+ will flow outside of the cell causing the membrane potential to become negative Na+ will flow inside the cell causing the membrane potential to become positive The neurotransmitter, channels, ions, proteins, and steps involved in excitation-contraction coupling Somatic motor neuron releases acetylcholine into the synapse between itself and the muscle cell 2 acetylcholine molecules bind to nicotinic receptors and they will change shape and open channels for sodium and potassium Na+ floods in and K+ will leak out Cell depolarizes and spreads across membrane and down T-tubules Reaches DHP receptor and changes shape and pull open Ryanodine channel and calcium diffuses out of SR into the cytosol and goes into cytoplasm and muscle contraction begins Ca2+ binds to troponin sliding tropomyosin off the binding sites of Actin for myosin to bind Myosin has the ADP Pi from previous cycle and loses them and flexes at the hinge point (powerstroke) Thin filament goes to the center of sarcomere Binding of another molecule of ATP causes myosin to detach from actin Hydrolysis of ATP → ADP Pi powers the movement of the myosin head to original state Ion channels, ion flow, and membrane potential changes in an action potential Two gradients voltage gradient and Concentration gradient Voltage gradient Na+ more (+) outside of cell , wants to go in (-) inner cell K+ more (+) inside cell but wants to go out of cell Concentration gradient Na+ → in cell K+ → outside cell xon hillock reaches threshold → fires action potential -50mV A at 50mV Na+ voltage regulated sodium gates open making the cell (+) 30mV Peak of action potential Na+ v gated channels close , K+ v gated channels open Downhill of the action potential is K+ leaving the cell and hyperpolarizes to “reset” Steps involved in signal transmission at a chemical synapse - Action potentials reach axon terminals - Voltage gated Ca2+ channels open - Ca2= binds to sensor protein in cytoplasm - Ca2+ protein complex stimulates fusion and exocytosis of neurotransmitter H ow dendrites function: postsynaptic potentials, graded potentials, and summation at the axon hillock On dendrite Neurotransmitter binding opens corresponding ligand gate or G- protein coupled ion channels Diffuses - Changes membrane potential Excitatory postsynaptic potential EPSP - depolarization Inhibitory postsynaptic potential IPSP - hyperpolarization Graded potentials from all terminals diffuse towards hillock and are summed up Organization of the central and peripheral nervous systems CNS - Brain, Spinal cord PNS - Nerves, Ganglia Brain - Cerebral cortex Performs higher functions , 2 hemispheres connected by corpus callosum 4 paired lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital,temporal ajor motor and sensory areas M Precentral gyrus-Primary motor ostcentral gyrus-Primary somato-sensory P Temporal-Sensory (Auditory) Occipital-Sensory (vision) Association areas - Language: Broca- the motor part of speech Wernicke - Understanding the language Prefrontal Cortex - planning and judgment Memory - hippocampus: deep in temporal lobe Basal nuclei Circuit for motor control and behavioral reward Thalamus Paired masses of gray matter relay center for all sensory information plays a role in sleep Hypothalamus paired masses of gray matter neural center for hunger , thirst, body temperature, hormone secretion, sleep, sex, emotions Thermostat: preoptic area Circadian rhythm: suprachiasmatic nucleus Pituitary gland Posterior and anterior release hormones Midbrain Contains nuclei of cranial nerves Contains substantia nigra: cell bodies of dopaminergic neurons Dopaminergic axons travel to: Basal nuclei - motor control forebrain - reward behavior Pons Contains nuclei of cranial nerves contains respiratory control areas connects cerebellum with motor and sensory tracts Medulla oblongata contains nuclei of cranial nerves escending and ascending fiber tracts d contains vital centers vasomotor: vessel control cardiac: heart control Respiratory: breathing control Cerebellum Coordinates movement fibers either travel to via thalamus to cortex or to brainstem nuclei affected by alcohol s pinal cord foramen magnum to L1 ascending/afferent tracts - sensory information from receptors throughout the body relayed to the brain descending/efferent - motor instructions from the brain travel