Final Exam Study Guide PDF

Reading = Subheading = Concept = Key = Final Exam Study Guide Fook. J (Power) Power, problems with modernist conceptions of power 1 5 forms of power Power as a Commodity see’s power at a comm...

Reading = Subheading = Concept = Key = Final Exam Study Guide Fook. J (Power) Power, problems with modernist conceptions of power 1 5 forms of power Power as a Commodity see’s power at a commodity = it can be traded or given away issue = empowerment is always at the expense of someone else or another group potential to put people/groups against each other see’s there is limited power = who can be empowered, who takes priority, who is at a disadvantage Binary Oppositional Relations splits power as the powerful and powerless Issue = Has the potential for service users be characterized as a powerless group & leads to divides which makes achieving power more hard shifting of power between groups can lead to blame & responsibility being placed directing blame to one group can draw the attention of the problematic, social practises and structures Allowance for Difference Assumes that we striving for equality, about reducing inequalities equality = sameness empowerment = all people/groups become the same issue wth this, leaves little room for personal choice & social differences striving for sameness might lead to silencing may devalue some marginal groups while giving strength and power to the dominant groups = ignores personal experience Accounting for Contradictions Individuals may make choices that don’t resonate with their beliefs because the available options are shaped by dominant courses that don’t relate to their realities making choices that go against your beliefs because you have no other options/choices are not always as clear as they seem may seem as though individuals are selling out in order to be comfortable and not worrying about their empowerments The Disempowering Experience of Empowerment being given power may not be experienced as empowering, but may have disempowering effects empowerment is not always effective how can we exercise power without creating intimidating circumstances? when empowering we create disadvantages = disempowerment we must construct ideas that will support our differences & experiences Risk of empowerment when empowering, we have to be careful to ensure we are not taking their voice away and doing all the empowering one person’s empowerment might be another person disempowerment Must be aware when addressing multiple groups to ensure they are all being addressed adequately Be aware of self-help & empowerment danger of dilution - from empowerment to enablement addressing too many target groups and addressing none adequately Problems with modernist conceptions of power Power as Commodity Modernist views conceptualize power as something that can be possessed, traded, or transferred assumes power is finite and one group’s empowerment comes at the expense of another. For example, empowering Theo might disempower others, like the female social worker or Charles. This zero-sum approach overlooks collaborative possibilities Binary Oppositional Relations Power is often understood in binary terms—powerful versus powerless—where groups are positioned in opposition This oversimplifies relationships and ignores nuances. It can also disempower individuals who are labeled as powerless since the process of empowerment may seem unacceptable Allowance for Difference Modernist frameworks often equate equality with sameness, ignoring differences in social, cultural, or personal contexts. For example, striving for empowerment could silence diverse perspectives or enforce mainstream ideals, making marginalized groups conform to dominant standards Accounting for Contradictions Modernist views struggle to explain contradictions, such as when disadvantaged individuals comply with oppressive systems This phenomenon—sometimes termed false consciousness—reflects how empowerment strategies may not resonate with individuals’ lived experiences or choice The Disempowering Experience of Empowerment Efforts to empower can sometimes have the opposite effect, especially if they are paternalistic or fail to respect the autonomy of those they aim to help For instance, defining someone solely as "disempowered" or imposing empowerment strategies without their input can be dehumanizing. These limitations point to the need for a more dynamic, relational, and contextual understanding of power—one that acknowledges power as something exercised through relationships rather than possessed. Fook advocates for a Foucauldian approach, emphasizing that power can be both productive and repressive, is contextual, and can be created through collaborative processes rather than opposition. Martinez, S. Re-inventing Social Work, Social Order 1 reinventing, social work = challenging, oppressive structures, like capitalism, patriarchy, and colonialism, uphold the current social order social order = social work is to embrace its political dimensions to foster social justice and actively transformed society when social work fails to challenge power dynamics, it risks becoming complicit in maintaining systems of inequality and oppression instead of promoting real change Collective Action = Reinventing social work means promoting collective, liberating practices that challenge oppressive systems instead of reinforcing them Diversity = Recognizing and valuing diverse perspectives is key to effective, human-centered practice Social work must move beyond individual assistance, engaging politically to address systemic inequality and foster collective action for true social change Social order is a human construct and can change, challenging the notion of inevitability Martinez claims we can’t promote self-dignity and worth of persons without addressing these issues of inequality of wealth distribution and power Martinez argues that reinventing social work requires addressing social order through a political lens Social work should confront inequality, exploitation, and power dynamics instead of focusing solely on individual support. radical redistribution of wealth and