Feminism, Liberalism & Marxism.pdf

Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism — IR Feminism— Feminism There is no single definition of feminism, just as there is no single definition of other political theories like liberalism or Marxism. At its core, feminism...

Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism — IR Feminism— Feminism There is no single definition of feminism, just as there is no single definition of other political theories like liberalism or Marxism. At its core, feminism is rooted in an analysis of the economic, political, physical, and social subordination of women globally and is committed to eliminating this subordination. Feminism promotes equality and justice for all women so women’s opportunities are not unfairly limited solely because of their gender. It is an analysis of their gender. Feminism has contributed to developing new research methods and forms of knowledge, including making women’s diverse experiences, roles, and status visible. It involves reexamining and rewriting histories that excluded or marginalized women and reformulating basic concepts to address their gendered definitions. Feminism informs theories and social movements, interplaying theories, practitioners, policies, and practices. Definitions and focuses of feminism have evolved to incorporate issues like race, imperialism, sexuality, etc. It aims to understand what women are saying and doing rather than relying only on men’s perspectives about women. Liberal Feminist Critical Feminist Sees power primarily in terms of access Examines deeper power structures and and presentation. intersecting systems of oppression. Focuses on achieving equal rights and Question and challenge fundamental opportunities for women within power structures and institutions as existing political and economic inherently gendered. structures. Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism— IR 1  Emphasizes legal and policy reforms to Analyze how gender intersects with address gender discrimination. other forms of oppression like race, class, sexuality, etc. Seeks to integrate women into existing institutions and power structures. Seek more radical transformation of social, political, and economic systems. Views the states as potentially beneficial for advancing women’s Are more skeptical of the state and rights. existing institutions as means for change. It tends to focus more on issues affecting women in developed Western Incorporate perspectives from the countries. Global South and marginalized groups. The Social Construction of Gender Examine how militarism, capitalism, colonialism, etc., are gendered systems. It explains that gender is not simply determined by biological sex but is Use a broader range of methodologies socially constructed through beyond just policy analysis. expectations, access to opportunities, Denaturalizing Women’s Roles/Status and social norms. The example of “throwing like a girl.” illustrates how Feminist approaches aim to expose how gendered assumptions shape women’s experiences, roles, and perceptions and behaviors. statuses are not simply determined by biology but are constructed through Hierarchical Binary Oppositions social, political, economic, and cultural Feminist theorists argue that social and relations. This challenges assumptions political meanings are structured that women’s positions are “natural” or around binary oppositions (e.g., “inevitable.” masculine/feminine) that are just Intersectionality different but hierarchical, with masculinity encoded as superior and While not using this specific term, the femininity as inferior. This creates a chapter discusses how feminist theories system where traits associated with have grappled with the intersections of masculinity are privileged. gender with other factors like race, sexuality, and global inequalities Making Women’s Experiences Visible between North and South. A key goal of feminist scholarship has Some Key Points About Feminist been to make women’s diverse International Relations Theories Being experiences, roles, and status visible in Constitutive and Interdisciplinary areas where they were previously excluded or marginalized. This has Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism— IR 2  involved re-examining histories and They are described as “constitutive, reformulating basic concepts to address interdisciplinary theories” that their gendered definitions. consistently prioritize the study of women and engage in debates over the Evolving Definitions of Feminism meaning of gender. Feminism has changed over time to As constitutive theories, they hold that incorporate issues like race, the world is intrinsic to and affected by imperialism, sexuality, and the theories about it, rather than being experiences of women of color and external and unaffected. LGBTQ women. This reflects the evolving nature of feminist theory and They allow for the study of language, movements. identity, and difference, which is seen as necessary for understanding the Postcolonial Feminism complexity of world politics. Examines how colonialism, They are interdisciplinary, drawing imperialism, and racism intersect with from various fields and approaches gender. beyond International Relations. Highlighting diverse experiences of They developed new research methods women in the Global South. and forms of knowledge, reexamining Critiquing Western-centric feminist histories and reformulating basic approaches. concepts to address gendered Analyzing how colonial legacies definitions. continue to impact gender relations They incorporate insights from diverse globally. feminist movements and practitioners, not just academic theorists. Liberalism & Marxism — They engage with issues of race, Liberalism imperialism, sexuality, etc, that cross disciplinary boundaries. Emphasized cooperation between states and the potential for progress in So, in summary, feminist IR theories international affairs through are constitutive in how they view institutions, democracy, free trade, and theory as shaping reality and collective security. interdisciplinary in drawing from States are considered the primary actors multiple fields and perspectives to in IR, but international organizations, analyze international politics through a NGOs, and other non-state actors are feminist lens. This allows them to provide new insights beyond traditional also recognized as important. IR approaches. Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism— IR 3  Believes liberal democratic states are Marxist Theories inherently more peaceful and that Focus on economic factors as the spreading democracy can reduce primary drivers of international conflict. relations, particularly the global Supports free trade and economic capitalist system. interdependence as ways to promote View states as instruments of the peace and prosperity. capitalist class rather than independent Advocates for international institutions actors. and laws to manage relations between Emphasize conflict and exploitation in states. the international system, particularly Generally optimistic about the potential between core capitalist states and for cooperation and progress in IR. peripheral/developing states. Liberal internationalism is an Critique liberal notions of free trade as approach to international relations that masking economic imperialism and emphasizes cooperation between exploitation. nations, international institutions, free Skeptical of international institutions, trade, and the spread of democracy. seeing them as serving the interest of Promoting international cooperation powerful capitalist states. and interdependence between nations. Advocate for revolutionary change in Supporting international institutions the global economic system to address (e.g., UN, WTO). inequality and exploitation. Advocating for free trade and open More pessimistic about prospects for markets. peace and cooperation under the current capitalist world order. Spreading democracy and liberal values globally. Highlight issues of class struggle on a global scale rather than conflicts Emphasizing diplomacy and between nation-states. international law over military force. Key Differences Supporting human rights and humanitarian interventions. Historical Development— Liberalism It has roots in Enlightenment liberal thought of the 18th-19th century (e.g., Kant’s idea of “perpetual peace”) Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism— IR 4  Gained prominence after World War I In summary, Liberal Internationalism with Woodrow Wilson’s “14 Points” and Marxism offer different and the League of Nations. perspectives on the nature of the international system and the potential Faced setbacks in the interwar period for progress and cooperation between and World War II. states. Liberal theories tend to work Revived after WWII with the creation within the existing state system, while of the UN, Bretton Woods system, etc. Marxist approaches call for more It became the dominant Western revolutionary change in the global approach during the Cold War, economic order. promoting democracy and free markets. Enlightenment Reached peak influence in the 1990s The Enlightenment was an intellectual after the end of the Cold War (”end of and philosophical movement that history”) dominated Europe in the 17th and 18th The challenges faced in the 21st centuries. Some key aspects of the century include the rise of China, Enlightenment include: populism, etc., but remain influential. 1. Emphasis on reason: The Key Thinkers in Liberal Internationalism Enlightenment promoted Rational thought and scientific inquiry as the 1. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) primary means of understanding the Kant was an influential Enlightenment world rather than tradition or philosopher who laid essential religious dogma. foundations for liberal internationalist 2. Belief in progress: Enlightenment thought. thinkers believed that human society Perpetual Peace: In his 1795 essay could be improved through rational “Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch,” change and reform. Kant outlined conditions for lasting peace 3. Skepticism towards traditional between nations. These included Republican authority: The movement challenged constitutions, a federation of free states, and established institutions, particularly universal hospitality. the Catholic Church and absolute Democratic Peace Theory: Kant argued monarchies. that republics would be more likely to go to 4. Individual rights: Enlightenment war with each other, as citizens would be philosophers advocate for natural reluctant to bear the costs. This became the rights, including life, liberty, and basis for modern democratic peace theory. property. Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism— IR 5  Cosmopolitan Right: Kant proposed a 5. Social contract theory: Thinkers like “cosmopolitan right” of universal John Locke developed ideas about hospitality, where individuals can visit government being based on the consent foreign lands without hostility. This pointed of the governed. towards ideas of global citizenship. 6. Scientific method: The Enlightenment International Institutions: Kant emphasized empirical observation and envisioned a voluntary federation of states experimentation as ways to gain to arbitrate disputes, foreshadowing later knowledge. international organizations like the League 7. Religious tolerance: Many of Nations and the UN. Enlightenment thinkers promoted 2. Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) freedom of religion and separation of church and state. Fourteen Points: Wilson’s Fourteen Points speech, delivered 8. Education: There was a strong belief to Congress in January 1918, was a in the power of education to improve landmark statement of liberal society and individual human potential. internationalist principles. Key elements 9. Cultural exchange: The movement included: facilitated ideas spread across national Open diplomacy and an end to secret and cultural boundaries. treaties. In International Relations, Enlightenment Freedom of the seas. ideas influenced liberal internationalist thinking. Thinkers like Immanuel Kant and Removal of economic barriers and Jeremy Bentham reacted to the “Lawless establishment of free trade. state of savagery” in global affairs by Reduction of armaments. proposing ways to establish governance over peace and war based on reason and Impartial adjustment of colonial claims, moral philosophy. Their ideas laid the considering the interests of the colonial groundwork for concepts like international populations. law, collective security, and perpetual peace Self-determination for nations under that would shape later liberal foreign rule. internationalist thought. Creation of a general association of 3. Francis Fukuyama (1952-present) nations (later the League of Nations.) Francis Fukuyama’s work has been highly These points represented a radical departure influential in shaping liberal internationalist from traditional power politics and aimed to thought in the post-Cold War era. His ideas create a more just and peaceful international can be expanded upon as follows: order. Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism— IR 6  League of Nations: End of History: Fukuyama’s “End of Wilson was the primary architect and History” thesis posited that Western champion of the League of Nations. His liberal democracy represented the final vision for the league included: form of human government. He argued that with the fall of communism, liberal A forum for international. democracy triumphed over all other Collective security arrangements to competing ideologies. This didn’t mean deter aggression. historical events would cease, but rather that the fundamental principles Mechanism for peaceful settlement of of governance would not evolve disputes. further. Promotion of international law and Liberal Democrat Triumphant: norms. Fukuyama contended that liberal While the League ultimately failed to democracy had proven superior to prevent World War II, it set important alternative systems like communism. precedents for international organization fascism, or hereditary monarchy. He and cooperation that influenced the creation argued that liberal democracies were of the United Nations after World War II. more stable internally and more Collective Security: peaceful in their international relations. This idea aligned with and reinforced Wilson’s concept of collective security was the democratic peace theory, which revolutionary for its time. Key aspects suggests that democracies rarely, if included: ever, go to war with each other. The idea that peace was indivisible— a Modernization Theory: Drawing on threat to one nation was a threat to all. modernization theory, Fukuyama An obligation for all member states to suggested that as societies develop respond to aggression against any economically and socially, they member. naturally progress toward liberal democratic systems. This idea implied a The use of economic and diplomatic certain inevitability to the spread of sanctions as a first response to liberal democracy globally as countries aggression. modernize and integrate into the global The possibility of military action as a economy. last resort. Liberal World Order: Fukuyama's This approach aimed to replace the work provided intellectual support for a traditional balance of power system with a liberal world order led by the United States. His thesis suggested that Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism— IR 7  more cooperative and law-based promoting liberal democracy and free international order. markets globally was not just a policy Liberal World Order: Wilson’s vision for choice but the natural direction of a liberal world order encompassed several historical progress. This influenced key elements: U.S. foreign policy post-Cold War era, supporting interventions and Democracy promotion: Wilson believed democracy promotion efforts. democratic governments were more peaceful and that spreading democracy Challenges and Revisions: In recent would enhance global stability. years, Fukuyama has acknowledged challenges to his original thesis, Economic interdependence: He advocated including the rise of illiberal for free trade and open markets to promote democracies, the persistence of peace through mutual economic interests. authoritarian regimes, and the global International law: Wilson emphasized the financial crisis. However, he maintains importance of international law and that liberal democracy remains the most institutions in regulating state behavior. viable and desirable system of Multilateralism: He promoted cooperation government, even if its triumph is not through international organizations and inevitable. treaties rather than unilateral action or Identity Politics: More recently, narrow alliances. Fukuyama has focused on the Keep in mind challenges posed by identity politics to liberal democracies. He argues that Democratic Peace Theory: while recognizing diverse identities is Democracies are less likely to go to war important, overemphasizing group with each other identities can undermine the cohesion Shared democratic values and necessary for liberal democracies to institutions promote peaceful relations function effectively. between democratic states State Capacity: Fukuyama has also Democratic governments are more emphasized the importance of state constrained by public opinion and less capacity and democratic institutions. likely to engage in aggressive wars He argues that effective governance requires not just democratic Spreading democracy globally will lead accountability but also competent state to a more peaceful world order institutions capable of delivering public International Institutions and goods and services. Cooperation Global Implications: Fukuyama's work has significantly affected how Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism— IR 8  International organizations and liberal internationalists view global institutions (like the UN, WTO, etc.) order. It has reinforced the idea that can help facilitate cooperation between promoting liberal democracy is not just states a matter of national interest but a moral imperative aligned with the direction of Collective security arrangements can history. deter aggression and maintain peace Fukuyama’s ideas have been both International law and norms can influential and controversial. While events constrain state behavior since the 1990s have challenged some of his Global governance through institutions more optimistic predictions, his work can address transnational issues remains a key reference point in debates Multilateralism and diplomacy are about the future of liberal democracy and preferred over unilateralism and force the global order. Free Trade and Economic Interdependence Economic interdependence through free trade reduces incentives for conflict Globalization and economic integration promote peace between trading partners International economic institutions (IMF, World Bank, etc.) can foster cooperation Economic development and prosperity reduce motivations for war Open markets and capitalism are linked to democracy and peace Feminism, Liberalism, & Marxism— IR 9