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‫جامعة جنوب الوادى‬ ‫كلية الصيدلة‬ Medical Terminology For 1st Year Pharmacy Students (General and Clinical) Dr. Amal Gaber 0 ...

‫جامعة جنوب الوادى‬ ‫كلية الصيدلة‬ Medical Terminology For 1st Year Pharmacy Students (General and Clinical) Dr. Amal Gaber 0  Table of contents Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2 Medical T e r m i n o l o g y.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Cardiovascular System....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 50 The Respiratory System.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 84 Prefixes........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 85 Suffixes.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 86 Terminology of Gastroenterology.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16 Neurology, Psychology, Anesthesiology, and VascularTerminology....................................................................................................................................................... 53 Anatomy of the Kidney.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 113 Male Reproductive System.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 117 Blood Cells and Their Function............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 122 References.................................................................................................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 1  Introduction Medical Terminology ❑ Definition. It is the professional language of those who are directly or indirectly engaged in the art of healing. ❑ Terms dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and maintenance of health ‫التعلم الحسي الحركي‬ ❑ Our body organs( Anatomic structures ) are of Latin terms, whereas diseases thataffect these organs are Greek origin. 2 Medical Terminology 3  Medical terms consist of root words, prefixes,and suffixes. Root: the foundation of the word.The wordroot usually refers to a body part. Some root words are derived from the Latin or Greek language. It will be combined with a prefix or suffix. Prefix: placed before the root word to modifythe meaning. Suffix: placed after the root to modify the meaning. 4  Combining Forms Correct pronunciation of medical words is important. In order to make the pronunciation of word roots easier, sometimes it is necessary to insert a vowel after the root. The combination of a word root and a vowel is known as a COMBINING FORM. 5  Combining forms consist of a combiningvowel. The combining vowel is usually an “o”, butothers may be used. : gastr / o pronounced GASTRO. Combining vowel Word root 6  Medical words are like individual puzzles-- each piece is a word part that comes together to form a medicalterm. suffix root 7 Example: derma ologis t t dermatologist = skin doctor 8 How to decode medical words??! 1: look at the suffix 2: look at the root word 3: look at the prefix 9  Example 1: Pericarditis Peri card itis 3. Prefix 1. Suffix 2. Root 10  Suffix: -itis = inflammation Root: cardi = heart Prefix: peri = around What do you think pericarditis is? 11  Pericarditis literally means “inflammation around the heart.” 12  Leukocytopenia Word Roots: Leuk / (white) cyt / (cell) Combining Vowel / o / Suffix: / penia (decrease 13  -algia: pain, as in “neuralgia”, or nerve pain -ectomy: to cut out or remove, as in “appendectomy”, or removal of the appendix -emia: blood condition, as in “anemia”, or lack of red blood cells 14  -esis, -ity, -osis: state or condition, as in psoriasis, or a common skin condition -itis: inflammation, as in cellulitis, or inflammation of the skin -lysis: break up, as in cytolysis, or breaking up of cells 15  -ology: the study of, as in nephr/ology, or the study of the kidneys -penia: deficiency or lack of, as in osteo/penia, or bone calcium deficiency -pnea: breathing, as in a/pnea, or to stop breathing 16  -rrhea: flow or discharge, as in rhinorrhea, or runny nose -stomy: surgical opening, as in tracheostomy, or opening into the trachea -tomy: cutting or incision, as in phlebotomy, or incision into the vein 17  oma (tumor) hematoma (blood tumor) NOTE: The element that comes before a suffixcan either be a word root or combining form. 18  Common Roots Arteri(o): artery Cardi(o): heart Dermat(o): skin 19  Encephal(o): brain Gastr(o): stomach Hemat(o): blood 20  Hepat(o): liver Hyster(o): uterus Laryng(o): throat 21  Nephr(o): kidney Neur(o): nerve, the nervous system Phleb(o): vein 22  Pneum(o), pulm(o): lungs Thorac(o): rib cage Ur(o): urinary system 23  Common Prefixes A, an: without or lacking, as in aphasia, or lack of speech