Final Exam PDF

Final Exam Attraction I. Correlates of Beauty A. Symmetry 1. Does the right side of the body look like the left? 2. More appealing, 100% symmetrical is weird B. Digit Ratios: 2D4D = ratio of index finger to ring finger...

Final Exam Attraction I. Correlates of Beauty A. Symmetry 1. Does the right side of the body look like the left? 2. More appealing, 100% symmetrical is weird B. Digit Ratios: 2D4D = ratio of index finger to ring finger 1. Indices of hormone level 2. Estrogen = index longer 3. Testosterone = ring longer 4. Women have larger ratio, men have smaller II. Contrast Effects = change in self attractiveness rating when compared to someone else A. Sex Differences 1. Women = downward contrast (lowers self-rating) 2. Men = upward contrast (raises self-rating) 3. Derogation = try to lower other people’s rating to drop their attractiveness a) Only works comparing people of same sex III. Halo Effect = attractive people are attributed with good/positive traits A. Assume attractive people have personality, sex lives, mental health, less stress B. However, attractive people cheat more often (especially men) IV. Love = NOT a form of liking A. Self-esteem is higher B. Self-Efficiency is higher (can accomplish things) C. Addiction to love (dopamine, PEA) D. Three Characteristics of Love: 1. Attachment 2. Intimacy 3. Caring E. Three Characteristics of Liking: 1. Similarity 2. Respect 3. Admiration F. Types of Love: 1. Passionate Love = first type of love we experience (very intense) a) Physically based = “love at first sight” = “lust” b) Often does not last c) Attracted physically, arousal/adrenaline, love exists in culture 2. Companionate Love = when chemicals go back to normal after passionate love a) View person as beautiful even with change  b) Person feels like best friend c) High commitment = big release of oxytocin (1) Comparison Level = standard: what you expect to get out of relationship (a) People will stay as long as outcomes are at or above comparison level (2) Comparison Level for Alternatives (a) When dropped below standard (CL), we look to alternative relationship for above standard (i) If yes, leave relationship (b) Dependent Relationship: if alternative is worse (i) Average long-term college relationship is 2-weeks G. Men fall in love 6-months earlier than women and will say “I love you” first V. Fighting A. Beneficial 1. Can be beneficial: spontaneous lovers quarrels 2. Cause a lot of negative arousal 3. Negative State Relief Model = when someone removes negative arousal, we become more attracted to them (ex: apologies) 4. “Hot couples” = fight a lot but deal with issues VI. Breakups A. Decision = both painful 1. Mutual 2. One party a) Men break up with women due to lack of sexual accessibility b) Women break up with men due to lack of emotional accessibility B. Consequences 1. Men are more devastated after breakup 2. Women engage in positive coping 3. Men are 3 times more likely to commit suicide after breakup C. Decision Process 1. EVLN Model: long and painful process a) Active (1) Exit: leave relationship (2) Voice: voice problems first before exit b) Passive (1) Loyalty: remain loyal in hope that partner will change before exit  (2) Neglect: treat me poorly, I treat you poorly in hope things will change VII. Reconciliation A. Acts 1. Men will engage in love-showing behaviors (sacrifices, gifts) a) Women find effective if men cry 2. Women will engage in sexual actions 3. Painful because can not turn off oxytocin a) Positive experiences are coded in the amygdala B. Dissonance Theory 1. Get over things faster by resolving dissonance through reconciliation or remembering the bad things not just the good things Prosocial Behavior I. Definition: an act that is obvious for the person responding, but it benefits someone else and usually conforms to a set of moral standards. II. Examples A. DC Plane Crash: Lenny pulls people out of water and leaves immediately with no recognition, another passenger sacrificed his life for the others B. Kitty Genovese: stabbed more than 38 times, neighbors witnessed it but no one said anything III. Three Factors: A. Risk = person responding has to take a risk B. Aggression = to help one person you might have to hurt another C. Temptation = tempting to do the wrong thing and get away with it, however you chose to do the right thing and suffer IV. Bystander Effect = as the number of bystanders increases, help is unlikely and will take longer if occurs A. Intercom Study: person believes to have a seizure, 6 person group = 3 minutes before any help or no help, person alone = immediate help V. 2 Factors Why it Occurs: A. Diffusion of Responsibility 1. Alone = responsible 2. Group = spread responsibility B. Fear of Blunders (embarrassment) 1. Self-esteem and social-cognition motive 2. Afraid of embarrassing oneself 3. Pluralistic Ignorance VI. Prevention A. Pluralistic ignorance is removed when clearly an emergency  B. People do not worry about embarrassment when group of friends C. Closer proximity lessens pluralistic ignorance D. Alcohol 1. Self consciousness is blocked so do not worry about embarrassment VII. Psychological States A. Prior Success = higher frequency of helping someone if helper has received prior success or positive feedback 1. “Warm glow of success” = success