collective action are necessary to achieve social justice social work must prioritize structural change and human dignity, challenging oppressive systems, while actively participating in the transformation of societal structures Edgardo Lander calls for radical redistribution of wealth and transfer of resources Power is fluid and circulates within relationships, and social order is a human construct, not a fixed state Social work should promote human dignity by challenging systems of exploitation and domination Allen, W. S White woman’s tears, responses, challenging, cultural scripts 2 White woman’s tears Emotional weaponization white women tears often stem from guilt, shame, discomfort and are weaponized to recenter attention on themselves framing them as victims deserving protection while exempting them to accountability for the harm caused in short used as a weapon and shuts down accountability Learned urge to “help” Example of harm = calling 911 for help escalates into criminalizing racialized individuals, which is often done in the eye of safety, ends up perpetrating systemic harm Reinforcing power dynamics Tears invoke protection from white men in systems of authority often framing, indigenous, black, and other regionalized individuals as threats, which leads to further marginalization and violence against them Challenging cultural scripts Interrogating Learned Behaviours White women are encouraged to examine how they are socialized to become "good white [settler] girls" through cultural scripts that promote benevolence, innocence, and protection, often at the expense of marginalized groups Understanding Complicity reflecting on how these behaviors are rooted in colonial history and uphold the settler-colonial project by marginalizing Indigenous, Black, and racialized individuals Developing Racial Literacy white women should cultivate racial literacy to question internalized scripts, avoid paternalistic "help," and recognize the agency of marginalized individuals Emotional Regulation instead of reacting with tears, focus on emotional self-regulation and prioritize repairing harm based on the needs of those affected This critique emphasizes moving beyond performative guilt to active accountability, with a focus on disrupting the systemic dynamics that sustain settler-colonial and white supremacist structures Responses accountability, and reflection Tracing historical lineages Regulating emotionally Cultivating racial literacy centering, indigenous sovereignty voices de scripting, “good white, settler girl” behaviours Building networks of care Key take away The focus is on moving from performative responses (e.g., crying, guilt) to actionable steps that dismantle oppressive systems and support the sovereignty, safety, and autonomy of Indigenous and racialized communities. By doing so, white women can actively disrupt colonial and racialized patterns rather than perpetuating them Yellowhead institution Land alienation, challenges to patriarchy, woman/transgender, gender diverse, two spirit people 2 Land Alienation colonial dispossession alienation of Indigenous land is not only physical but also deeply connected to the loss of culture, governance, and relationality colonial state treats land like a product to be owned and exploited, ignoring its deep spiritual and mutual connection to Indigenous communities Impact on Gendered and Community Roles alienation disrupts traditional roles and responsibilities tied to land stewardship, including those held by women, Two-Spirit, and gender-diverse individuals undermines systems of care and governance that rely on collective, inclusive relationships with the land Challenging Patriarchy Colonial Patriarchy Colonial laws like the Indian Act forced patriarchal systems onto Indigenous communities, replacing their traditional matriarchal and equal ways of governing These systems centralized power in male-dominated hierarchies, marginalizing women and gender-diverse people Restoring Balance Challenging land alienation involves dismantling both colonialism and patriarchy Reclaiming land is tied to reasserting traditional gender roles and values that honor the leadership and contributions of women, Two- Spirit, and gender-diverse individuals Indigenous Women, Two-Spirit, Transgender, and Gender-Diverse People Leadership and Resistance Indigenous women and gender-diverse people are often at the forefront of land defense movements, advocating for environmental protection and cultural resurgence Their roles challenge colonial narratives that seek to erase their contributions and voices in governance and community leadership Connection to Land For Two-Spirit, transgender, and gender-diverse people, reclaiming land is intrinsically tied to reclaiming identities and disrupting the binary gender constructs imposed by colonial systems. Land is a source of healing and resilience, offering a space to thrive outside of settler-imposed norms and systems of oppression Intersections of Land, Gender, and Justice Two-Spirit and Gender-Diverse Realities Including Two-Spirit and gender-diverse individuals in reclaiming land and leadership challenges colonial ideas about identity and power The fight for land back is also a fight to create spaces that respect diverse gender and sexual identities, opposing colonial and patriarchal erasure Restorative Pathways Decolonization efforts must prioritize creating inclusive systems that restore traditional roles for women, Two-Spirit, transgender, and gender-diverse people Policies and practices should recognize their unique perspectives and leadership in fostering sustainable relationships with the land Key takeaways highlights how land alienation disconnects Indigenous communities from their cultural, spiritual, and reciprocal relationships with the land Colonial systems, like the Indian Act, forced patriarchal rules that sidelined Indigenous women, Two-Spirit, transgender, and gender- diverse people, replacing their traditional, equal leadership structures reclaiming land involves restoring these roles, honoring diverse identities, and resisting both colonial and patriarchal erasure emphasizes the leadership