Field Methods in Psychology PDF

FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia 2. ANIMAL RIGHTS Cruelty to animals INTRODUCTION TO FIELD METHODS 3....

FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia 2. ANIMAL RIGHTS Cruelty to animals INTRODUCTION TO FIELD METHODS 3. CLIENTS IN THERAPY Confidentiality THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists follow scientific procedures WHEN TO USE ANIMALS IN RESEARCH similar to the way other scientists do Only a small number of psychological Research and experiments help studies involve animals. Most studies do cause-and-effect relationships not harm the animals Psychologists use animals only when 2 TYPES OF RESEARCH WITHIN PSYCHOLOGY there's no alternative, and they believe 1. BASIC RESEARCH the benefits outweigh the harm Conducted to study theoretical questions without aiming to RESEARCH METHODS solve a specific problem Psychology research can only be basic or 2. APPLIED RESEARCH applied Applies psychological principles and discoveries for practical 4 RESEARCH METHODS WITHIN PSYCHOLOGY purposes EXPERIMENTAL DESCRIPTIVE SCIENTIFIC METHOD CORRELATIONAL Consist of 6 carefully planned steps BIOLOGICAL 1. Identify question and literature review EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 2. Develop a testable hypothesis In the experimental condition, all participants 3. Select a research method and are exposed to the independent variable collect data EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 4. Analyze the data and accept or ○ Group exposed to the reject the hypothesis experimental treatment. 5. Publish, replicate, and seek CONTROL GROUP scientific review ○ Group that does not receive 6. Build a theory treatment in an experiment STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 1. QUESTION Includes various study types to gather data 2. HYPOTHESIS NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION 3. EXPERIMENT 4. RESULTS ○ Study behavior in its natural 5. CONCLUSIONS habitat 6. THEORY SURVEYS ○ Use tests, questionnaires, and CONCLUSION → HYPOTHESIS interviews to sample a wide Additional hypothesis variety of behaviors and Reject and revise hypothesis attitudes, choosing participants carefully THEORY → HYPOTHESIS ○ conduct surveys by using Other psychologists replicate and test written questionnaires or oral their theories interviews ○ Direct questions help gather ETHICAL GUIDELINES when experimenting: information about people's Psychologists must comply with attitudes and behaviors extremely strict ethical guidelines ○ PROBLEMS WITH SURVEYS The American Psychological This include inaccuracy Association (APA) has published due to dishonesty, specific guidelines that must be privacy concerns, and followed respondents saying what they think 3 AREAS ADDRESSED BY THE APA interviewers want to 1. HUMAN PARTICIPANTS hear Informed consent, voluntary CASE STUDY participation, debriefing, ○ In-depth study of a single confidentiality, use of students research participant as subjects The most rigorous guideline CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH because it deals with the rights of people being studied  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia Enables scientists to determine the relationship observed, and potential between variables, discussing positive, researcher biases negative, and zero correlations SURVEY ○ A random sample of participants is selected to fill out a poll, answer a questionnaire, or complete a test reflecting the study's subject ○ This involves clear, well-written questions and intuitive design and delivery Correlation is important in psychology but ARCHIVAL RESEARCH cannot show cause and effect. Just because two things are related doesn't mean one causes ○ Researchers examine historical the other records, past studies, and case study reports related to their BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH research Scientific study of psychology DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Studies the brain and nervous system Focuses on the present, has no hypotheses, addresses who, what, where, and when, and is 3 MAIN TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH often objective and quantitative CONDUCTING DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH ○ Surveys STANDARDS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ○ Observations 1. Observation 2. Question ○ Case studies 3. Hypothesis 4. Experiment CASE STUDIES 5. Analysis Conducted through interviews, self-reports, 6. Conclusion etc., focusing on a small group of subjects PROS CORRELATIONAL STUDIES ○ Highly detailed This statistics-based, non-experimental method ○ Opens up theories and determines if a relationship exists between two questions variables and its extent, without interfering with CONS other variables ○ Cannot be applied to a larger population 3 POSSIBLE OUTCOMES ○ Struggles with validity and POSITIVE CORRELATION reliability ○ occurs when both move in the same direction at the same EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN STUDIES time Intentionally interferes with subjects, adjusting NEGATIVE CORRELATION at least one variable to determine a causal ○ occurs when one variable relationship with another variable increases as the other decreases Experimental research methods in psychology NO CORRELATION follows this procedure: ○ occurs when there’s no Define key variables; dependent (not observable