Anti/contra: against, as in Antibiotics, or against bacteria Dys: abnormal, as in dysplasia, or abnormal growth 24  Brady: slowness, as in bradycardia, or slow heart rate Tachy: rapidness, as in tachypnea, or rapid breathing Mal: bad or poor, as in malnutrition, or poor nutrition 25  Prefixes Some prefixes: Hyper-(excessive) Hyper: above or excessive, as inhypertension, or high blood pressure Pre-(before):Preopertive Post-(after):Postopertive Homo-(same):Homogenous Hypo-(under):Hypo: below or deficient, as inhypoglycemia, or low blood sugar 26  Inter: between, as in intercostal, or between the ribs Intra: within, as in intravenous, or within a vein Sub: under, as in subcutaneous, or under the skin 27  Examples Hyperthermia (increase of body temprature) Encephalitis (Inflammation of brain) Hysterectomy (removal of uterus) 28  Dysuria (Difficulty of urination) Thoracotomy surgery to open the chest wall Hepatitis Inflammation of liver 29  Examples Hyperthermia: – -thermia = temperature, – hyper = excessive. – Meaning “greatly increased body temperature” Encephalitis: – -itis = inflammation – encephal = brain. – Meaning “inflammation of the brain” 30  Dysuria: – -uria = urinary – dys = pain – Meaning “painful urination” 31  Hepatitis: – -itis = inflammation – hepat = liver – Meaning “inflammation of the liver” 32  Thoracotomy: – -tomy = incision – thora = rib cage – Meaning “incision into chest wall” surgery to open the chest wall Thoracostomy stomy = is a small incision of the chest wall usually via needle Hysterectomy: – -ectomy = to remove – hystero = uterus – Meaning “removal of the uterus” 33  Bonus Hyperlipoprotinemia: suffix: -emia = blood condition, root #1: protein = protein, root #2: lip = fat, prefix: Hyper = excessive Meaning: a blood condition characterized by excessive amounts of fat and protein. 34  Prefixes of Position Ante- antepartum (before birth) pre- preoperative (before operation) epi epidermis (above skin) 35  Prefixes of Position hypo- hypodermic (under skin) sub- subcutaneous inter- intercostal, internet medi- medial, median (Middle) 36  Prefixes of Number and Measurement Bi- bilateral (two) diplo diplococci(two) hemi- hemiplegia (half) semi- semicircular (half) hyper- hyperglycemia (increase or excessive) macro- Macrovascular (large blood vessels) 37  Prefixes of Number and Measurement Micro- microscope Microvascular (small Blood Vessels) mono- mononuclear (one nucleus) uni- unilateral (one side) multi- multifunction 38  Prefixes of Number and Measurement Poly- polyphobia, polymer primi- primigravida (first time pregnancy) quadri- quadriplegia (paralysis of four extremities two hand and two limbs) 39  Prefixes of Negation A- asymptomatic (without symptoms) an- anesthesia(Esthesia = sensation, anesthesia=no sensation) in- insensitive 40  Prefixes of Direction Ab- abnormal ad- addition peri- pericardium 41  Prefixes of Direction super- supersensitive supra- suprarenal anti- antibacterial contra- contraception brady- slow (bradycadia =slow heart rate) dys- dyspepsia (difficulty of digestion) 42  Prefixes of Direction Eu- eupnea hetero- different (heterogeneous) homo- homoogeneous mal- malnutrition (bas nutrition) pseudo- pseudpedia (false ) tachy- tachypnea (fast birthing rate) 43  Useful Medical Terms Anatomy: science of the structure of the body and relation of its parts (“Where?”) Physiology: science dealing with the function of the body (“How?”) Etiology: what causes the disease 44  Diagnosis: determining what disease exists Therapy: treatment of a disease Prognosis: forecast of a disease outcome 45  Signs: clinical presentation of a disease (examples – fever, bleeding, vomiting) Symptoms: what the patient feels (examples – pain, dizziness, nausea) 46  Drug Terminology indication: condition for which you are taking the drug contraindication: condition that would preclude your taking the drug precautions: things you need to watch for when taking the drug 47  side effects: effects other than the therapeutic effect of the drug adverse reactions: potentially harmful side effect prophylaxis: medical procedure intended to prevent a problem rather than treat or cure Link of the lecture https://drive.google.com/file/d/1DTOP3mUrZiHrHAu4tiSIaLJyG4oPFP4P/view?usp=sharing 48  QUIZ 1. The main part of a medical term is the A. prefix B. combining form. C. root. D. suffix. 2. When analyzing a medical word to determine the meaning, you should identify and define the A. root first. B. suffix first. C. combining form first. D. prefix first. 3. A combining vowel is used when the A. suffix starts with a vowel. B. prefix starts with a consonant. C. prefix ends with a vowel. D. suffix starts with a consonant. 