of women and gender-diverse individuals in land defense and the importance of creating inclusive spaces that celebrate their contributions and identities Symington Intersectionality, intersections, doing intersectionality 3 Intersectionality Exposes how systems like patriarchy, racism, and classism intersect, creating unique inequalities. Advocates for bottom-up research and advocacy, considering intersecting factors to address discrimination effectively Emphasizes a comprehensive view to better address complex social justice issues Tool for Analysis and Advocacy intersectionality helps to understand how overlapping identities (gender, race, class, etc.) interact to shape experiences of discrimination and access to rights and opportunities Addresses Multiple Discriminations It challenges the limitation of single-category frameworks by considering how various forms of oppression intersect in people’s lives Focus on Structural Inequality Emphasizes the importance of identifying and addressing the systems that create and sustain inequalities, such as patriarchy, racism, and colonialism Intersections Multiple Dimensions of Identity Intersections refer to the overlapping aspects of a person’s identity (e.g., race, gender, class) and how these factors combine to shape their experiences Complex and Dynamic These intersections create unique experiences of oppression that cannot be understood by isolating each category Broader Understanding of Inequality By examining intersections, we gain a fuller understanding of how different forms of marginalization are connected Doing Intersectionality Thinking Differently It requires a shift in thinking, focusing on complexity, dynamic processes, and the structures that define access to rights and opportunities, rather than isolated categories Bottom-Up Approach Focuses on lived experiences, gathering data from marginalized groups, and considering their specific needs when designing policies and interventions Contextualized Analysis Calls for an approach that incorporates personal accounts, disaggregated data, and an understanding of how policies affect different groups in distinct ways Goal of Overcoming Discrimination The ultimate goal of intersectionality is to overcome discrimination, ensuring that all people, regardless of their intersecting identities, have equal human rights Focus on Complexities and Context Complexity and Dynamic Processes Intersectionality requires us to focus on the complexity of identities and the structures that define access to rights and opportunities, rather than isolating issues into categories Economic, Social, and Cultural Context It involves considering a complete picture of the social, economic, political, and cultural factors that shape discrimination and marginalization Intersectionality as a Feminist Theory and Framework Feminist Theory Intersectionality is rooted in feminist theory, which critically examines how systems of power, such as patriarchy and colonialism, intersect with race, gender, and other social categories to shape people's experiences Theoretical Framework As a theoretical framework, it challenges simplistic views of oppression by positing that the combination of identities doesn’t just add burdens but creates distinct experiences of marginalization Global Perspective and Human Rights Understanding Oppression and Privilege Intersectionality allows us to understand the global scope of oppression and privilege, linking these concepts to larger social, economic, and political structures Human Rights The framework is used to build arguments for substantive equality, emphasizing that human rights are inseparable from the rights of marginalized groups, such as women, Indigenous peoples, and people of color Real-World Application Intersectional Analysis of Policies It looks at how policies affect the experiences of individuals, understanding that a woman from different class, race, or cultural backgrounds will face unique challenges, even within the same policy contex Logic & Others Coping with stigma, challenging stigma, intersecting stigma, research methods 3 Coping with Stigma Resilience (Micro Level) Personal attributes like optimism, problem-solving, and spirituality are highlighted as key coping mechanisms Examples include using prayer, maintaining hope, and practicing self-determination Social Networks and Support Groups (Meso Level) Peer support and shared experiences are essential for reducing isolation and fostering strength Participants stressed the value of having spaces to connect with others who understand their experiences Challenging Stigma (Macro Level) Involves political action, advocacy, and education to reduce stigma. Participants advocated for empowerment through speaking out and demanding equitable treatment in healthcare and services Challenging Stigma Empowerment women called for their active involvement in shaping healthcare polices & research emphasized the importance of advocating for oneself and others to dismantle stereotypes and systemic biases Community and educational interventions proposed initiatives to educate communities about HIV and stigma to challenge harmful beliefs suggested promoting understanding of diverse identities to address intersecting stigma Structural interventions highlighted the need for anti discrimination training in healthcare and social services advocated for services tailored to the needs of women, including those of different ethnicities, sexual orientation, gender identities Intersecting Stigma Types of stigma HIV related stigma overlaps with racism sexism, homophobia, transphobia, and sex work stigma operate at various levels micro = internalized stigma and interpersonal discrimination meso = community norms that exclude or ostracize macro = structural inequalities in health care and employment Impact Marginalized identities compound experiences of stigma For example, Black women, sex workers, and LGBTQ+ individuals face unique challenges exacerbated by multiple forms of discrimination. Intersectionality The study employs an intersectional approach, showing how overlapping stigmas produce distinct forms of oppression