relationship manipulated) and independent between the two variables (manipulated) Hypothesize the relationship between CORRELATION COEFFICIENT dependent and independent variables This numerical value between -1.00 and +1.00 Manipulate the independent variable indicates the strength of the correlation and observe results, collecting and between variables. No correlation is assigned a documenting data value of zero TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN STUDIES TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL STUDIES Within the experimental design, psychologists NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION tend to employ three primary research methods ○ Involves passive observation at their disposal and documentation of variables in their natural setting. OBJECTIVES ○ Behavior modification by INDEPENDENT MEASURES DESIGN participants aware of being  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia ○ Different participants are used ADVANTAGES in each condition of the ○ In-depth analysis with experiment comprehensive data sources, ○ Each participant experiences diverse resource validation, only one condition. It helps in time efficiency, and controlling order effects but cost-effectiveness may require a larger sample size LIMITATIONS REPEATED MEASURES DESIGN ○ Limited information availability, ○ the same participants take part potential source bias, language in all conditions of the barriers, time-consuming experiment searches, outdated ○ This design reduces information, and accessibility participant-related variability issues but can introduce order effects COUNTERBALANCED DESIGN CASE STUDY ○ All participants experience all An in-depth analysis of one person, group, or conditions, but in a different event, examining nearly every aspect to identify order to control for order patterns and causes of behavior effects ADVANTAGES ○ It's particularly useful in ○ Provides rich, detailed data, repeated measures designs useful for studying rare phenomena and generating INDEPENDENT MEASURES hypotheses for further known as between-groups. Uses different research participants for each variable condition LIMITATIONS ○ Can't be generalized to the REPEATED MEASURES wider population, may have Known as within-groups subjective bias, and is Exposes participants to each variable time-consuming and condition resource-intensive Order effects include positive (practice) and negative (fatigue) COMPUTER SIMULATION performance changes due to a a data collection tool, defined as a condition’s position in a series machine-implemented program intended to produce isomorphic output (graphic, numeric, COUNTERBALANCED or both) to measure real or hypothetical social All participants experience each variable processes condition in different orders A simulation uses a mathematical model of a real system as a computer program, with SUBJECT-BY-SUBJECT equations replicating functional relationships. Involves changing the order of conditions for Running it produces dynamics that mimic the each individual participant real system, presenting results as data ACROSS-SUBJECTS COUNTERBALANCING CONTENT ANALYSIS Involves varying the order of conditions across A research tool that identifies certain words, different participants themes, or concepts within qualitative data to analyze and quantify meaning. The text must be coded for content analysis COMMON RESEARCH DESIGNS AND DATA RELATIONAL ANALYSIS COLLECTION METHODS: Archival, Case Study, ○ Examining the relationships Computer Simulation, Content Analysis among concepts in a text CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS COMMON RESEARCH DESIGNS ○ Determines the existence and ARCHIVAL RESEARCH frequency of concepts in a text CASE STUDY COMPUTER SIMULATION (MODELING) COMMON RESEARCH DESIGNS AND DATA CONTENT ANALYSIS COLLECTION METHODS: Lab and Field Experiment, Structured and Unstructured ARCHIVAL RESEARCH Interview, Meta-Analysis, Neuroimaging and A descriptive research method that reexamines other psychophysiological methods existing records for a new purpose ARCHIVAL SOURCES ○ Public survey EXPERIMENT ○ Records ○ Media  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia An investigation scientifically testing a ○ ideal if you're comfortable with hypothesis. It increases data validity and your topic, have limited time or reduces bias resources, or need to maintain An independent variable (the cause) is consistent environmental manipulated, and the dependent variable (the conditions between effect) is measured, while controlling for any participants extraneous variables UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW LABORATORY ○ Questions and their order are FIELD not set, open-ended, and most flexible LAB EXPERIMENT ○ Avoid leading questions to Experimenter manipulates independent prevent biased responses and variables and measures effects on the ensure reliability dependent variable under controlled conditions ○ ideal if you have a solid conducted under highly controlled conditions, background in your research allowing for accurate measurements topic, have conducted STRENGTH interviews before, your ○ easier to replicate due to research is exploratory and standardized procedures, seeks descriptive data to allowing precise control of deepen your hypotheses, and variables you need a deeper connection ○ enables the establishment of with participants to reveal true cause-and-effect relationships