down the spinal cord to peripheral nerves ascending tracts escending tracts d PNS nerves and ganglia outside the spinal cord nerves arise from brain (cranial nerves) or specific spinal nerves Spinal nerves branch into peripheral nerves that travel through the body Spinal nerves - dermatome Area of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve damage to specific spinal nerve results in sensory loss only in corresponding area Spinal nerves - myotome all muscles innervated by nerves from a specific spinal segment damage to specific spinal segment results in motor loss to the muscles it innervates xons travel throughout body in peripheral nerves: thousands of both motor and A sensory axons Structure and function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems Sympathetic nervous system - most ganglia are in sympathetic chain along spine Ganglia for digestion, urination, and reproductions in abdomen Adrenal gland medulla is itself a sympathetic ganglion secretes epinephrine as a hormone longer acting sympathetic response Action: Fight or Flight Pupil dilation Tachycardia (fast heart rate) Bronchiolar smooth muscle relaxation Digestive sphincter contraction - Digestive motility inhibition Adrenal gland stimulation Stimulates sweat glands Differentially affects blood vessels Parasympathetic nervous system - Preganglionic fibers exit brain and sacral levels Ganglia are close or within target organ our of the cranial nerves contain parasympathetic fibers F Vagus CN10 carries the majority of parasympathetic fibers throughout the body Action: Rest and Digest Pupil constriction Bradycardia (slow heart rate) Digestive sphincter relaxation Digestive secretions increase Digestive smooth muscle contraction No effect on sweat glands Little effect on blood vessels N eurotransmitters and receptors at the ganglia and targets of the autonomic nervous system Epinephrine (E) → Adrenergic Norepinephrine (NE) → Adrenergic Acetylcholine (ACh) → Cholinergic ympathetic- Preganglionic neuron releases ACh →Postganglionic neuron releases S NE,E NEUROTRANSMITTERS EFFECTS DEPEND ON RECEPTOR Cholinergic receptors - ACh Nicotinic: ligand gated ion channel , excitatory Muscarinic: G-protein coupled ion channels , excitatory or inhibitory Adrenergic receptors - E, NE all act via G proteins , excitatory or inhibitory α1 : smooth muscle stimulation of iris dilator and vessel contraction of GI, skin, and skeletal muscle arterioles (slight) β1 : found on heart and increases rate of contraction β2 : smooth muscle relaxation in bronchi, GI, and in arterioles to lungs H ow to classify therapeutic drugs by their receptor type and whether they are agonists or blockers/antagonists rugs either inhibit or stimulate ANS D gonist - mimics neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor A Blocker , Antagonist - inhibits binding of neurotransmitter to its receptor β1 blockers Heart innervated by sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers Sympathetic - heart has β1 receptors stimulation increases heart rate LOCKINGβ1 receptors caps heart rate B Adrenergic antagonist Allergies Epipen contains epinephrine increases blood pressure (reverses dangerous low blood pressure) and opens airways (alleviates wheezing) Adrenergic agonist Nasal congestion: Pseudoephedrine Nasal secretions are inhibited by sympathetic nervoussystem Ephedrine is adrenergic agonist Pupil dilation: Atropine (belladonna) Blocks muscarinic AChR Pupil dilation in eye exam, reduction of respiratory secretions during anesthesia, inhibit stomach acid secretions , stimulates heart Cholinergic agonist sthma A Chronic inflammatory disorder caused by airway hyperresponsiveness to exercise, pollen, or air quality Present with wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath Bronchoconstriction ( β2 adrenergic agonist - albuterol ) Secretions ( Cholinergic antagonist - Atrovent ) Inflammation ( Steroids ) How to classify recreational drugs by toxidrome Toxidrome - symptoms of overdose Common ANS toxidromes ympathomimetic - stimulates sympathetic nervous system S Symptoms: Tachycardia, hypertension, hyperthermia, pupil dilation, sweating Cocaine- Blocks reuptake of E,NE and dopamine Stimulant due to increased E,NE Addictive due to dopamine Can lead to heart attack and perforation of nasal septum due to altered blood