4. Appendicitis is a/an _____. A. tumor of the appendix B. bursting of the appendix C. inflamed appendix D. collection of blood in the appendix 5. The surgical procedure that involves removal of the spleen is a/an A. splenotomy B. splenostomy C. splenoplasty D. splenectomy 49 Cardiovascular System 50  Anatomy and Physiology pump and delivery system supply trillions of cells with oxygen and othernutrients vital for survival transport cellular waste to appropriate organs for removal 51  Structures heart - pump vessels - container blood - liquid 52  The Heart hollow muscular organ (cardiac muscle) pump to circulate blood blood to oxygenate cells and remove waste products Cardi/o - heart 53  Location and Protection located between the lungs and above the diaphragm Pericardium Pericardial Fluid Epicardium Myocardium Endocardium 54  Heart Endocardium - serous membrane lining myocardium - muscle layer epicardium - outermost layer pericardium - sac containing the heart 55 Heart Chambers Left Atrium Right Atrium Left Ventricle Right Ventricle Apex 56 Internal Heart Chambers 57 Heart Valves Pulmonary Veins Left Mitral Tricuspid Right Apex 58  Blood Supply to Heart Coronary Artery System – right coronary – left coronary left anterior descending circumflex 59  Systemic Circulation – All parts of body except lungs Pulmonary Circulation – pulmonary arterial system 60  Blood Vessels Blood Vessels - arteries, veins, capillariesangi/o and vas/o arteries - carry blood away from heart, usually oxygenated blood veins - carry blood to the heart, usually deoxygenated blood 61  Arteries arteri/o blood propelled by heart arteries are thick with three layers pulse-surge of blood oxygenated blood - bright red arteries to arterioles to capillaries endarterial - pertaining to the interior wall of an artery 62  Capillaries anatomic units connect arterial/venous systems blood flow much slower through capillaries to allow for exchange 63  Veins low-pressure collecting system ven/o and phleb/o venules - small veins veins have valves deoxygenated blood venae cavae - venous blood to Right Atrium 64 Conduction System 1-SA Node (Pacemaker)2- AV Node 3-Bundle of His 4-Perkinje fibers 65 Normal Sinus Rhythm 66  Arrhythmias or Dysrhythmias palpitation fibrillation atrial fibrillation ventricular fibrillation bradycardia tachycardia 67  Pulse pulse-rhythmic expansion and contraction of an artery produced by pressure of blood moving though the artery 68  Blood Pressure Measurement of amount of pressure exerted against the walls of the vessels. Systolic - highest pressure result of ventricular contraction Diastolic - lowest pressure when ventricles relaxed 69  Terms Combining Forms Suffixes Prefixes 70 Pathology of the Cardiovascular system 71  Atherosclerosis Atheromas accumulate in the tunica intima scleroses hypercholesterolemia lumen ischemia thrombosis, embolus occlusion aneurysm 72  Aneurysm A localized balloon- like enlargement of an artery. 73  Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) Diseases of coronary circulation atherosclerosis may cause angina, MI and sudden death myocardial ischemia – angina, dyspnea myocardial infarction – diaphoresis, dyspnea 74  Ischemic Heart Disease OR IHD cardiac disability due to insufficient supply of oxygenated blood to heart caused by constriction or obstruction of coronary artery Ischemia - deficiency of blood supply 75  Congestive Heart Failure Impaired cardiac pumping, caused by myocardial infarction, ischemic heart disease, or cardiomyopathy. Failure of the ventricle to eject blood efficiently results in volume overload, chamber dilatation, and elevated intracardial pressure.. 76  Forms of Carditis Carditis - inflammation of the heart Pericarditis - inflammation of pericardium Myocarditis - inflammation of myocardium Endocarditis - inflammation of inner layer of the heart 77  Varicose Veins Incompetent valves – esophageal varices – anal hemorrhoids – legs Edema (localized, generalized) phlebitis, thrombophlebitis emboli, embolus, embolectomy thrombolysis 78  Oncology Myxoma – tumor of mucous connective tissue Metastasized from malignant melanoma 79  Angiography-x-ray of blood vessels after injection of contrast medium-angiogram Angiocardiography- radiopaque dye and chest x- rays to show dimensions of heart and large blood vessels - angiocardiogram 80  Cardiac Catheterization radiopaque dye injected through a vein or artery to heart Right: catheter inserted into vein: R arm/groin (leg) to heart to measure pressures & take blood samples 81  Pharmacology Antianginals antihypertensives beta blockers calcium channel blockers diuretics heparin inotropics, cardiotonics