opinions and emotions LIMITATION ○ artificial setting may produce META-ANALYSIS unnatural behavior, resulting in It's the qualitative, scientific synthesis of low ecological validity, meaning research results, aiding in evidence-based findings cannot be generalized practice and resolving contradictory research to real-life settings outcomes FIELD EXPERIMENT KEY COMPONENTS OF META-ANALYSIS takes place in a natural, real-world setting. Research question Participants are unaware they are being studied, Study selection and the experimenter has less control over Data extraction extraneous variables Statistical analysis used to study social phenomena like altruism, Heterogeneity assessment obedience, and persuasion, and to test Conclusion interventions in real-world settings such as educational programs and public health NEUROIMAGING campaigns. Neuroimaging creates images of the brain's STRENGTH structure and function, allowing researchers to visualize anatomy, connections, and activity ○ Behavior in a field experiment Vital for studying brain disorders, cognitive reflects real life better due to functions, emotions, and treatment effects, its natural setting, providing helping to understand the neural basis of higher ecological validity than a behavior, perception, and mental processes lab experiment ○ Demand characteristics are NEUROIMAGING TECHNIQUES less likely to affect results, MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) especially when the study is covert and participants may not ○ Uses strong magnetic fields and know they are being studied radio waves to create detailed brain and body images LIMITATION ○ No radiation exposure ○ Less control over extraneous variables may bias results, ○ High-resolution images of soft making it difficult for another tissues researcher to replicate the ○ STRUCTURAL MRI study exactly Visualizes the brain’s anatomy (e.g., STRUCTURED AND UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS detecting tumors, STRUCTURED INTERVIEW lesions) ○ Predetermined questions in a ○ FUNCTIONAL MRI (fMRI) set order, often close-ended Measures brain activity (yes/no or multiple-choice) based on blood flow ○ Can be overly formal and limited changes in scope and flexibility FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia ○ DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING Sleep Disruption (DTI) Tumors Maps white matter PTSD tracts and brain ADHD connectivity Schizophrenia COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) ASD ○ Diagnoses and monitors OCD diseases (e.g., tumors, internal injuries) Bipolar Disorder ○ Studies brain structure in Depression neurological research and NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY (NIRS) assesses changes in anatomy ○ Monitors brain oxygen over time saturation and activation ○ uses X-rays to create patterns during memory tasks cross-sectional body images ○ Uses infrared light to detect compiled into a 3D variations in hemoglobin oxygen representation levels in the blood ○ exposes patients to a small ○ A functional brain imaging amount of ionizing radiation and method that measures activity provides detailed images of by detecting changes in blood internal organs and structures oxygen levels using infrared in slices light POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET) PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES ○ uses radioactive tracers to WHAT IS PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY? visualize and measure examines how thoughts and emotions affect metabolic processes the body (like heart rate and breathing) explores the connection between behavior, ○ involves injecting a small feelings, and physical changes amount of radioactive material Researchers study how body functions and shows metabolic activity influence behavior and emotions and tissue function MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY (MEG) MAJOR AREAS OF STUDY ○ Measures magnetic fields from SOCIAL PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY brain electrical activity ○ Examines the link between ○ Locates malfunctioning neurons social behavior and bodily ○ Studies brain connectivity, responses neural oscillations, and DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY cognitive processes ○ Examines changes in ○ Explores information processing physiological systems as we age differences in language COGNITIVE PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY disorders like aphasia and epilepsy ○ Examines the connection between cognitive processes ○ Disorders detected and physical responses Schizophrenia CLINICAL PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY ASD ○ Examines how cognitive Epilepsy processes and information ADHD processing relate to physical Mood Disorders responses ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG) APPLIED PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY ○ Measures brain waves and ○ Uses body signals to treat records electrical activity of physical and mental conditions the cortex below the skull INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ○ Small electrodes on the scalp ○ Examines how unique detect brain activity and send it physiological traits influence to a computer, creating a behavior and intelligence graph-like image ○ Helps identify active brain areas PRINCIPAL AREAS OF PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL during tasks involving