Final Exam Preparation Notes PDF

Comprehensive Final Exam Preparation Notes ========================================== 1. Social Problems ------------------ \*\*Key Concepts\*\*: \- \*\*Claims-Makers\*\*: Activists, policymakers, or media figures advocating for recognizing issues as social problems. \- \*\*Objectivist Approach\...

Comprehensive Final Exam Preparation Notes ========================================== 1. Social Problems ------------------ \*\*Key Concepts\*\*: \- \*\*Claims-Makers\*\*: Activists, policymakers, or media figures advocating for recognizing issues as social problems. \- \*\*Objectivist Approach\*\*: Focuses on measurable data, such as homelessness rates or crime statistics. \- \*\*Social Constructionist Approach\*\*: Examines how societal values and perceptions define problems. \- \*\*Problematisation\*\*: Frames an issue by identifying its significance, for whom it is a problem, and possible solutions. \*\*Key Scholars\*\*: \- \*\*Malcolm Spector & John Kitsuse\*\*: Social problems are not inherent but constructed through societal claims. \- \*\*Peter Townsend\*\*: Studied social exclusion and poverty as societal constructs. \*\*Examples\*\*: \- Smoking: Became a social problem after advocacy and research demonstrated public health risks. \- Climate Change: Claims-makers use data and narratives to emphasize the urgency of action. 2. Social Stratification, Poverty, and Inequality ------------------------------------------------- \*\*Key Concepts\*\*: \- \*\*Social Stratification\*\*: The division of society into hierarchical classes. \- \*\*Absolute Poverty\*\*: Lack of resources for basic survival. \- \*\*Relative Poverty\*\*: Having significantly less than the average standard in society. \- \*\*Social Exclusion\*\*: Exclusion from economic, political, or social participation. \- \*\*Social Mobility\*\*: The movement of individuals or groups within social hierarchies. \*\*Key Measures\*\*: \- \*\*Gini Coefficient\*\*: Measures income inequality. \- \*\*Lorenz Curve\*\*: Visualizes income distribution. \- \*\*Income Quintile Ratio\*\*: Compares earnings of the richest and poorest groups. \*\*Key Scholars\*\*: \- \*\*Peter Townsend\*\*: Defined relative poverty and emphasized societal standards. \- \*\*John Goldthorpe\*\*: Developed the Erikson-Goldthorpe-Portocarero (EGP) schema for class analysis. \- \*\*Wilkinson & Pickett\*\*: Demonstrated links between inequality and societal harm in \*The Spirit Level\*. \*\*Examples\*\*: \- Post-1945 economic policies: Created a growing middle class in industrialized nations. 3. Domestic Violence and Child Abuse ------------------------------------ \*\*Key Concepts\*\*: \- \*\*Types of Domestic Violence\*\*: Physical, emotional, sexual, financial, and coercive control. \- \*\*Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)\*\*: Abuse occurring within a romantic relationship. \- \*\*Coercive Control\*\*: Isolating and manipulating victims to maintain dominance. \- \*\*Child Abuse\*\*: Physical, emotional, or sexual harm, including neglect. \*\*Key Theories\*\*: \- \*\*Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)\*\*: Abusive behavior is learned through observation. \- \*\*Attachment Theory\*\*: Early neglect or trauma impacts relationship-building and emotional regulation. \*\*Key Scholars\*\*: \- \*\*Albert Bandura\*\*: Explained the role of learned behaviors in perpetuating violence. 4. Political Regimes -------------------- \*\*Key Concepts\*\*: \- \*\*Democracy\*\*: Free elections, protection of civil liberties, and accountability. \- \*\*Authoritarianism\*\*: Centralized power, limited political pluralism. \- \*\*Totalitarianism\*\*: Comprehensive control over public and private life. \- \*\*Hybrid Regimes\*\*: Combine democratic elements (e.g., elections) with authoritarian practices (e.g., censorship). \*\*Key Scholars\*\*: \- \*\*Juan José Linz\*\*: Identified regime types (democracy, authoritarianism, and totalitarianism). \- \*\*Francis Fukuyama\*\*: Proposed the \"End of History\" theory, arguing liberal democracy is the ultimate form of governance. \- \*\*Steven Levitsky & Lucan Way\*\*: Analyzed competitive authoritarianism in hybrid regimes. \*\*Examples\*\*: \- Russia: Electoral autocracy with controlled media and limited freedoms. \- UK: Liberal democracy emphasizing separation of powers and rule of law. 5. Corruption ------------- \*\*Key Concepts\*\*: \- \*\*Petty Corruption\*\*: Small-scale corruption involving low-level officials (e.g., paying to expedite paperwork). \- \*\*Grand Corruption\*\*: High-level corruption involving significant resources and high-ranking officials (e.g., embezzlement of state funds). \- \*\*Systemic Corruption\*\*: Corruption entrenched within institutions and normalized in society. \- \*\*Kleptocracy\*\*: Leaders exploit state resources for personal gain (e.g., Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines). \- \*\*Nepotism\*\*: Favoring relatives for jobs or other advantages, often irrespective of qualifications. \- \*\*Cronyism\*\*: Favoring friends or associates in awarding contracts or jobs, often at the expense of meritocracy. \- \*\*Bribery\*\*: Offering or receiving something of value in exchange for influence or action. \- \*\*Watchdog Journalism\*\*: Investigative journalism that exposes corruption and ensures accountability (e.g., the Watergate Scandal in the U.S.). \*\*Key Theories\*\*: \- \*\*Principal-Agent Model\*\*: Corruption arises when agents (e.g., bureaucrats) exploit the lack of oversight by principals (e.g., the government or public) for personal gain. \- \*\*Collective Action Theory\*\*: Corruption persists because individuals believe everyone else is corrupt, making reform appear futile. \*\*Key Scholars\*\*: \- \*\*Alena Ledeneva\*\*: Studied informal practices in post-Soviet Russia, highlighting systemic corruption like \"blat\" (favor exchange). \- \*\*Marc Howard\*\*: Studied corruption\'s impact on civil society participation. \*\*Examples\*\*: \- Watergate Scandal (USA): Exposed political abuses through investigative journalism. \- Tangentopoli Scandal (Italy): Highlighted systemic corruption in politics during the 1990s. 6. National Identity and Sovereignty ------------------------------------ \*\*Key Concepts\*\*: \- \*\*Nation\*\*: A community defined by shared identity, language, or culture. \- \*\*Nation-State\*\*: A political entity where national and political boundaries align (e.g., Japan). \- \*\*Sovereignty\*\*: \- Internal: Authority over domestic affairs. \- External: Recognition by the international community. \*\*Key Theories\*\*: \- \*\*Primordialism\*\*: Nations as ancient and natural entities. \- \*\*Constructionism\*\*: Nations as modern constructs formed by shared narratives and symbols. \*\*Key Scholars\*\*: \- \*\*Benedict Anderson\*\*: Described nations as \"imagined communities\". \- \*\*Ernest Gellner\*\*: Linked nation formation to industrialization. \- \*\*Roland Grigor Suny\*\*: Explored how Soviet policies institutionalized ethnic identities, contributing to nationalism\'s resurgence post-USSR. \*\*Examples\*\*: \- Soviet Union's korenizatsiya: Promoted local ethnic identities but later fueled tensions. 7. Civil Society, Freedoms, and Watchdog Journalism --------------------------------------------------- \*\*Key Concepts\*\*: \- \*\*Civil Society\*\*: Organizations independent of government control (e.g., unions, charities). \- \*\*Grassroots Movements\*\*: Citizen-led initiatives for change. \- \*\*Freedoms\*\*: \- \*\*Freedom of Speech\*\*: The right to express opinions without government censorship or restrictions. \- \*\*Freedom of Association\*\*: The right to form groups, unions, or other organizations for collective action. \- \*\*Freedom of Assembly\*\*: The right to gather peacefully for protests or events. \- \*\*Freedom of the Press\*\*: Media's ability to report independently and hold leaders accountable. \*\*Key Scholars\*\*: \- \*\*Marc Howard\*\*: Identified low civil society participation in post-communist societies due to historical repression. \*\*Examples\*\*: \- Watergate Scandal (USA): Highlighted the importance of a free press in exposing abuses of power. \- UK Parliamentary Expenses Scandal: Exposed misuse of public funds by MPs, leading to reforms.