tissue plasminogen activators (TPA) vasodilators 82  Quiz 1- Which word part means narrowing? A –megaly B. –malacia C. –stenosis D. -necrosis 2. Which combining form means blue? A. cyan/o B. erythr/o C. leuk/o D. melan/o 3- What medical condition is a group of cardiac disabilities resulting from an insufficient supply of oxygenated blood to the heart? A. Angina B. Coronary artery disease C. Valvular prolapse D. Ischemic heart disease 83 The Respiratory System 84  Prefixes a- without dys- difficult/painful hyper- above /excessive hypo- below /low inter- between tachy- fast 85  Suffixes -algia condition of pain -centesis surgical puncture to remove fluid -dynia condition of pain -ectasis dilatation/stretching -gram X-ray / tracing/ recording -graphy technique of recording /making X-ray -pathy disease of -plasty surgical repair/reconstruction -pexy surgical fixation /fix in place -plegia condition of paralysis excessive -rrhea discharge /flow involuntary -spasm contraction -stenosis abnormal condition of narrowing 86 87  Humans breathe air into paired lungs through the nose and mouth during inspiration. Whilst air is in the lungs gaseous exchange takes place; in this process oxygen enters the blood in exchange for carbon dioxide. During expiration, air containing less oxygen and more carbon dioxide leaves the body. The oxygen obtained through gaseous exchange is required by body cells for cellular respiration, a process that releases energy from food. 88  Word Root Rhin – From a Greek word rhinos, meaning nose. Combining forms – Rhin/o 89  Word Exercise 1 Find the meaning of: A. rhino/scopy ……………… B. rhino/pathy ……………… C. rhin/algia ……………….. D. rhin/itis ………………. E. rhino/rrhoea ……………… F. rhino/plasty ……………. 90  Word Root Nas – From a Latin word nasus, meaning nose. Combining forms – Nas/o Pharyng – From a Greek word pharynx, meaning throat, hereit is used to mean the pharynx. Combining forms – Pharyng/o 91  Find the meaning of: A. naso/gastr/ic tube ……………….. B. naso-oesophag/eal tube …………….. 3  Write the meaning of: A. pharyng/algia ………………. B. pharyngo/rrhoea …………….. Build words that mean: C. surgical repair of the pharynx ……………… D. inflammation of the nose and pharynx (use rhin/o) …………………… 4  Word Root Laryng – From a Greek word larynx that refers to the voice box, here it is used to mean the larynx. Combining forms – Laryng/o 5  The smallest bronchioles end in microscopic air sacs known as alveoli(from Latin alveus, meaning hollow cavity). Alveoli form a large surface area of the lungs across which the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged. The combining form is alveol/o, but few terms are in use, e.g. alveolitis. 6  At the alveolar surface oxygen diffuses into the blood from the cavities of the alveoli, carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction and is lost from the body in expired air. Hypoxia is a condition of deficiency of oxygen in thetissues (hypo- meaning below/low, -oxia meaning condition of oxygen). Hypercapnia is a condition of too much carbon dioxide in the blood (hyper- meaning above/excessive, -capnia meaning a condition of carbon dioxide). 7  Poor oxygenation also results in the presence of large amounts of unoxygenated hemoglobin in the blood. This produces cyanosis, an abnormal condition in which unoxygenated hemoglobin gives a blue color to the skin, lips and nail beds (cyan/o meaning blue, - osis meaning abnormal condition). 8  Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Mr C is 56 years of age and has a long history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). He began smoking at the age of 14 and until 6 years ago smoked approximately 25-30 cigarettes per day but now only smokes 2 or 3 per week. Five years ago he developed a squamous cell carcinoma and had a right upper lobectomy. 9  He was seen in casualty with increasing dyspnoea (-pnea means breathing), cyanosis and a productive purulent sputum. 10  Word Exercise 4 On examination he had a degree of bronchospasm and was showing signs of hypoxia and hypercapnia. His serious condition required his immediate transferto the intensive therapy unit (ITU) for mechanical ventilatory support. An arterial catheter for blood gas sampling wasinserted via the left radial artery, and he was sedated. 