memory DATA ACQUISITION and attention SWEAT GLAND ACTIVITY ○ Can detect issues such as: ○ ELECTRODERMAL ACTIVITY (EDA) Anxiety - understanding sweat glands Head injuries Epilepsy  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia EDA (or GSR) measures linked to arousal and stress and is non-invasive, electrical changes in measured with electrodes on the skin the skin due to sweat Skin becomes more ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY (ECG) conductive when Records electrical signals in the heart. sweating, indicating Assesses heart health, detects problems, and stress or excitement monitors conditions. Identifies arrhythmias, Measured through skin heart attacks, and other cardiac issues. potential and skin Studies the link between heart activity and resistance psychological states like stress and anxiety The ECG produces a series of waves (P, QRS, T) MEASURING SWEAT GLAND ACTIVITY that represent different phases of the heart's ○ SKIN CONDUCTANCE AND electrical cycle: RESISTANCE - sweat and P WAVE emotions ○ Atrial contraction (the upper Skin conductance chambers of the heart) measures how easily electricity flows QRS COMPLEX through sweat, while ○ Ventricular contraction (the skin resistance lower chambers of the heart) measures how much T WAVE the skin resists ○ Recovery phase of the electricity ventricles More sweat means lower skin resistance. ELECTROMYOGRAPHY (EMG) Measures both Measures electrical activity produced by long-term (tonic) and muscles when they contract short-term (phasic) Detects neuromuscular abnormalities. Evaluates responses health and function of skeletal muscles and RESPIRATION MEASUREMENT nerves ○ Oximetry Diagnoses conditions affecting muscle function, like muscular dystrophy, carpal tunnel ○ Capnometry syndrome, and nerve damage ○ Breathing rate & depth SURFACE EMG NON-INVASIVE ELECTRICAL POTENTIALS OF THE BRAIN ○ Electrodes are placed on the ○ Brain activity measurement skin over the muscle Electroencephalograph NEEDLE EMG INVASIVE y (EEG) ○ Needle electrode is inserted Magnetoencephalograp directly into the muscle to hy (MEG) obtain more practice readings STARTLE REFLEX MEASUREMENT ELECTRO-OCULOGRAPHY (EOG) Assesses involuntary responses to sudden Measures electrical potential difference stimuli using sensors to record physiological between the cornea and retina reactions like muscle contractions or heart rate Tracks eye movements for research on visual changes, usually with sensors placed on the attention, reading, and cognitive processes skin Helps study eye behavior, diagnose disorders, and control devices using eye movements THERMOGRAPHY Can detect issues such as: Uses infrared cameras to detect and visualize ADHD heat patterns on the body's surface. Captures temperature variations across the skin Schizophrenia and does not require contact or radiation Physiological responses HEAT RATE VARIABILITY (HRV) COMMON RESEARCH DESIGNS AND DATA measures the time variation between COLLECTION METHODS: Observational, heartbeats, reflecting the autonomic nervous Quasi-Experimental, Self-Inventory, Survey, system's regulation of heart function Twin Study indicates the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, measured using sensors or wearable devices OBSERVATIONAL STUDY Type of research methods where the GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE (GSR) researcher observes and records behavior, measures changes in skin conductance due to events, or phenomena without manipulating or sweat gland activity, reflecting arousal and controlling variables emotional responses allows researchers to study subjects in their natural environment or a structured setting to  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia understand behaviors or interactions as they groups groups occur naturally PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION Ethical Ethical concerns May be preferred ○ Researcher becomes actively considerations may arise due to in situations involved in the group or the manipulation where random of variables or assignment is situation they are studying withholding impractical or ○ Can be overt (participants treatment unethical being aware) or covert (participants being unaware) Internal validity Generally higher Generally lower due to due to lack of NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION randomization randomization ○ Researcher actively engages in the group or situation studied. Can be overt (participants Researchers use quasi-experiments to answer aware) or covert (participants research questions and test hypotheses when unaware) traditional methods are impractical or unethical. CONTROLLED OBSERVATION Quasi-experiments aim to maximize internal validity and draw meaningful conclusions, ○ Observing behavior in a considering practical and ethical constraints controlled setting with manipulated and controlled TYPES OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH variables, while still allowing DESIGN natural behavior NON-EQUIVALENT GROUPS DESIGN ○ Researchers select two pre-existing groups, one receiving treatment and one not, without random assignment ○ They aim for similarity, but true comparability is uncertain ○ The "non-equivalent groups" design acknowledges this lack of equivalence due to no randomization NATURAL EXPERIMENT DESIGN ○ Involve random assignment caused by external events beyond researchers' control QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL ○ While these events mimic random assignment, natural QUASI experiments are not true Resemblance: partly, as if, almost having some, experiments due to their but not all features of observational nature ○ Used to study effects of events EXPERIMENT like policy changes, weather, or Trial: based on personal experience rather than natural disasters theory. Using new, untested ideas, methods, or REGRESSION DISCONTINUITY substances ○ Assesses treatment effect using a continuous eligibility QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN index to assign participants aims to establish a cause-and-effect based on a numeric rating scale relationship between an independent and ○ Those exceeding a threshold dependent variable, but does not use random receive treatment; those below assignment. Instead, subjects are grouped are assigned to the control based on non-random criteria group ○ This method compares ASPECT TRUE QUASI-EXPERIME outcomes around the cutoff to EXPERIMENTS NTS measure the treatment's impact Control over Researchers Researchers variables have strict have less control ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES control over over variables variables Real-world applicability Limited control randomization Random Non-random Ethical considerations Threats to internal validity assignment of assignment of participants to participants to  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia cost-efficiency Causality inference where participants are present to complete the challenges survey External validity Potential confounding MAIL SURVEYS variables Sent through postal services, with respondents completing and mailing back the survey independently, reducing interviewer bias SELF INVENTORY a psychological test where a person fills out a MIXED-MODE SURVEYS survey or questionnaire, with or without an Combines multiple methods to collect data, investigator's help such as online surveys with face-to-face interviews, or mail and telephone surveys SURVEY Widely used in psychology, collects data from a TWIN STUDY specific group on their thoughts, experiences, investigate genetics and environment roles in attitudes, behaviors, or demographics traits, behaviors, and conditions by examining Cost-effective, allows for diverse perspectives similarities and differences between identical and large-scale data collection (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins TYPES OF SURVEY Proponents of twin study argue that ○ Genetic insights CROSS-SECTIONAL SURVEY ○ Longitudinal studies Data is collected from a population or ○ Clinical applications representative subset at one specific point in ○ Nature vs nurture time Critics Quick and cost-effective, but results only ○ Ethical considerations reflect the situation at the survey time ○ Generalisability LONGITUDINAL SURVEY ○ Assumptions of equal Collects data from the same subject over an environments extended period, ranging from months to years ○ Twin discordance Time-consuming and expensive to maintain RESEARCH DESIGNS IN TERMS OF PERIODS OF DESCRIPTIVE SURVEYS TIME OF DATA COLLECTION Collects data describing characteristics of a population without analyzing relationships between variables RETROSPECTIVE STUDY Useful for establishing baseline statistics collects past data to examine exposures to suspected risk or protection factors related to ANALYTICAL SURVEYS an outcome established at the study's start Also known as EXPLANATORY SURVEY Often called "quick and dirty" or "chart Explores relationships between variables to reviews" in healthcare explain patterns or trends TYPES OF RETROSPECTIVE STUDY ONLINE SURVEYS ANALYTICAL Administered digitally through platforms like COHORT Google Forms Cost-effective, quick, and automatically ○ group exposed to a risk factor is collects data, making analysis easier prospectively followed to determine the outcome FACE-TO-FACE SURVEYS CASE CONTROL An interviewer interacts directly with ○ Cases and controls, with and participants, asking questions and recording without the outcome of responses interest, are identified, and Provides richer, more detailed data due to their past exposure to a personal interaction variable (risk factor) is collected and analyzed to TELEPHONE SURVEYS establish a relationship Conducted by calling participants and asking CROSS SECTIONAL questions over the phone ○ investigator measures both the Collects less detailed responses compared to risk factor and outcome in the face-to-face interviews same time frame ○ can be descriptive or may PAPER-AND-PENCIL SURVEYS establish a relationship Limited ability to collect detailed responses between the risk factor and compared to face-to-face interviews outcome Common in controlled environments like DESCRIPTIVE schools, clinical settings, or organizations  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia CROSS SECTIONAL repeated/serial cross-sectional study ○ investigator measures both the risk factor and outcome within ADVANTAGES OF CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY the same time frame Simple and inexpensive ○ can be descriptive or aim to Minimal room for error establish a relationship Multiple variables and outcomes can be between them researched and compared at ones CASE SERIES Data can be starting point for research ○ Description of multiple similar LIMITATIONS OF CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY instructive cases, used to study