Advocates for addressing these complexities in health services and policies Research Methods Community-Based Qualitative Approach Focus groups were conducted across five cities with diverse HIV-positive women (e.g., racial minorities, LGBTQ+, sex workers) Peer research assistants (HIV-positive women) helped design and facilitate the study to ensure inclusivity and representation. Data Collection Semistructured interviews explored challenges, strengths, and silenced topics in participants' lives Thematic analysis identified patterns of stigma and coping across micro, meso, and macro levels. Strengths and Limitations Strength: Diverse participant pool provided rich insights into intersectional stigma Limitation: Nonrandom sampling and small focus groups reduced generalizability. Fook J (Discourse) Discourse, ideology, language 4 Discourse Definition Discourse refers to the ways we construct and make meaning of our world through language, symbols, and communication systems (verbal or non-verbal) It's not just about speaking but about how power and knowledge are organized and perpetuated in society. Key Concepts Discourse shapes our understanding of reality, influencing how we perceive social arrangements, identities, and power structures Rooted in Foucault’s ideas, discourse connects knowledge, practices, and power relations in society. Role in Power and Identity Power operates through dominant discourses that normalize certain ways of thinking while marginalizing others For example, discourses around "professionalism" in social work define behaviors and practices, maintaining hierarchies within the profession. Critical Insight By analyzing discourse, we can see how our identities and realities are constructed and locate areas where dominant norms can be challenged Ideology Definition Ideology refers to the ideas and processes that maintain the social structure and define individuals' places within it. It has both content (what we believe) and processes (how those beliefs are maintained). Functions Ideology works at three levels: Practical: Influences behaviors (e.g., social workers behaving "professionally"). Theoretical: Provides rationalizations for those behaviors (e.g., belief in professional expertise). Institutional: Organizes and enforces those ideas systematically (e.g., professional codes or policies). Limitations Ideology often oversimplifies power relations, assuming a binary of domination and subordination. It may not account for multiple perspectives or contradictions, such as a belief serving both empowering and disempowering functions simultaneously Language Definition Language is the tool through which discourse operates. It’s not neutral—it reflects and enforces power structures. The words and labels we choose shape what is emphasized, silenced, or given importance. Key Points Language creates categories, which often carry implicit hierarchies or assumptions (e.g., "social work" as a label emphasizes certain roles and excludes others). The gap between what we mean to say and how we say it allows room for interpretation and contestation, making language inherently political. Connection to Power Those who control language and discourse have the power to define meaning, reinforcing dominant ideologies. For instance, framing social work as "counseling" can align it with psychology, potentially devaluing its broader social justice role. Healy Language, discourse analysis, activist practice, local relations 4 Language Language is not a neutral tool but an active force that constructs social realities like identities, power, and relationships. It doesn’t merely describe; it shapes how people think, act, and feel about phenomena such as poverty or violence. For example, activist social work uses language to empower marginalized groups by reframing their experiences through structural analysis rather than individual blame Discourse Analysis investigates how language shapes and reflects power dynamics, identities, and knowledge. the authors combine poststructural discourse analysis and conversation analysis to study how power operates in activist social work. Poststructural Approach: Focuses on how discourse creates possibilities for certain thoughts, actions, and relationships while excluding others. Example: Discussions in activist settings might empower participants to see systemic links between their struggles and societal structures Conversation Analysis: Examines how people use talk to establish social realities, such as who has the right to speak or how silence can reflect power shifts Example: In meetings, participants’ frequent interruptions and self-selection to speak show their empowerment in shaping discussions Activist Practice Activist social work aligns workers with oppressed groups to challenge inequities and foster empowerment The study demonstrates the complexities of activist practice, such as the tension between egalitarian ideals and the reality that workers still hold power to guide processes Workers often use subtle forms of power, like encouraging quieter voices or organizing action-reflection cycles, to support participants without overtly dominating Local Relations Activist social work emphasizes local dynamics rather than only broad societal structures (e.g., capitalism or patriarchy). highlights that power operates differently in local contexts Service users may hold specific forms of knowledge or influence (e.g., “street smarts”) that shift traditional power hierarchies Workers’ use of informal language and equalizing strategies fosters trust and participation but doesn’t entirely eliminate asymmetries. Example: In group discussions, competition for speaking turns illustrates how power is negotiated locally, with participants actively shaping the process while workers subtly facilitate balance Parker social differences, social processes of stigmatization and discrimination 5 Social Differences and Stigma Stigma is tied to the production of social differences, reinforcing inequalities based on class, race, gender, and sexuality. It reflects societal power structures where certain groups are devalued, and others assert dominance highlights