11  Word Exercise 4 Word Help acute symptoms/signs of short duration carcinoma malignant growth from epidermal cells/a cancer catheter a tube inserted into the body chronic lasting/lingering for a long time exacerbations acute increased severity of symptoms intravenous pertaining to within a vein intubation insertion of a tube into a hollow organ in this case the trachea productive producing e.g. producing mucus/sputum purulent resembling pus/infected sedated state of reduced activity usually as a result ofmedication 12  Word Exercise 4 sputum material expelled from the respiratory passages bycoughing or clearing the throat squamous pertaining to scale-like/from squamous epithelium QUIZ Find the meaning of: (a) laryngo/logy ………………. (b) laryngo/pharyng/ectomy ………………….. Build words that mean: (c) technique of viewing the larynx ……………. (d) the study of the nose and larynx (userhin/o) ……………………………….. 13  Word Exercise 6 Build words that mean: A. discharge/excessive flow of mucus from bronchi ……………… B. an X-ray of the bronchus ……………… C. technique of making an X-ray of the bronchi ………………………… D. an instrument for the visual examination of the bronchi …………………………….. 14  Word Exercise 6 Find the meaning of: E. bronch/us ………… F. broncho/plegia ………………. G. broncho/rrhaphy ………………… H. bronchi/ectasis ……………………. I. broncho/myc/osis ………………. J. broncho/genie ………………….. K. broncho/spasm ……………………. L. tracheo/bronchi/al …………………….. Write the meaning of: M. laryngo/tracheo/bronch/it is ………… N. bronch/oesophago/stomy …………… 15 Terminology of Gastroenterology Mouth Stomat/o – Teeth – Dent/o, Odont/o – Tongue – Gloss/o, Lingu/o – Lips – Cheil/o –gums – Gingiv/o Esophagus Esophag/o Stomach Gastr/o Small intestine – Jejunum – Duodenum – ileum 16  Large intestine – Sigmoid colon Enter/o – Duoden/o – Jejun/o – ile/o Col/o – Sigmoid/o 17  Rectum Rect/o Anus and rectum Proct/o Accessory organs – Hepat/o – Liver – Cholecyst/o – Gallbladder – Pancreat/o – Pancreas 18 19  Stomat/o = Mouth Stoma = mouth Stomat/itis: Inflammation of the mouth Stomat/o/plasty: Surgical repair of the mouth Stomat/algia: Pain in the mouth Stomat/o/rrhagia: Hemorrhage of the mouth Stomat/o/myc/osis: Condition of mouth fungus Stomat/o/pathy: Any disease of the mouth Stomat/o/scope: An instrument for examining the mouth Stomat/o/scopy: The process of examining with stomatoscope 20 Stomatitis 21  Gloss/o = Tongue Gloss/itis: Inflammation of the tongue Gloss/ectomy: Excision of the tongue Gloss/algia: Pain in the tongue Gloss/al: Pertaining to the tongue Gloss/o/ptosis: Prolapse of the tongue Gloss/o/scopy: Examination of the tongue Gloss/o/plegia (n.): Paralysis of the tongue Gloss/o/plegic (adj.): Paralysis of the tongue 22  Lingu/o = Tongue Lingu/al (adj.): Pertaining to the tongue Sub/lingu/al or Hypo/gloss/al : Under the tongue 23  Cheil/o = Lips Cheil/itis: Inflammation of the lips Cheil/o/plasty: Plastic surgery of the lips Cheil/o/tomy: Incision of the lips Cheil/osis: Condition or disorder of the lips Cheil/o/stomat/o/plasty: Plastic surgery of the lips and mouth 24  Gingiv/o = Gums Gingiv/al: Pertaining to the gums Gingiv/itis: Inflammation of the gums Gingiv/algia: Gum pain Gingiv/ectomy: Excision of gum tissue Gingiv/o/gloss/itis: Inflammation of the gums and tongue Lingu/o/gingiv/al (adj.): Tongue and gums 25  Gastrointestinal Passage Process of chewing Mastica/tion Process of swallowing Ingestion Chemical breakdown of food Diges/tion Movement of nutrients from intestine to the Absorption blood Expelling solid waste Defeca/tion Sold waste material Feces, stool, bowel movements 26  Esophag/o = Esophagus Phag/o = Swallow Esophag/eal (adj.): Pertaining to esophagus Esophag/o/sten/osis: Narrowing of the esophagus Esophag/o/gastr/ic: Pertaining to the esophagus and stomach Gastr/o/esophag/eal Reflux Disease (GERD): Chronic heartburn and esophageal irritation caused by Refluxof stomach acid into an esophagus 27 Esophag/o = Esophagus 28 Stenosis (Pyloric Stenosis) 29  Gastr/o = Stomach Gastr/o/rrhagia: Stomach hemorrhage Gastr/itis: Inflammation of the stomach Gastr/ic: Pertaining to the stomach Gastr/ectasia: Dilatation (stretching) of the stomach – -ectasia = stretching or dilatation Gastr/o/enter/o/ptosis: Prolapse of the stomach and small intestine Gastr/o/enter/o/logy: Specialty that studies diseases of the stomach and intestine 30  Enter/o = Small intestine, Intestine Enter/ic: Pertaining to intestine Enter/itis: Inflammation of the intestine Dys/enter/y: Disorder of the intestine characterized by inflammation, pain, and diarrhea – i.e. amoebic dysentery Gastr/o/enter/ic: Pertaining to the stomach and small intestine Enter/o/rrhagia: Hemorrhage of the small intestine Enter/o/cele: Intestinal hernia 31  Enter/o = Small intestine, Intestine Enter/o/clysis: Washing or irrigation of the small intestine Enter/o/plegia: Paralysis of the small intestine Enter/ectasia: Dilatation of the small intestine Enter/o/ptosis: Prolapse of the small intestine Enter/o/centesis: Surgical puncture of the small intestine Enter/o/scope: Instrument to examine