increases helping B. Moods: Feel good/good mood = help more 1. Cookie Study = randomly handed out cookies in library, people who got cookies helped more than people who did not get cookies 2. Phone Booth Study = people who found money in phone booth helped people who dropped things 3. Things that put you in a good mood: a) Weather (1) Sunshine Samaritan Effect: people more likely to help when it is sunny, raises serotonin levels b) Smells: pleasant odors = likely to help 4. Bad Moods = can increase and decrease helping behaviors a) If self-focused on bad mood, will not help b) Helping someone can get you out of a mad mood VIII. Region and Victim = where it happens plays a role A. Least Helpful Cities = Philadelphia, Rochester, Midwest B. Most Helpful Cities = South, Tennessee, Nashville, Memphis C. Stranded Motorist Paradigm: 1. Flat Tire a) Women = 1:4 cars helped b) Men = 1:50 cars helped 2. Hitchhiking a) Women = 19:100 cars helped b) Men = 6:100 cars helped IX. Giving/Receiving Help A. Sex Differences 1. Women receive more help than men 2. Women more likely to help friends versus strangers 3. Men are more likely than women to help strangers due to less fear of being harmed 4. Men more likely to help when there is more risk involved X. Beauty Effect A. Attractive people more likely to receive help  B. Raises one’s value when helping someone attractive XI. Reporting Theft A. Secretary Study: someone took money out of secretary’s purse, less helping if other people are present 1. Diffusion of Responsibility and Bystander Effect B. Moriarty 1. Atlantic City Boardwalk Study a) Someone asks people to watch their radio on towel, someone else steals radio, people who were asked to watch intervened b) If we feel personally responsible we are more likely to act XII. Theoretical Explanations = why does prosocial behavior occur = altruism A. Empathy 1. People high in empathy are more likely to help 2. Engage in benevolence = want to aleve people’s suffering 3. Egoistic Helping = helping solely to boost ego (not empathy) B. Norms = helping is based on norms (not a good theory) C. Reinforcement = we help people if we have been reinforced D. Costs = helping is more likely when costs are low (does not take a lot) 1. Questions Study a) When asked for time, 90% people answered b) When asked for directions, 65% people answered c) When asked for change, 30% people answered d) When asked for a dollar, 15% people answered E. Biology = we are biologically wired to help people 1. Babies = will become upset if they hear other babies crying XIII. Reactions to Help A. Can hurt self-esteem 1. If the person helping is very similar to us, hurts our self-esteem B. Reactance = person helping restricts free-will but we want to believe we are able to do it and take care of ourselves Aggression I. Definition = behavior or actions intended to bring physical or psychological harm (key is intentions) II. Causes A. Biology = your hormones are a reason for aggression (testosterone) 1. Dabbs = high levels of testosterone increase aggression (fraternities) 2. Estrogen can also affect aggressions a) PMS = when ratios are in flux, women become more aggressive 3. “Aggression is human nature”  B. Psychodynamics 1. Freud a) Boiling Pot Model (Hydraulic Theory) (1) 2 Instincts: (a) Eros = enjoying life (positive) (b) Thanatos = death instinct (negative) (2) When pressure gets too strong = explosion/aggression (a) Catharsis = punch a pillow, drain aggressive impulses C. Ethology = animal behavior/instincts cause aggression D. Genetics = genetic abnormalities cause aggression 1. Pain Center = when we are in pain, more likely to be aggressive 2. Chromosomes = aggressive males have extra Y chromosome E. Brain = abnormalities in brain cause aggression 1. Charles Whitman = tumor in amygdala of brain, starts killing people 2. Serotonin Levels = low levels increase aggression F. Social Learning = aggression is learned in social settings 1. Bandura = kids watch adults abuse doll, they then abuse doll G. Arousal = 1. ETT = excitation transfer theory a) If someone provokes/angers you when heart rate is up, you are more likely to respond aggressively H. Personality 1. 2 types: a) Overcontrolled personality: take aggression, never show it b) Undercontrolled personality: small things set them off (1) Do not know when to use aggression (2) Better of the two types I. Drives: aggression is the product of drives 1. Frustration a) Legitimate frustration: worked hard for A, received a C b) Illegitimate frustration: worked hard for A, received A- (1) Increase likelihood of aggression (2) Has the capabilities of goal, something gets in the way III. Sexual Arousal A. Feelings 1. Good = lower likelihood of aggression 2. Bad = higher likelihood of aggression IV. Other Factors A. Deindividuation = higher levels of aggression (can’t identify)  B. Observation = aggression tends to increase when observer present 1. Depends if observer values aggression with the goal to please the observer C. Instigation = instigators increase aggression D. Dehumanization = if we think target of aggression is not human, aggression more likely because we feel less guilty 1. Zimbardo = animals got highest level of aggression E. Sex (biology) 1. Men = engage in more physical aggression (higher testosterone levels) 