Social Problems and Inequality

1. Social Problems

• Claims-Makers: Individuals advocating for recognizing issues as social problems (activists, policymakers, media figures).
• Objectivist Approach: Focuses on measurable data (e.g., crime statistics, homelessness rates) to define social problems.
• Social Constructionist Approach: Examines how societal values and perceptions shape the definition of social problems.
• Problematisation: Framing a social issue by identifying its significance, affected groups, and potential solutions.
• Key Scholars: Malcolm Spector & John Kitsuse (social problems are constructed), Peter Townsend (studied social exclusion and poverty).
• Examples: Smoking became a social problem after research demonstrated its health risks; climate change is now a social problem due to evidence-based claims.

2. Social Stratification, Poverty, and Inequality

• Social Stratification: Societal division into hierarchical classes.
• Absolute Poverty: Lacking essential resources for basic needs.
• Relative Poverty: Having significantly less than the average standard of living.
• Key Concepts: Social stratification, absolute poverty, relative poverty

3. Domestic Violence and Child Abuse

• Types of Domestic Violence: Physical, emotional, sexual, financial, and coercive control.
• Intimate Partner Violence (IPV): Abuse within romantic relationships.
• Coercive Control: Isolating and manipulating victims to maintain dominance.
• Child Abuse: Physical, emotional, or sexual harm, including neglect.

4. Political Regimes

• Democracy: Free elections, protection of civil liberties, and accountability.
• Authoritarianism: Centralized power, limited political pluralism.
• Totalitarianism: Total control over public and private life.
• Hybrid Regimes: Combining democratic and authoritarian elements (e.g., elections alongside censorship).
• Key Scholars: Juan José Linz (regime types), Francis Fukuyama ('End of History' theory), Steven Levitsky & Lucan Way (competitive authoritarianism).
• Examples: Russia (electoral autocracy), UK (liberal democracy).

5. Corruption

• Petty Corruption: Small-scale corruption involving lower-level officials.
• Grand Corruption: Large-scale corruption involving high-level officials and resources.
• Systemic Corruption: Corruption entrenched within institutions, normalized in society.
• Kleptocracy: Leaders exploiting state resources for personal gain.
• Nepotism: Favoring family members.
• Cronyism: Favoring friends or associates.
• Bribery: Offering or receiving something of value for influence.
• Watchdog Journalism: Investigative journalism exposing corruption.
• Key Theories: Principal-agent model (bureaucrats exploiting lack of oversight), collective action theory (reform hindered by perceived widespread corruption).
• Key Scholars: Alena Ledeneva (informal practices), Marc Howard (corruption's impact).
• Examples: Watergate Scandal, Tangentopoli Scandal.

6. National Identity and Sovereignty

• Nation: Community defined by shared identity, language, or culture.
• Nation-State: Political entity with aligned national and political boundaries.
• Sovereignty: Internal authority over domestic affairs and external recognition by the international community.
• Key Theories: Primordialism (nations are ancient and natural), constructionism (nations are modern constructs).
• Key Scholars: Benedict Anderson ("imagined communities"), Ernest Gellner (nation-formation & industrialization), Roland Grigor Suny (Soviet policies).
• Examples: Soviet Union's korenizatsiya, promoting local ethnic identities.

7. Civil Society, Freedoms, and Watchdog Journalism

• Civil Society: Organizations independent of government control (e.g., unions, charities).
• Grassroots Movements: Citizen-led initiatives for change.
• Freedoms: Freedom of speech, association, assembly, and press.
• Freedom of Speech: Right to express opinions without censorship.
• Freedom of Association: Right to form groups and organizations.
• Freedom of Assembly: Right to gather peacefully.
• Freedom of the Press: Media's ability to report independently and hold leaders accountable.
• Key Scholar: Marc Howard (civil society participation in post-communist societies).
• Examples: Watergate Scandal, UK Parliamentary Expenses Scandal.