the small intestine 32  Col/o = Colon (Large intestine) Col/ic or colonic: Pertaining to the colon Col/o/centesis: Surgical puncture of the colon Col/o/pexy: Surgical fixation of the colon Col/ostomy: Making a new opening into the colon Col/o/ptosis: Prolapse of the colon 33 Colon = Large Intestine 34  -clysis = Washing or Irrigation Washing/irrigation of: – Colon Col/o/clysis – Stomach Gastr/o/clysis – Small intestine Enter/o/clysis – Rectum Rect/o/clysis – Anus and Rectum Proct/o/clysis 35  Sigmoid/o = Sigmoid colon Sigmoid/o/scope: An instrument used to examine the sigmoid colon Sigmoid/o/scopy: The procedure of examining the sigmoid colon with a sigmoidoscope 36  Rect/o = Rectum Rect/al: Pertaining to the rectum Rect/o/cele: Herniation of the rectum Rect/o/scope: Instrument for examining the rectum Col/o/rect/al: Pertaining to the colon and rectum Rect/o/scopy: The process of examining the rectum with a rectoscope Rect/o/scopic (adj.): Pertaining to rectoscopy 37  Rect/o = Rectum Rect/o/plasty: Plastic surgery of the rectum Rect/o/rrhaphy: Suturing (stitching) of the rectum Rect/o/urethr/al: Pertaining to the rectum and urethra Rect/o/cyst/o/tomy: Incision of the bladder through the rectum 38 39  Proct/o = Anus and Rectum Proct/o/logist: One who specializes in diseases of the anus and rectum Proct/o/logy: The study of diseases of the anus and rectum Proct/o/plegia: Paralysis of the anus and rectum Proct/o/scope: Instrument used to examine rectum Proct/o/scopy: Examination of rectum with a proctoscope Proct/o/rrhaphy: Suturing of the rectum and anus Proct/o/pexy: Surgical fixation of the rectum and anus 40  Constipation Con/stip/a/tion is manifested by infrequent, small amount of hard consistancy bowel movements. – Comes from Latin word parts meaning “to withhold” or “press together” Cathartics (laxatives) cause liquification of the stool or relaxation of the bowel to ease defecation. Constipation can be treated or prevented by eating high fiber diet, increasing water intake, and exercising regularly. 41  Hepat/o = Liver Hepar = Liver Hepat/ic: Pertaining to the liver Hepat/o/megaly: Enlargement of the liver Hepat/o/scopy: Inspection of the liver Hepat/o/pathy: Any disease of the liver Hepat/o/tomy: Incision into the liver Hepat/ectomy: Excision of the liver Hepat/itis: Inflammation/infection of the liver 42  Hepat/o = Liver Hepat/o/rrhagia: Hemorrhage of the liver Hepat/o/rrhaphy: Suture of a wound of the liver Hepat/o/cele: Hernia of the liver Hepat/o/dynia: Pain in the liver Hepat/o/lith: Stone in the liver 43 44  Pancreat/o = Pancreas Pancreat/ic: Pertaining to the pancreas Pancreat/o/lysis: Destruction of pancreatic tissue Pancreat/o/lith: a stone or calculus in the pancreas Pancreat/o/pathy: Any pancreatic disease Pancreat/ectomy: Excision of part or all of the pancreas Pancreat/o/tomy: Incision into the pancreas Pancreat/itis: Inflammation of the pancreas 45  Chol/e/cyst = Gallbladder Chol/e/cyst/o/gram (or chol/e/cyst/o/graph): an x-ray of the gallbladder (or x-ray machine) Chol/e/cyst/itis: Inflammation of the gallbladder 46  Cholangi/o = Bile Duct ERCP = Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangi/o/pancreat/o/graphy: – Radiographic examination of common bile duct and pancreatic duct by injecting contrast media through cannula inside an endoscope. Looks for an obstruction/blockage, usually by stones. 47  A/tresia A/tresia: Not perforated or not open. Closed ducts or tubes. – Biliary a/tresia: Bile ducts are not open – Intestinal a/tresia: A part of the intestine is closed – Esophageal a/tresia: Closed esophagus – Mitral a/tresia: Congenital closure of the mitral valve 48  Cirrh/osis Kirrhos = Orange-yellow Cirrh/osis: dysfunctional liver disease, occurs as a result of malnutrition, alcoholism, poisoning, or a history of hepatitis 49  Splen/o = Spleen Splen/ectomy: Excision of the spleen Splen/o/megaly: Enlargement of the spleen Splen/o/ptosis: Prolapse of the spleen Splen/o/pexy: Surgical fixation of the spleen Splen/o/pathy: Any disease of the spleen Splen/o/rrhaphy: Suture of the spleen Splen/o/rrhagia: hemorrhage from the spleen Splen/algia: Pain in the spleen Splen/ic: Pertaining to the spleen 50  -ostomy = Anastomosis Anastomosis is a surgical connection betweentubular structures. New connection between: – Esophagus & duodenum Esophag/o/duoden/ostomy – Stomach, small intestine, and large intestine Gastr/o/enter/o/col/ostomy – Esophagus & stomach Esophag/o/gastr/ostomy – Small intestine & gall bladder Enter/o/cholecyst/ostomy Link of the lecture https://svuedu.sharepoint.com/sites/MedicalTerminology--Theoretical- /_layouts/15/Doc.aspx?OR=teams&action=edit&sourcedoc={5064E810- 