2. Women = engage in more relational aggression (cutting off communication) a) If women do engage physically, often at extreme levels F. Cues 1. Berkowitz = highest shock levels when gun/weapon present G. Media 1. Priming Effect: primes people for aggression a) Kids who watch more aggressive shows/movies end up having higher amounts of aggression in their life V. Control A. Punishment = not very effective (needs to happen quickly) 1. Because dissonance is low = focus on external punishment B. Laughter = can be effective 1. Diffuses situation so less likely for aggression C. Venting = can reduce aggression 1. Vent feelings to third party instead of being violent D. Apology = reduces aggression VI. Types of Aggression A. Relational Aggression: shunning or ghosting B. Hostile Aggression: based on feelings C. Instrumental Aggression: getting something you need through aggression 1. Sports, stealing food 2. Aggression to obtain a goal Prejudice and Discrimination I. Prejudice = deals with attitudes, liking/disliking A. Unjust attitude for or against a person B. Gives a reference point for judging other people C. Protects self-esteem and allows us to fit in II. Stereotypes = beliefs A. Unjustified beliefs about other people B. Unjustified because applied to entire group  C. High vs. Low Prejudiced 1. High = deny knowledge about group (automatic) 2. Low = tries to use control-processing, does not automatically apply stereotypes III. Discrimination = behavior against a group A. Racism = discrimination based on race 1. Negative behavior directed towards a person of a race 2. Dominative Racism = “old fashioned racism” a) Open and obvious (clan members) b) Not as favorable as it used to be = Civil Rights Movement 3. Regressive Racism = under stress, revert to racist behavior 4. Nonverbal Racism = considered the most problematic but also a good type of racism (unease, anxiety) a) People have been conditioned to be biased against certain groups b) If pointed out, individuals will try really hard to stop being unintentionally racist B. Sexism = discrimination based on sex (how they look), worse than racism 1. Containment = implicit ceilings on how far women can advance (combat) 2. Ambivalent = hostility towards women a) Benevolence = women too weak, need to take care of them b) Hostile = towards women 3. Modern Sexism = no such thing as sexism so individuals are opposed to helping women IV. Process = how does discrimination/stereotyping occur? A. Ingroup = any group you are apart of (you affiliate with) B. Outgroup = anyone not apart of your group C. The, bias occurs after groups are established 1. Ingroup = positive bias 2. Outgroup = negative bias D. Outgroup polarization = tend to think anything outgroup negatively does is extreme and anything positive is a fluke E. Homogeneity = outgroup is all alike (no diversity) F. Effect 1. Stereotype Threat/Vulnerability = groups that are stereotyped start to believe them and behave in ways that are consistent with it a) Women and minorities are the most vulnerable b) Stockholm Syndrome V. Causes of Racism/Sexism A. Assumed Belief Dissimilarity = limited contact 1. Huddling = individuals associate with those in the same ethnic group  2. CP Ellis and Ann = hated each other, forced to work together, more contact = realized more in common and became friends B. Competition = not enough resources 1. Scarce resources and conflict brings discrimination 2. Realistic Conflict Theory a) Scapegoats = someone you can vent your aggression on to make yourself feel better (1) Common characteristics of scapegoats: (a) Perceived as weak (b) History of dislike against them (i) Have been scapegoat before (c) Strange = assumed belief dissimilarity (d) Visible = easy to identify 3. Frustration: sometimes you do everything you can to win competition, but then you find out you get discriminated against a) Relative Deprivation = individual feels deprived relative to the people of different ethnicities (1) Put in a lot, don’t get a lot so look for someone to aggress against C. Actual Differences: difference is deficiency 1. Culture 2. Biology a) Men vs. women (1) Women are seen as inferior because they are different then men VI. Cures of Racism/Sexism A. Attitude Change 1. Credibility = intentions and expertise a) Person giving message often from minority group (1) Ulterior motive = less credible b) More attitude change if male gives message 2. Audience = when forced to listen or restrict someone’s will, produces reactance = opposite of what asking B. Laws = in order to catch someone, you have to watch them = surveillance 1. If too strict, laws change behavior and not attitudes C. Contact = assumed belief dissimilarity and integration D. Mental Illness = people do not want to be labeled as mentally ill 1. Label racism/sexism as mentally ill 2. Attribution = don’t want to be labeled, gives people external justification instead of working to get rid E. Religion (sexism) = sexism is a sin 1. Good catholics do not want to be siners 2. Did not work = can sin and then confess F. Social Comparison = works really well 1. Self-esteem and social cognition motives a) People want to do what is right and get people to like them 2. Reference group = find who people compare themselves to and then expose individual to reference group norms