flow Amphetamine/Methamphetamine Stimulates release of stored E,NE and dopamine Stimulant due to increased E,NE Addictive due to increased dopamine ide effects - loss of appetite, tachycardia, anxiety S Ephedra Releases stored norepinephrine , stimulant weight loss and athletic performance side effects- tachycardia, hyperthermia, stroke, death holinergic - stimulates parasympathetic nervous system C due to effects via muscarinic effectors Symptoms - salivation , tears, urination, defecation, gastrointestinal distress, emesis (vomiting) mushrooms cholinergic agonist binds muscarinic AChR Stimulates parasympathetic nervous system can cause a deadly decline in heart rate and blood pressure can cause deadly decline in heart rate and blood pressure nticholinergic - inhibits parasympathetic nervous system A Symptoms - tachycardia, hypertension, hyperthermia,pupil dilation, dry skin ntimuscarinic: atropine, benadryl, dramamine, tricyclic, antidepressants, scopolamine, A jimson weed Antinicotinic: skeletal muscle relaxants The types of sensory receptor cells Specialized cells chemoreceptors thermoreceptors photoreceptors mechanoreceptors nociceptors common concepts receptive field: areas whose stimulation results in firing of one neuron small receptive field - good acuity small receptive field - more brain real estate ateral inhibition: Sensory neurons most stimulated inhibit neighboring L sensory neurons via interneurons sharpens sensations illusions the brain receives action potentials from throughout the body these actions do not always represent reality How each of your senses works cutaneous sensations - mediated by dendritic nerves endings of sensory neurons Action potential sent via medial lemniscal and lateral spinothalamic tracts to somatosensory cortex Sensations include Touch, pressure,vibrations (mechanoreceptors) sensor - mechanoreceptors deformation of the capsule or nerve endings opens pressure sensitive sodium channels temperature (thermoreceptors) sensor - thermoreceptors hot sensed by “capsaicin receptors” ion channel heat opens ion channel, sodium enters, signal to brain “hot” cold sensed by “menthol receptor” cold opens ion channels, signal to brain “cold” Pain (nociceptors) sensor - nociceptive cells responding to chemical, temperature or mechanical stimulus Illusion: referred pain: brain interprets pain from region without stimulus Taste sensation- chemoreceptors in taste buds gustatory receptors on microvilli of taste cells ligand binds: taste cell depolarizes, produces action potential, releases neurotransmitter sensory neurons of cranial 7,9,12 send action potentials to brainstem, then thalamus, then gustatory cortex Each taste cell responds to- Salt (sodium) Sour (H+) Sweet (sugar) bitter (quinine) umami (glutamate) Olfaction Chemoreceptor cells in olfactory epithelium 350 different odorant receptors on cilia of these olfactory neurons each olfactory neurons expresses only one type of receptor ligand binds, neuron depolarizes, produces action potentials, releases neurotransmitter stimulates neurons in CN1 which send action to olfactory cortex Vestibular eceptor cells are mechanoreceptors : hair cells R Otolith organs: linear acceleration hair cells project into fluid filled interior hairs covered by otolithic membrane with calcium carbonate crystals otoliths have high inertia emicircular canals: rotation S bony labyrinth filled with fluid endolymph hair cells embedded in gelatinous cupula air cells stimulate neurons in CN8 , signal to brainstem, synapse with neurons h projecting to spinal cord, thalamus, cerebellum, and eye muscles during spin eyes track opposite: vestibulo-ocular reflex Auditory System Sound waves enter out ear and cause tympanic vibration Vibration via malleus, incus, and stapes to oval window oval window vibrations displace fluid inside the cochlea Cochlea contains 3 fluid filled ducts Scala vestibuli-receives pressure at oval window Cochlear duct- has hair cells Scala tympani- releases pressure at round window Fluid waves cause hair cell stimulation in cochlear duct High volume more shear force between basilar and tectorial membrane Hair cells bend more More neurotransmitter released ision V Cornea - light passes through here Pupil- light then passes through here Iris- muscle that controls how much light passes Lens-focuses the