6998-41E0-9274-27FEE4EF8DD3} 51  QUIZ 1. Inflammation of the small intestine. A-enteritis B- enterorrahagia C-enteroscope D- colostomy 2. instrument used to view the inside of the small intestine. A-enteritis B-enterorrahagia C-enteroscope D-colostomy 3- Inflammation of the tongue A- gingivitis B- glossitis C- hepatitis D- enteritis 52  Neurology, Psychology, Anesthesiology, and Vascular Terminology 53  Combining Form Nerve or Neuron Neur/o Vessel Angi/o Muscle My/o Artery Arteri/o Clot Thromb/o Vein Phleb/o Vein Ven/i 54  Combining Form Blood Hem/o, Hemat/o Fatty or Porridgelike Ather/o Germ, Embryonic Blast/o Involuntary Contraction Spasm/o Hard Scler/o Breaking Down, Lys/o Destruction Fibr/o Fibrous, Fiber 55  With -blast Neur/o/blast: A germ cell from which a nerve cell develops Angi/o/blast: A germ cell from which vesselsdevelop My/o/blast: A germ cell from which a muscle cell develops 56  With -spasm A spasm of a muscle My/o/spasm A spasm of a vessel Angi/o/spasm A spasm of a nerve Neur/o/spasm A spasm of an artery Arteri/o/spasm A spasm of a stomach Gastr/o/spasm 57  Using -pathy Angi/o/pathy: A generalized disease condition of the vessels Neur/o/pathy: A generalized disease condition of the nerves My/o/pathy: A generalized disease condition of the muscles 58  Using -sclerosis Angi/o/scler/osis: A hardening of a vessel Neur/o/scler/osis: A (condition of) hardening of nerve tissue My/o/scler/osis: A hardening of muscle tissue 59  Using -oma A nerve tumor Neur/oma A muscle tumor My/oma A vessel tumor Angi/oma A fibrous tumor Fibr/oma 60  Using -lysis Destruction of muscle tissue My/o/lysis Destruction of nerve tissue Neur/o/lysis Destruction of vessels Angi/o/lysis Destruction of fat Lip/o/lysis Destruction of cells Cyt/o/lysis 61  Neur/o + Suffix Neur/o/logist: A specialist who studies nervous system disorders Neur/o/logy: The study of the nervous system Neur/itis: Inflammation of a nerve Neur/o/surgeon: A physician who performs surgery on or near nerves Neur/algia: Pain along a nerve 62  Neur/o + Suffix Neur/o/pathy: Any disease of a the nerves Neur/o/arthro/o/pathy: A disease of nerves and joints Neur/o/lysis: Destruction of nerve tissue Neur/o/plasty: Surgical repair of nerves 63  -tripsy = Crushing Tripsis = Rubbing, massage, crushing, grinding Neur/o/tripsy: Surgical crushing of a nerve Lith/o/tripsy: Surgical crushing of stones (as in the bladder or ureters) using therapeutic ultrasound 64  Myel/o = Bone Marrow -or- Spinal Cord Myel/o/blast Myel/o/dys/plasia – Immature bone marrow – Defective formation of cell the spinal cord Myel/o/cyt/ic Neur/o/myel/itis – Pertaining to myelocyte – Inflammation of nerves – A hernia occurs when an and spinal cord organ pushes through an Myel/o/cele opening in the muscle or – Herniation of the spinal tissue that holds it in place. cord For example, the intestines may break through a weakened area in the abdominal wall. 65  -plasia = Formation Formation or change in development of the sense of molding and numbers of cells Dys/plasia: defective formation Myel/o/dys/plasia: defective formation of the spinal cord Chondr/o/dys/plasia: defective formation of cartilage Oste/o/chondr/o/dys/plasia: defective formation of bone and cartilage 66  -plasia = Formation A/plasia: Failure of an organ to develop properly Hyper/plasia: Overgrowth or too many cells Hypo/plasia: Underdevelopment or not enough cells 67  Psych/o = Mind, Mental Process Psych/o/logy: The study of the mind, mental process, and human behavior Psych/o/analysis: Method of psychotherapy which includes obtaining a thorough mental, social, and emotional history to uncover subconscious conflicts Psych/o/somatic: Physical ailment with mental or emotional origin Psych/o/sexual: Thoughts and emotions that affect sexual function 68  Psych/o = Mind, Mental Process Psych/iatry: The field of medicine that studies and deals with mental and neurotic disorders Psych/iatrist: The physician who specializes in the field of psychiatry Psyche = the soul, spirit, or breath that creates life Psych/o/logy: The science that studies human behavior Psych/o/logist: Scientist who researches or therapist who treats individuals for mental disorders 69 Psych/o = Mind, Mental Process Psych/o/therapy: A process of healing mental disorders using words, art, drama, or movement to express feelings Psych/o/genesis: The formation of mental characteristics Psych/osis: A severe mental condition marked by loss of contact with reality, delusions, or hallucinations 70 Psych/o = Mind, Mental Process Psych/o/neur/osis or Neur/osis: An emotional and behavioral disorder, manifested by anxiety – Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neurosis characterized by repeated distressing thoughts that produce anxiety and uncontrollable repeated actions that must be done to relieve the anxiety. 