how stigma reinforces and reproduces social inequalities, particularly those of class, race, gender, and sexuality, and is linked to the reproduction of power dynamics Stigmatization as a Social Process Stigma operates as a dynamic social process influenced by culture, history, and power structures. It arises from marking differences between people and embedding these differences within systems of power and control. Stigmatization is not static; it changes contextually and can be resisted by affected individuals and communities. described as a dynamic process, not a fixed attribute, shaped by historical, cultural, and power contexts emphasizes that stigma functions at the intersection of culture, power, and difference Discrimination as Structural Inequality extends beyond individual attitudes and actions, functioning as a structural process tied to systemic oppression and exclusion reinforces social hierarchies and legitimizes inequalities, making stigma a tool of social domination outlines how discrimination is often linked to systemic power and domination, showing that it’s not merely individual but deeply embedded in societal structures. Human Consequences Stigma and discrimination lead to social exclusion, impacting access to healthcare, rights, and community participation for marginalized individuals contribute to internalized oppression, limiting the capacity of stigmatized groups to resist or challenge societal norms discusses the social exclusion caused by stigma and discrimination, noting its effects on access to resources and rights, and how it contributes to internalized oppression among marginalized groups  Resistance and Empowerment Resistance from stigmatized groups can challenge power structures, fostering new identities and initiating social change Effective interventions often leverage the agency of affected communities, emphasizing empowerment and collective mobilization authors stress the importance of resistance from stigmatized communities, emphasizing that effective change often arises when affected groups organize and resist oppression. Samules Research methods, lived experiences of Black and Indigenous youth, over policing, under policing 6 Research methods discusses Critical Race Theory (CRT) and composite counter-storytelling as its methodological approach explains the importance of centering racialized voices to challenge dominant narratives and uses semi-structured interviews with Black and Indigenous youth to capture their lived experiences Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Composite Counter-Storytelling: The study uses CRT to analyze systemic racial bias in Canadian policing, emphasizing that racism is embedded in laws and social systems. Composite counter-storytelling is employed to create narratives that highlight shared experiences of Black and Indigenous youth with law enforcement, using direct quotes to amplify marginalized voices. Focus on Lived Experience: Semi-structured interviews with 19 Black and Indigenous youth aged 16-24 provide qualitative data. Participants were recruited from shelters, legal aid clinics, and youth programs to ensure diverse yet authentic perspectives Lived Experience of Black and Indigenous Youth negative interactions, such as being stopped while engaging in everyday activities and being accused of "fitting the description," are directly described in the narratives shared by participants notes how these encounters erode trust and instill fear of law enforcement, particularly as participants consistently reported feelings of criminalization and stereotyping lack of police engagement in protecting these communities is highlighted through examples of inadequate responses to victimization Negative Interactions: Participants shared accounts of being stopped, questioned, or detained while engaging in everyday activities, leading to perceptions of racial bias They reported feeling criminalized due to their race, particularly during incidents like "carding" or being accused of fitting a suspect’s description. Fear and Distrust Repeated negative encounters eroded trust in the police, fostering fear and skepticism about law enforcement's intent and effectiveness Indigenous youth often felt stereotyped and reported that police interactions were more interrogative than protective. Impact on Communities Participants noted a lack of police engagement in addressing issues of victimization, creating a sense of neglect within their communities Over-Policing details hyper-surveillance through practices like carding, where racialized youth are disproportionately stopped and documented without justification directly tied to the overrepresentation of Black and Indigenous people in the criminal justice system Youth perceptions of being unfairly targeted for criminal enforcement are described in-depth, showing how law enforcement practices contribute to the criminalization of racialized communities Hyper-Surveillance Black and Indigenous youth reported disproportionate police attention, particularly in racialized neighborhoods, which they believed contributed to overrepresentation in the criminal justice system. Practices like "carding" and random stops were common, reinforcing feelings of being targeted. Criminalization of Youth Participants observed that police often focused on enforcement rather than community protection, leading to perceptions that their communities are treated as inherently criminal Under-Policing perception of neglect in addressing victimization is described by youth who feel their communities receive less protection compared to predominantly White neighbourhoods contributes to the belief that law enforcement does not prioritize their safety Neglect in Victimization Black and Indigenous communities experienced insufficient police protection in cases of victimization or violent crime, reinforcing perceptions of inequity Youth noted delayed or ineffective police responses in their neighborhoods compared to predominantly White areas. Zhao Anti-Asian racism, post-colonialism, Canadian multiculturalism 6 Anti-Asian Racism persistence of anti-Asian racism in Canada, exacerbated during