light on the retina Retina: neural layer of photoreceptor cells Optic disc: neurons gather together to exit eye Optic nerve Retina has several layers of neurons etinal ganglion cells - sends signals to brain R Bipolar cells Photoreceptor cells- Rods - low light located in periphery of retina sensitive to low light absorb light in the green wavelengths large ratio of rods in RGCs cones- color stimulated by bright light three: blue, green, red each contains a unique photopigment concentrated in fovea centralis 1:1 ratios to RGCs Photopigments in rod/cones discs light dissociates photopigments Dissociation alters membrane potential ark - D Rods/cones constantly inhibit bipolar neurons ight - L Rhodopsin /iodopsin dissociates G protein closes sodium channels cell hyperpolarizes bipolar inhibition reversed RGCs stimulated Action potential sent to thalamus, and then visual cortex T he hormones that are part of the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system and their actions Two connected capillary beds Hypothalamic neurons secrete “releasing hormones” into first capillary bed Releasing hormones travel to second capillary bed in anterior pituitary Stimulate release of “trophic hormones” ypothalamus : releasing hormone H Anterior pituitary : trophic hormone acts on organs Hypothalamic- pituitary-thyroid axis Hypothalamus - TRH Ant pituitary - TSH Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and secrete T4 hyrotropin - releasing hormone TRH T Thyroid stimulating hormone TSH ypothalamic- pituitary-thyroid axis H Hypothalamus - Corticotropin releasing hormone CRH Ant pituitary - Adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH timulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids (cortisol) S orticotropin releasing hormone CRH C Adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH ypothalamus - Gonadotropin releasing hormone GnRH H Anterior pituitary - Follicle stimulating hormone FSH and Luteinizing hormone LH Females: FSH ovarian follicles (estrogen, progesterone) , LH oocyte ovulation Males: FSH spermatogenesis, LH testosterone onadotropin releasing hormone GnRH G Follicle stimulating hormone FSH and Luteinizing hormone LH Hypothalamus- Prolactin inhibiting hormone PIH, Prolactin releasing hormone PRH Anterior pituitary - Prolactin (inhibited) Prolactin stimulates milk production in mammary glands rolactin inhibiting hormone PIH, Prolactin releasing hormone PRH P Prolactin (inhibited) Hypothalamus- Growth hormone releasing hormone GHRH nterior pituitary-Growth hormone A romotes movement of amino acids into cells (resulting in growth of tissue) P rowth hormone releasing hormone GHRH G Growth hormone Negative feedback inhibition of hormones and its consequences ypothalamic- pituitary-thyroid axis H Hypothalamus - Corticotropin releasing hormone CRH Ant pituitary - Adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH timulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids (cortisol) S ypothalamus - Gonadotropin releasing hormone GnRH H Anterior pituitary - Follicle stimulating hormone FSH and Luteinizing hormone LH Females: FSH ovarian follicles (estrogen, progesterone) , LH oocyte ovulation Males: FSH spermatogenesis, LH testosterone Male reproductive structures and functions Anatomy: Penis Urethra Scrotum Testis -Contain seminiferous tubules -Tubules lined with Sertoli cells (where sperm is made and released into lumen) -Leydig cells produce testosterone Epididymis Vas deferens Prostate Seminal vesicle Accessory sex organs: Wolffian ducts develop into male ducts Testis Determining Factor (TDH)= testes 8 week testes secreteTestosterone: -encourages Wolffian ducts -Müllerian inhibition factor (MIF)= regresses Müllerian ducts -epididymides, ductus deferentia, ejaculatory ducts - prostate, penis, scrotum Female reproductive structures and functions Default gender Anatomy: Vagina Cervix- dilate during labor Uterus- fertilization/egg is implanted Endometrium- protection for potential fetus; sloughs off during menstruation Oviducts/uterine or fallopian tubes Ovaries- hold oocytes in follicles and release if fertilized S tructural, hormonal, follicular, and oocytic components of the menstrual cycle -28 day cycle of fertility - monarch to menopause 1.Follicular phase: menstruation until ovulation Prepares follicles and oocytes 1. GnRH stimulates FSH 2. 