rare and unusual diseases in the Does not help determine cause and population effect ○ can be influenced by SIGNIFICANCE OF RETROSPECTIVE antecedent-consequent bias, Used as an audit tool for comparing historical making it difficult to determine data with current or future practice, to test a if exposure preceded disease hypothesis regarding suspected risk factors and Report bias is probable outcomes, or to investigate uncommon or rare ○ rely on surveys and events questionnaires, which might not result in accurate reporting as PROSPECTIVE STUDY there's no way to verify the Participants are followed over time to observe information outcomes, starting with a defined group before The timing of the snapshot is not events occur, aiming to establish relationships always representative between exposures and outcomes ○ provide only a single snapshot in time and lack information SIGNIFICANCE OF PROSPECTIVE STUDY from before or after the report DATA QUALITY was recorded ○ They collect data in real-time, It cannot be used to analyze behavior reducing recall bias and over a period of time improving accuracy ○ examine a variable at a specific LONGITUDINAL INSIGHT moment, while longitudinal ○ By following participants over studies analyze relationships time, researchers observe over extended periods changes and trends, gaining valuable insights into the LONGITUDINAL STUDY progression of diseases or observes the same subjects over time, conditions collecting data at multiple points to track RISK FACTOR IDENTIFICATION changes. It doesn't imply the same group each ○ They identify and quantify time disease risk factors, aiding in INTERNAL VALIDITY prevention strategies ○ examines if the relationship POLICY AND PRACTICE between two variables is causal ○ Findings from prospective EXTERNAL VALIDITY studies inform public health ○ examines if the relationship policies and clinical practices, between two variables is causal contributing to better health outcomes Campbell (1979) identifies various "threats to validity." CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY History type of observational research that analyzes Instrumentation information about a population at a specific Maturation point in time, measuring the prevalence of an Mortality outcome of interest Statistical regression Testing SIGNIFICANCE OF CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY Provides a snapshot of a population PANEL STUDY Useful for public health type of longitudinal research collecting data Efficient and cost-effective and helps from the same group or "panel" at multiple identify associations points in time, allowing researchers to observe Baseline for further research changes and trends within the same subjects, providing insights into behaviors, opinions, and SUBTYPES OF CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES other variables Descriptive cross-sectional studies Analytical cross-sectional studies Simple example of a panel design with three types of correlation:  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia 1. SYNCHRONOUS CORRELATION PATH ANALYSIS Measures the relationship ○ A statistical technique that between two variables at the tests causal models and same time point examines direct and indirect 2. AUTO, TEST-RETEST, OR LAGGED relationships between variables CORRELATION ○ Often used with multiple Assesses the relationship regression to visualize and between a variable at one time interpret these relationships and the same variable later, determining measure stability over time CONDUCTING RESEARCH ACCORDING TO 3. CROSS-LAGGED CORRELATION SUBJECT Examines the relationship between two different variables ANIMAL STUDY measured at different times, Animal study, or animal research, uses helping understand the non-human animals in scientific experiments to direction of influence control variables affecting behavior or biological/medical sciences CROSS-LAGGED CORRELATION WHY ARE ANIMALS USED IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH? To understand our bodies, study diseases, and develop new medicines and treatments ANIMAL WELFARE REGULATIONS ANIMAL WELFARE ACT (AWA) The AWA sets care and treatment standards for animals in research, exhibition, transport, and by dealers Key provisions include: ○ Minimum standards of care THIRD VARIABLE ○ Humane treatment can influence the relationship between ○ Record keeping independent and dependent variables in a ○ Enforcement mechanisms study, introducing bias or masking the true relationship INSTITUTIONAL ANIMAL CARE AND USE COMMITTEES (IACUC) TYPES OF THIRD VARIABLE IACUCs oversee animal research in universities MEDIATOR and laboratories ○ Intermediary variables Reviewing research proposals explaining the relationship Ensuring minimization of pain and between independent and distress dependent variables Monitoring animal care MODERATOR Education ○ Variables influencing the Reporting non-compliance strength or direction between independent and dependent 3RS FRAMEWORK variables REPLACEMENT SUPPRESSOR ○ Encourages finding alternatives ○ Variables that mask the to animal testing relationship between REDUCTION independent and dependent ○ Focuses on minimizing the variables number of animals used REFINEMENT ANALYSIS OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS ○ Aims to enhance animal welfare MULTIPLE REGRESSION by refining procedures to ○ A statistical technique that minimize pain, suffering, and predicts