the pandemic Historical discrimination against Asian immigrants, such as the Chinese head tax and internment of Japanese Canadians, has resurfaced through modern prejudices Historical discrimination against Asian immigrants, such as the Chinese head tax and internment of Japanese Canadians, has resurfaced through modern prejudices These events illustrate deep-seated intergroup prejudices influenced by societal hierarchies Anti-Asian racism in Canada is rooted in its colonial past, where Asian immigrants were historically treated as inferior and subject to discriminatory policies like the Chinese head tax and the internment of Japanese Canadians historical patterns persist covertly in modern times through systemic inequities COVID-19 amplified anti-Asian racism by rekindling stereotypes like the "Yellow Peril." Asians were blamed as carriers of the virus, with their cultures mischaracterized as primitive or responsible for the pandemic framing justified both overt violence and subtle exclusion from Canadian society  Post-Colonialism critiques Canada’s post-colonial framework, arguing that while Canada projects an image of inclusivity, its societal structures remain deeply rooted in white settler supremacy. influences manifest in cultural norms and policies that preserve colonial power dynamics Immigrants and Indigenous peoples are assimilated into a system designed by and for white settlers, perpetuating inequality under the guise of progress emphasizes that post-colonialism in Canada did not end colonial dynamics but transformed them White settler society continues to define Canadian cultural norms, with Indigenous and immigrant communities navigating systems that implicitly uphold white dominance Policies that aim for decolonization often fall short by maintaining colonial frameworks education and political systems compel participation in ways that erase or dilute non-white histories and perspectives Canadian Multiculturalism critiques Canadian multiculturalism as a policy that promotes surface-level inclusion while reinforcing systemic inequalities immigrants are required to adopt dominant white Canadian cultural norms (English/French languages, work experience) to succeed, making multiculturalism a tool for maintaining white supremacy multiculturalism allows cultural expression, it frames failure to integrate as a personal shortcoming, further marginalizing groups like Asian Canadians critiqued for creating a façade of equality acknowledges cultural diversity but positions white English and French cultures as dominant, compelling immigrants to adopt these norms for societal acceptance Immigrants are integrated into Canadian society as human and social capital, expected to conform while enriching the labor market dynamic prevents immigrants from challenging systemic inequalities, reinforcing a hierarchical multicultural mode policies mask systemic racism by reframing structural barriers as individual failures, thereby perpetuating unequal power dynamics James Racism related stress 6 Daily Experiences of Racism and Stress Dehumanization Participants shared instances of being ignored, overlooked, or treated rudely in public spaces. These repetitive actions create a persistent sense of being unwelcome or unworthy, leading to emotional violence and diminished self-worth. Example: A respondent described being bypassed for service in a store, making them feel "invisible." Exoticization Constantly being treated as "different" reinforces the idea that Black individuals are outsiders, even when they have deep roots in Canada Example: A participant in Calgary recounted being told she was "too dark" to be Canadian, which deeply undermined her identity. Marginalization Participants described being treated as intellectually inferior, having their work dismissed, or being excluded from discussions. These instances are less frequent but carry intense stress Example: A professional noted their qualifications were consistently questioned, leaving them feeling unvalued. Alienation Being Treated as a Foreigner Constantly being asked, “Where are you really from?” makes Black Canadians feel like outsiders, even when they were born in Canada. Example: A woman in Calgary was told she was "too dark" to be from Canada. Social Exclusion Black individuals often feel excluded from their communities, even after living there for years Example: A Halifax woman shared that her neighbors avoided interacting with her despite living there for 20 years. Disappointment in Standard of Living Immigrants expressed frustration when their education and skills were undervalued, leaving them in lower-paying jobs. Example: Many reported feeling disillusioned when their qualifications were ignored Psychological and Emotional Impacts Masking True Selves Many participants described wearing emotional masks to navigate daily racism. This creates internal conflict and can lead to a loss of identity and authenticity Example: "You wake up deciding which face to put on—your brave face or your happy face," explained a Toronto respondent. Internalized Racism Repeated exposure to stereotypes can lead individuals to doubt themselves and internalize societal prejudices Example: A participant shared how being labeled "stupid" repeatedly led them to believe it over time. Hypervigilance and Anxiety Racism creates a state of constant alertness, such as fear of police encounters or being misunderstood in public Example: A Black man described how hearing a police siren triggers paranoia and physical tension Generational and Community-Specific Insights Second-Generation Stress Second-generation immigrants experience heightened stress because they often feel entitled to equal treatment yet are reminded of their "outsider" status Example: Younger participants expressed frustration at constantly being asked where they are "really" from, despite being born in Canada. Community and Location Variances Black individuals in Halifax reported higher stress from blatant racism compared to Toronto, where diversity may provide some buffer However, participants in Calgary, particularly African immigrants, described marginalization as their