10-20 primary follicles develop into secondary follicles 3. Secondary follicles release estradiol 4. 1 follicle becomes Graafian 5. Primary occyte to secondary 6. Estradiol acts positively to increase LH release 7. LH finalizes follicle maturation 8. Ends follicular phase Ovulation After LH surge, secondary oocyte with corona radiata ovulated uterine tubes 2.Luteal phase: ovulation until menstruation Prepares uterine lining 1. Empty follicle to corpus luteum 2. Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estradiol 3. Progesterone and estradiol have negative feedback on LH and FSH 4. Corpus luteum regresses and hormone levels drop 5. Menstruation, GnRH rises Oogenesis Follicles in ovaries: -Primary oocytes in primary follicles -Each menstrual cycle 10-20 follicles enlarge to secondary 1-2 follicles become dominant Graafian with corona radiata -Encourages primary oocyte to become secondary After ovulation (oocyte release): -Follicle becomes corpus luteum -Shrivels to corpus albicans After birth, primary oocytes continuously degenerate (only 400,000 primary oocytes left by puberty) + 400 ovulate in menstrual cycles Oogenesis ends at menopause W here and how molecules are digested and absorbed in the digestive system Mouth Mastication: mixes bolus with saliva Saliva: mucus, antimicrobial agents, salivary amylase Polysaccharide digestion Swallowing: epiglottis covers larynx Stomach Stores food Makes pepsinogen for protein digestion Makes intrinsic factor (for intestinal Vit B12 absorption) Secretes acid HCl - decreases pH to less than 2 - Denatures proteins - Halts microbial growth - Activates pepsinogen Small Intestine Duodenum and Jejunum – digestion due to brush border and pancreatic enzymes, absorption of carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, calcium, iron Ileum – absorption of bile salts, vitamin B12, water, electrolytes Microvilli contains digestive enzymes Large intestine Intestinal microflora: Produce vitamins B and K Ferment indigestible molecules The function of the accessory organs Accessory digestive organs: 1. Liver Detoxification of blood Carbohydrate metabolism Lipid metabolism Protein synthesis Secretion of bile 2. Gallbladder Stores and concentrates bile Ejects bile into duodenum 3. Pancreas Exocrine – pancreatic juice (HCO3-/basic) into duodenum -Pancreatic amylase (digests carbohydrates) -Trypsin (digests protein) -Pancreatic lipase (digests lipids) Endocrine – islets of Langerhans The structures and hormones involved in calcium homeostasis keleton major storage of calcium S Bone deposition: osteoblasts Bone destruction: osteoclasts Hormones regulating bone density: 1. Vitamin D3 -Stimulates intestinal absorption of calcium -Made in skin after sun exposure, or ingested 2. Parathyroid hormone (PTH): stimulated by low plasma calcium -Stimulates osteoclasts to release calcium, kidneys to retain calcium, and intestines to absorb calcium -Promotes formation of Vitamin D3 -Decreases serum phosphate 3. Calcitonin: stimulated by high plasma calcium: -Inhibits destruction of bone -Stimulates excretion of calcium in urine 4. Estrogen & Testosterone -Stimulate osteoblasts -Inhibit osteoclasts H ow systole/diastole affect pressure, valve opening, and blood flow over the course of a cardiac cycle in a ventricle Systole – contraction Diastole – relaxation Both atria fill and contract simultaneously Both ventricles fill and contract simultaneously Atrial contraction occurs before ventricular contraction entricular Events: V M – A-V valve opens 1 – Ventricle fills N – Systole begins, A-V valve closes *lub 2 - Isovolumetric contraction O- Semilunar valve opens 3 - Ejection L - Diastole begins, semilunar valve closes *dub 4 – Isovolumetric relaxation M – A-V valve opens T he components (channels, ions, membrane potential changes) of an action potential in cardiac myocytes -RMP = -85mV -Stimulated by pacemaker cells -V-gated Na+ channels + Fast V-gated K+ channels open -Plateau phase due to opening of slow V- gated Ca++ channels (balances K+ channels) -Repolarization due to slow V-gated K+ channels Concentration of Ca++ in cytoplasm lowered by: Ca++ATPase in SR Na+Ca++ exchanger in plasma membrane Drugs affecting transporters increase amount of Ca++ in cytoplasm, which increases strength of contraction T he components (channels, ions, membrane potential changes) of an action potential in pacemaker cells Spontaneously depolarize Due to V-gated ion channels stimulated by hyperpolarization Allows Na+ and K+ flux At threshold, V-gated Ca++ channels open Causes contraction Repolarization due to V-gated K+ channels HCN channels: Also open in response to cAMP made by catecholamine (E, NE) binding to β-1 receptors “Hyperpolarization cyclic nucleotide” ction potentials originate in SA node (fastest firing rate) A Spread through R and L atrial myocytes (atrial contraction) Signal passes from SA node to AV node (AV nodal delay) Through bundle of His Through Purkinje fibers To R and L ventricles (ventricular contraction) Starling’s forces and the formula for net filtration Net filtration = Filtration pressures – absorption pressures __________= ( Pc + πi ) - ( Pi + πc ) Some factors that can cause edema, and how they affect Starling’s forces Lymphatic vessels absorb excess interstitial fluid and transport this “lymph” into veins Edema: fluid retention in interstitium 1. Plasma protein leakage into interstitial fluid -colloid osmotic pressure in interstitial tissue rises (πi) = increase in net filtration 2. Decreased plasma protein concentration (remember albumins, kwashiorkor) -decrease in colloid osmotic pressure in the capillaries (πc) = increase net filtration 3. Congestive heart failure with blood pooling in capillary beds -increase hydrostatic pressure in the capillaries (Pc) = increase net filtration T he neural activity, muscular activity, thoracic volume changes, intrapulmonary pressure changes, and resulting air flow during quiet inspiration and exhalation, and forced inspiration and exhalation Inspiration: Quiet -Diaphragm contracts – lowers and flattens -External and parasternal intercostals - lift ribs Forced -Scalenes, pectoralis minor, sternocleidomastoid muscles also active horacic volume increases, intrapulmonary pressure decreases < atmospheric, air T enters lungs xhalation: E Quiet -Passive – elastic recoil Forced -Abdominal muscles force organs up against diaphragm horacic volume decreases, intrapulmonary pressure increases > atmospheric, air T forced out H ow and why the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide change across the cardiovascular system Systemic veins to pulmonary arteries PO2: 40 PCO2: 46 —> capillaries—> PO2: 105 PCO2: 40 Pulmonary veins to systemic arteries PO2: 100 PCO2: 40 -PO2 decreases because O2 diffuses into blood -PCO2 increases because CO2 diffuses from blood to alveolus hy are PO2 low and PCO2 high in systemic veins? W Where does the CO2 come from? Where does the O2 go? CELLULAR RESPIRATION How oxygen is transported in blood Transported by hemoglobin O2 + Hb HbO2 -4 polypeptide chains: “globins” -Each heme can combine with one oxygen molecule -Each RBC can carry over 1 billion oxygen atoms T he factors that affect affinity of oxygen for hemoglobin, and how those affect oxygen transport Loading (lungs)/unloading (tissues) occurs due to changing affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen Affinity of oxygen for hemoglobin depends on: PO2 of environment pH 2,3-DPG -An intermediate of glycolysis -RBCs produce more 2,3-DPG when PO2 is low -Changes hemoglobin conformation; decreases affinity -Changes shape of curve Temperature -High temp. increases molecular energy, decreases affinity -Low temp. decreases molecular energy, increases affinity The oxyhemoglobin saturation curve Oxyhemoglobin saturation curve: at a given PO2, what percent of hemoglobin has oxygen bound? Higher PO2 = greater affinity of oxygen for hemoglobin teep part of curve: sensitive S Mild exercise: tissue PO2=30 mmHg, percent saturation 55% Increases unloading Heavy exercise: can unload as much as 80% of oxygen How breathing rate changes pH Oxygen affinity for hemoglobin depends on pH: Deviations in pH from 7.4 alter shape of curve Active skeletal muscle have low pH, which decreases hemoglobin affinity for oxygen: “Bohr effect” Result: greater unloading in tissues Right shift: low affinity for O2 Left shift: high affinity for O2 T he role of the hypertonic medulla in driving water reabsorption from the collecting duct, and how that enables the body to maintain homeostasis of osmolality Collecting Duct (and vasa recta): reabsorbs water Renal medulla hypertonic -Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from posterior pituitary inserts aquaporins (water channels) into collecting duct Water leaves nephron by osmosis; urine volume decreases T he hormones that affect blood volume and blood osmolality, and the mechanisms for each homeostasis of blood osmolality Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): -Stimulated by increased plasma osmolality -Released from posterior pituitary -Increases water reabsorption in collecting duct “-Diuresis” –water excretion Increase Blood Volume 1. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) – water and sodium reabsorption, thirst, vasoconstriction -Signal: low blood volume or sympathetic stimulation -Juxtaglomerular apparatus secretes renin into afferent arteriole -Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I - Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in lungs converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II —>causes vasoconstriction, aldosterone secretion (adrenal cortex), and thirst -Aldosterone stimulated by angiotensin II or high K, increases Na and water reabsorption and K and H secretion in DCT Decrease Blood Volume 2. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) – water and sodium excretion “Natriuresis” – excretion of sodium -Stretch receptors in atria release ANP in response to high blood volume -Stimulates vasodilation of afferent arteriole of glomerulus, increasing GFR -Inhibits sodium reabsorption in the proximal and distal convoluted tubule, increasing excretion of sodium and water -Inhibits renin, aldosterone, ADH release The causes and compensations for the 4 acid-base disorders Respiratory Acidosis Cause: hypoventilation (trauma to brainstem, respiratory obstructive disorder, pulmonary edema, pneumothorax) Compensation renal: Secrete H+ and reabsorb HCO3- ABGs: low pH high PCO2 (problem) high HCO3- (compensation) Respiratory Alkalosis Most common acid-base disorder Cause: hyperventilation (high altitude, hypoxia in heart failure, anxiety) Compensation renal: Reabsorb H+ and secrete HCO3- ABGs: high pH low PCO2 (problem) low HCO3- (compensation) Metabolic Acidosis Cause: low bicarbonate from diarrhea, or excess nonvolatile acids from renal dysfunction, organ failure with lactic acid release, diabetic ketoacidosis, or starvation ketosis Compensation respiratory: hyperventilation, increased renal H+ secretion and HCO3- reabsorption if possible ABGs: low pH low HCO3- (problem) low PCO2 (compensation) Metabolic Alkalosis Cause: excess bicarbonate from alkaline drugs, or loss of nonvolatile acids from excess vomiting or diuretics Compensation respiratory: hypoventilation (though limited by hypoxia) and renal HCO3- secretion and H+ reabsorption ABGs: high pH high HCO3- (problem) high PCO2 (compensation) T he importance of electrolyte balance and how/why the kidneys maintain this balance for Na+, K+, and Ca++ 1. Sodium: maintains extracellular osmolality a) Hyponatremia – cytolysis b) Hypernatremia – crenation Regulation: aldosterone promotes sodium reabsorption 2. Potassium: determines resting membrane potential a) Hypokalemia – hyperpolarizes membranes b) Hyperkalemia – depolarizes membranes Regulation: aldosterone promotes potassium secretion 3. Calcium: muscle contraction, cell signaling, **inhibits V-gated Na channels a)Hypocalcemia – more action potentials b) Hypercalcemia – fewer action potentials Regulation: PTH stimulates calcium reabsorption and phosphate excretion; Calcitonin decreases renal reabsorption of calcium= increase urine volume The steps involved in the acquired/adaptive immune response Active Immunity Primary response: 5-10 days before measurable antibodies appear, memory cells remain Secondary response: maximum antibody concentration in hours Passive Immunity Transfer of antibodies from one person to another -Antiserums for tetanus, hepatitis, rabies, snake venom -IgG antibodies cross placenta during pregnancy -Baby can receive minimal IgAs through breast milk Gradually disappears because proteins get consumed due to no memory cells Critical evaluation of scientific studies (from lab) Biological significance -Males -Females -Both Scope of inference study population (gender, age, study purpose) study design -controlled -observational -limitations? External Validity relevancy to a population