a dependent variable distress based on multiple independent variables TYPES OF ANIMAL STUDY RESEARCH ○ Useful for examining the relative BASIC RESEARCH importance of different ○ aims to gain a comprehensive predictors in explaining an understanding of biological outcome  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia processes without immediate ○ Evaluates potential harm and practical applications whether the 3Rs (Replacement, TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH Reduction, Refinement) are ○ combines laboratory science considered and clinical medicine to develop REGULATORY COMPLIANCE novel therapeutics to prevent, ○ Ensures compliance with diagnose, and treat disease national and international TOXICOLOGY STUDIES animal welfare laws, like the AWA ○ studies how natural or man-made poisons cause IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STUDY undesirable effects in living organisms HOUSING AND CARE FOR ANIMALS BEHAVIORAL STUDIES must meet strict standards to promote their ○ studies observe animal behavior wellbeing, including: to understand psychological ADEQUATE SPACE phenomena applicable to ○ Enough room for animals to humans move freely ENVIRONMENT ENRICHMENT COMMON SPECIES USED IN ANIMAL STUDY ○ stimulation such as toys or Mice (mus musculus) social interaction to prevent Rats (rattus norvegicus) stress Fish HEALTH MONITORING Brds ○ Regular veterinary checks to Guinea pigs (cavia porcellus) ensure animals are healthy and Rabbits disease-free Nonhuman primates Dogs (canis lupus familiaris) MONITORING AND REPORTING Cats (felis catus) Clawed frog (xenopus laevis) OBSERVATION DURING THE STUDY Animals must be regularly monitored for signs of CONDUCTING ANIMAL RESEARCH distress, illness, or pain to ensure Animal studies are governed by strict guidelines to ensure ethical treatment of animals and the HUMANE TREATMENT integrity of the study ○ Address any sign of suffering immediately PLANNING AND APPROVAL PROCESS ACCURATE DATA COLLECTION ○ Observations help ensure data PROPOSAL DEVELOPMENT is valid and reliable outlines the study’s objectives, methodology, ○ and justification for using animals, including: REPORTING OF EVENTS PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Unexpected outcomes, including injury, illness, ○ Why the research is necessary or death of animals, must be reported to SPECIES AND NUMBER OF ANIMALS oversight bodies. Researchers must ○ Rationale for choosing the DOCUMENT THE EVENT species and the number ○ Provide a detailed report needed explaining what happened and EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN why ○ Procedures, animal treatment REVISE PROTOCOLS IF NECESSARY during the study, and expected ○ Adjust methods to prevent outcomes recurrence of adverse events ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ○ How the study minimizes pain, IMPACT AND APPLICATION OF ANIMAL STUDY distress, and suffering, adhering to the 3Rs (Replacement, CONTRIBUTION TO SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE Reduction, Refinement) Animal studies have significantly advanced our understanding of complex biological processes, ETHICAL REVIEW AND APPROVAL including Every animal study must undergo an ethical BRAIN FUNCTION review by an Institutional Animal Care and Use ○ Providing valuable information Committee (IACUC), which reviews about neurological pathways SCIENTIFIC VALIDITY and behavior ○ Ensures the research is sound DISEASE MECHANISMS and justifies the use of animals ○ Helping scientists understand WELFARE OF ANIMALS how diseases develop and progress  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia Beneficial to society ADVANCES IN MEDICAL TREATMENT AND THERAPY Sound scientific basis Animal research has led to many medical Minimize harm treatments and therapies, including No risk of death or severe injury VACCINES AND MEDICATIONS Risk vs benefit ○ Animal models were crucial in Protection against risk developing vaccines for polio, Qualified researchers rabies, and more Participants right to withdraw SURGICAL TECHNIQUES Researchers duty to stop ○ Advances in procedures like 2. DECLARATION OF HELSINKI organ transplants and open-heart surgery were Created in 1964 by the WMA, it refined using animal models. expanded on the Nuremberg Code CHALLENGES AND CONTROVERSY focused on medical research, and introduced independent PUBLIC PERCEPTION AND ETHICAL DEBATE ethical review (later IRBs) Animal research sparks debate about its It has no legal authority necessity and ethical implications An ethical guideline, not a document with ANIMAL RIGHTS international legal implications, that sets the ○ Some argue animals have standard for ethical human experimentation by intrinsic rights and shouldn't be researchers used in research, regardless of potential benefits ETHICAL PRINCIPLES General principles ETHICAL TRADE-OFFS Risks, burdens, and benefits ○ Proponents believe the benefits Vulnerable groups and individuals to human and animal health Scientific requirements and research outweigh ethical concerns, protocols especially with strict welfare Research ethics committees standards Privacy and confidentiality Informed consent HUMAN SUBJECT STUDY Use of placebo Post-trial provisions HUMAN SUBJECT Research registration and publication The DHHS federal regulations (45 CFR and dissemination of results 46.102) define a human subject as “a Unproven interventions in clinical living individual about whom an practice investigator conducting research obtains 3. BELMONT REPORT 1. data through intervention or Triggered by unethical studies interaction, or like the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 2. identifiable private which led to the establishment information.” of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) under the Common Rule IMPORTANCE (45 CFR 46 in the U.S.) Advancing scientific knowledge in biomedical The National Research Act was and social behavioral sciences, building public passed in 1974 trust in science, demonstrating excellence in research, safeguarding participant rights and Written by the National well-being, and ensuring research integrity. Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of ETHICAL PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES Biomedical and Behavioral 1. NUREMBERG CODE (1947) Research, the Belmont Report, published in 1979, identifies developed after World War II ethical principles and guidelines during the Nuremberg Trials for conducting research with established foundational human subjects principles of research ethics following the prosecution of 3 BASIC ETHICAL PRINCIPLES Nazi doctors for inhumane Respect for persons experiments on concentration ○ Individuals' autonomy should be camp prisoners respected, and those with Not fully adopted as law by any nation or as diminished autonomy are ethics by any major medical association entitled to equal protection Beneficence 10 POINT STATEMENTS Voluntary consent  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia ○ Obligation to protect subjects IRB approval requires that risks to from harm by maximizing subjects are minimized and reasonable benefits and minimizing harms Justice TYPES OF RISKS TO RESEARCH SUBJECTS ○ Promotes equitable Physical harms representation in research, Psychological harms fairly distributing risks and Social and economic harms benefits Privacy risks Breach of confidentiality risks 4. INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB) protects human research WAYS TO MINIMIZE RISKS subjects' rights and welfare in Detail the experimental design, studies conducted by the scientific rationale, and previous study affiliated institution results IRBs offer a forum for diverse Assemble an expert research team. individuals to discuss and judge Ensure sample size is sufficient project acceptability based on Use standard procedures to avoid the Common Rule. unnecessary risk COMPOSITION Implement safeguards, including a data ○ At least five members, safety plan and trained emergency including one scientist, personnel one non-scientist, and Store data securely to prevent one unaffiliated identification. Protect confidentiality member with encryption, codes, and passwords, AUTHORITY per UCLA IRB guidelines ○ Approves, requires modifications, or PARTICIPANT SELECTION disapproves research process of identifying and choosing individuals activities covered by or groups for a study the Common Rule RESPONSIBILITIES FAIRNESS: AVOIDING EXPLOITATION OF VULNERABLE POPULATIONS ○ Conducts a continuing Groups and communities at higher risk for poor review of research at health face intensified barriers due to social, least annually and economic, political, and environmental factors. ensures proposed Illness or disability can also increase their changes in approved vulnerability. research are not initiated without review ENSURING SELECTION BASED ON THE RESEARCH and approval, except to QUESTION, NOT CONVENIENCE OR eliminate immediate VULNERABILITY hazards It's the ethical practice of choosing study participants based on their relevance to the INFORMED CONSENT research objectives The process of informing potential research participants about a study should actively share TYPES OF HUMAN SUBJECT RESEARCH information between the investigator and the 1. CLINICAL TRIALS: testing medical participant treatments or interventions Communication can be face-to-face, via mail, phone, video, or fax Research studies test medical, Participants should have ample opportunity to surgical, or behavioral ask questions and seek clarification, freely interventions in people decide whether to enroll or withdraw, and They are essential for ensure all critical study information is disclosed determining if new treatments and understood for informed choices or preventions (e.g., drugs, Subjects must be informed about the diets, medical devices like study's research purpose, duration, pacemakers) are safe and procedures (including experimental effective ones), risks, benefits, alternatives, 2. OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES: collecting record confidentiality, compensation data without intervention and medical treatment for more than Used to answer a research minimal risk, contact info for queries, question by observing natural and their voluntary participation without behaviors or events without penalty for refusal or discontinuation manipulating any variables 3. SURVEY RESEARCH: gathering RISK ASSESSMENT information through interviews or questionnaires  FIELD METHODS in PSYCHOLOGY_Ms Michelle Trangia Collecting information from individuals to study behaviors, attitudes, opinions, or characteristics REGULATORY BODIES AND COMPLIANCE Government agencies like the FDA and the Office for Human Research Protections oversee human subject research. Good Clinical Practice (GCP) guidelines provide standards for conducting clinical trials