most stressful experience due to systemic undervaluing of their credentials Long-Term Effects of Racism-Related Stress Impact on Children Parents worry deeply about their children’s future in a society that marginalizes Black youth, particularly young men who are stereotyped as violent or criminal Example: Parents in Calgary expressed significant anxiety over their children's education and social opportunities due to systemic barriers. Health Consequences Prolonged racism-related stress leads to depression, anxiety, and reduced quality of life, affecting individuals’ capacity to thrive personally and professionally. Solomon Triangle program development, purpose of the triangle program, curriculum broader legal, and social contexts 7 Triangle Program Overview Development Origins The Triangle Program began in 1995 as part of the Oasis Alternative Secondary School in Toronto to address the needs of LGBTQ youth facing homophobia and transphobia. Inspired by the murder of Ken Zeller (1985) and advocacy by the Toronto Board of Education (TBE) Driven by efforts like the Human Sexuality Program, which provided counseling and anti-homophobia education Supported by social workers, educators, and community groups like the Toronto Counselling Centre for Lesbians and Gays (TCCLG). Key Figures Tony Gambini, a social worker, proposed a school for gay and lesbian youth Olivia Chow and other advocates pushed the initiative through the TBE. Purpose To provide a safe, inclusive space for LGBTQ youth escaping homophobic and transphobic environments in mainstream schools Support students at risk of dropping out by helping them re-engage with education Enable transitions to mainstream schools or prepare students for post-secondary education and life. Curriculum Focused on inclusivity, reflecting LGBTQ identities and experiences Example: Courses with LGBTQ perspectives, such as history and English focusing on coming-out stories and community issues Tailored education plans, with individualized math studies and group lessons Extracurricular activities like "Pride Prom" and creative units (e.g., video projects and quilting). Broader Legal and Social Contexts Historical Backdrop Developed during the 1990s amid increasing awareness of LGBTQ rights and homophobia in schools Addressed systemic neglect and a lack of safe spaces for LGBTQ students. Legal Milestone Ontario passed anti-homophobia and gender-equity policies in 1999 and 2012. Canada legalized same-sex marriage in 2005, reflecting growing societal acceptance. Challenges Criticized for "segregation" but defended as essential for combating the ultimate segregation: school dropout due to unsafe environments The Triangle Program remains Canada's only high school program for LGBTQ youth, offering a sanctuary for learning and personal growth.  Key Achievements and Impact Safe Space for Students Students reported feeling safe for the first time, which allowed them to focus on learning and healing from past trauma Example: A student shared how they finally felt they could "be themselves" at Triangle. Advocacy and Influence Triangle's success helped pave the way for broader acceptance of LGBTQ issues in education, such as inclusive curriculum policies and anti-homophobia measures in the Toronto District School Board. Support Network Community organizations, volunteers, and partnerships (e.g., nutrition programs, counseling services) provided wraparound support for students' non-academic needs, such as housing and mental health. Challenges and Responses Criticism Some accused the program of "segregation," but advocates highlighted that it provided essential support for at-risk youth who might otherwise leave the education system. Student Challenges Many students arrived with histories of severe bullying, family rejection, or trauma, which affected their academic abilities and confidence Example: A student’s inability to recall basic math concepts due to harassment during their earlier schooling years. Broader Social Shifts Triangle was part of a larger movement to address systemic inequities and create safe environments for LGBTQ youth in Canada Its efforts align with increasing recognition of LGBTQ rights, including same-sex marriage legalization and policy changes in schools (e.g., gender-neutral washrooms). Why It Matters The Triangle Program is more than a school—it’s a community that empowers students to rebuild their confidence, graduate, and thrive in life. Its legacy continues as an example of inclusive education that prioritizes safety, equity, and belonging. Pyne Cis, cisnormativity, changes in social work literature, services for trans people 7 Cisnormativity Explained What it means: Cisnormativity is the assumption that being cisgender (where your gender identity matches the sex you were assigned at birth) is "normal" and universal Why it matters: This assumption makes trans people invisible and creates systemic barriers for them, even without direct discrimination. Changes in Social Work Literature Before the 1990s Early social work literature framed trans people through a medical/psychological lens, labeling them as having “disorders.” Social workers judged trans people’s "performance" of gender to approve or deny their transitions. Trans people were often seen as demanding and not trusted to make their own decisions. Shift in the 1990s and onward With the rise of anti-oppressive approaches and trans activism, social workers started challenging transphobia and advocating for inclusion Training programs were developed to educate social workers about trans people’s experiences and needs Trans People and Shelter Services Why shelters matter Trans people are at higher risk for homelessness due to discrimination in housing, employment, and family rejection. Barriers faced Shelters are often gender-specific (men's vs. women's), which creates issues for trans and genderqueer people. Trans women are sometimes denied access to women’s shelters or required to meet strict, invasive criteria (e.g., hormone use, specific surgeries). Trans men often feel unsafe in men’s shelters and unwelcome in women’s shelters. Impact Exclusion from shelters leaves trans people more vulnerable to violence, addiction, and suicide Cisnormativity in Services How it shows up Shelter systems and intake forms are designed with cisgender people in mind. Trans people’s bodies are scrutinized, while cis bodies are treated as "normal" and unremarkable. This erasure makes trans people’s needs invisible and positions service providers as opponents, even unintentionally. The harm caused Cisnormativity upholds transphobia and leads to systemic exclusion, not just individual acts of prejudice. Gender policing (e.g., monitoring who "belongs" in a gendered space) harms both trans and cis people The Call for Change Beyond inclusion: It’s not enough to fight transphobia; we need to question the systems that assume everyone is cisgender. Rethinking services Social work needs to stop organizing services strictly around rigid gender categories. Collecting better data on trans people and educating service providers can help challenge cisnormativity. Hollander Traditional approaches and women's victimization, definition of violence, residence 8 Traditional Approaches Focus on victimization Traditional feminist efforts have emphasized women’s oppression and victimization to highlight the seriousness of violence. While this was important for raising awareness, it often left students and participants feeling disempowered, hopeless, and overwhelmed. Focusing solely on victimization reinforced the stereotype of women as weak and vulnerable. Emotional impact Students often reported feelings of despair, fear, and futility after learning only about the widespread nature of violence. Survivors of violence, in particular, found this approach deepened their pain rather than empowering them. Women’s Victimization Violence against women is pervasive but not inevitable Media and traditional narratives often highlight extreme cases of victimization, ignoring instances of successful resistance Cultural beliefs about women’s vulnerability contribute to both women’s fear and men’s confidence in their ability to dominate women Definition of Violence and Resistance Definition of violence Violence inherently involves resistance because it is unwanted—women do not consent to it. Resistance is present even when it’s not physical, such as emotional resilience or strategic compliance to minimize harm. Resistance includes Physical acts: Fighting back, escaping, or yelling. Cognitive acts: Strategizing how to stay safe or seeking help. Emotional acts: Protecting core parts of oneself, even in difficult situations Women’s Resistance Individual resistance Women successfully resist at least 75% of attempted sexual assaults. Physical resistance, contrary to myths, does not increase the risk of injury and can lead to better psychological outcomes. Women in abusive relationships use creative strategies to minimize harm and escape violence. Collective resistance Activism has led to significant progress, such as the recognition of marital rape and the establishment of rape crisis centers. Grassroots movements have driven social change, proving that collective action can create systemic improvements A Balanced Approach Empowering students: Emphasizing resistance along with victimization helps counter despair and highlights women’s strength and agency. Teaching about resistance shifts the narrative from inevitability to possibility, showing that violence can be challenged and prevented. Real-world impact: Stories of resistance inspire hope and provide concrete examples of how women and communities can fight back against violence. Smith Social work resistence to power 8 Challenges Social Workers Face Neoliberal Restructuring Social services are increasingly managed like businesses, prioritizing cost savings over social justice goals. Workers are overloaded with paperwork, regulations, and compliance checks, which limits their time and energy to advocate for clients. Direct activism or speaking out against policies can lead to job loss or punishment, making traditional resistance difficult. Impact on Social Workers They face fear, isolation, exhaustion, and concerns about their own economic survival (e.g., single parents or retirement fears). Traditional collective action, like union organizing or policy advocacy, is often seen as futile under these conditions. Forms of Resistance Social workers have developed alternative, “quiet” resistance strategies to support clients and challenge systems: Stealth Social Work Quietly bending or breaking rules to meet client needs without drawing attention. Examples: Ignoring restrictive policies and pretending ignorance (“playing dumb”). Providing services (e.g., attending legal appointments) even after official programs are cut. Workers justify this as prioritizing ethics over restrictive procedures. Impression Management Carefully managing appearances to avoid punishment while pushing back against policies. Examples: Acting compliant while subtly resisting. Using “coded” language or symbols (e.g., office decorations with hidden political meanings) to communicate solidarity. Co-opting the language of oppressive systems to advance clients' interests (e.g., using religious rhetoric in conservative workplaces). Hidden and Transitory Coalitions Building informal networks with sympathetic colleagues or managers to gain support. Recognizing that alliances can be temporary and context-dependent. Avoiding internal conflicts (“divide and conquer”) to protect unity in advocating for clients. The “New Field of Struggle” Social workers operate in a complex environment of tension, where resistance is a mix of collusion, compromise, and defiance. They navigate their roles as both advocates for clients and employees vulnerable to workplace pressures. While these small acts of resistance may seem invisible or incremental, they are part of a “quiet encroachment”that challenges power over time. Key Takeaway Resistance doesn’t always look radical: Front-line social workers find creative ways to resist power and support clients, even in highly controlled and repressive workplaces. These everyday, hidden actions—though small—can sow the seeds of social change.