71  Psych/o = Mind, Mental Process Psych/o/trop/ic: Medication that alters mind and emotions Psych/o/motor: Mental processes that cause movement Psych/o/path/ic: Pertaining to one with a defective character or personality, or pertaining to the treatment of mental disorders Psych/iatric: Pertaining to psychiatry 72  Pharmac/o = Drugs, Medicine Neur/o/pharmac/o/logy: The study of drugs that affect the nervous system Psych/o/pharmac/o/logy: The study of drugs that act on the mind and emotions – Examples: antidepressants, tranquilizers, neuroleptics, sedatives, anticonvulsants Pharmac/o/logy: The study of drugs and their origin, nature, properties, and effects Pharmac/ist: A person licensed to prepare and dispense drugs 73  Narc/o = Sleep Narc/o/tic: a drug that produces sleep – Opium, codeine, morphine – Morpheus = Greek god of dreams – Produces pain relief, numbness, or stuporous sleep Narc/osis: Condition induced by narcotics 74  Narc/o = Sleep Narc/o/lepsy: A type of sleep disorder where one is unable to stay awake. “Seizure or attacks of sleep” Epilepsia = to seize upon Epilepsy: Seizure disorders -lepsy = Seizure – May be caused by cerebroma, cerebral arteriosclerosis, 75 Red=Arteries Blue=Veins 76  Arteri/o = Arteries Arteri/o/scler/osis: Hardening of the arteries Arteri/o/fibr/osis: A fibrous condition of the arteries Arteri/o/malacia: A softening of the arteries 77  Ather/o = Fatty Ather/o/scler/osis: Hardening of the blood vessels caused by a fatty substance (atheroma) – Can decrease vascular supply causing ischemia (temporary lack of blood flow) and necrosis (dead tissues), leading to myocardial infarction (heart attack) or cerebral infarction (stroke). – Ather/o/scler/o/tic coronary artery disease causes Angina Pectoris Ather/ectomy or End/arter/ectomy: Excision of an ather/oma – Commonly performed on the carotid artery 78 Atherosclerotic Plaque Formation 79 Atherosclerosis Myocardial Infarction 80  Hem/o, Hemat/o = Blood Hem/angi/oma: A benign tumor of a blood vessel Hem/angi/o/blast: An embryonic blood vessel cell Hem/arthr/osis: A condition of blood in a joint Hemat/o/lysis or hem/o/lysis: Destruction of blood cell Hemat/o/logy: The study of blood Hemat/o/logist: One who specializes in the science of blood 81 Hemangioma 82  Thromb/o = Blood Clot Thromb/o/angi/itis: Inflammation of a vessel with formation of a blood clot Thromb/ectomy: Excision of a thrombus (clot) Thrombus (singular): clot Thrombi (plural): clots Thromb/o/lymph/ang/itis: Inflammation of a lymph vessel with formation of a thrombus Thromb/o/phleb/itis: Inflammation of a vein with thrombus formation – Phleb/o = vein 83  Thromb/o = Blood Clot Thromb/osis: A condition of forming a thrombus Thromb/o/cyte: A cell that aids clotting Thromb/oid: Resembling a thrombus Thromb/o/gen/ic: Pertaining to the formation of a thrombus Thromb/o/lysis: Destruction of a thrombus Thromb/o/cyt/o/penia: Lack of cells that aid in clotting (platelets) 84  Thrombotic Events A thrombus may occlude a vessel, causing ischemia, producing an infarct. In heart muscle, this condition is called myocardial infarction (MI). – Occlusion = Blockage in a vessel – Infarction = Necrosis of tissue due to ischemia – Myocardial = Pertaining to heart muscles – Myocardial infarction = A heart attack If an cerebral artery is occluded, Cerebral Infarction can occur – Cerebral infarction = CVA, stroke 85 – Cerebral infarction = CVA, stroke 86 Cerebral Infarction 87  Embolic Events A piece of thrombus may break off and move through blood vessels to another part of the body. This moving thrombus is called an “Embolus”. Embolus can cause myocardial infarction or cerebral infarction also. 88  Phleb/o = Vein – Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. – Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Phleb/o/scler/osis: Hardening of veins Phleb/ectomy: Excision of a vein Phleb/o/pexy: Surgical fixation of a vein Phleb/o/plasty: Surgical repair of a vein Phleb/o/tomy: Incision into a vein, or venipuncture (for blood draw) 89  Ven/o, Ven/i = Vein Ven/i/puncture: A procedure performed to obtain a venous blood samples Ven/ous: Pertaining to veins IV injection = Intravenous injection: injecting inside vein 90  Angi/o/plasty: Repair of a vessel – i.e. Balloon angioplasty = PTCA (percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty) Angi/o/graphy: Process of obtaining an x-ray of a vessel – i.e. coronary angiography Angi/o/scopy: Process of using a looking device toexamine a vessel Phleb/o/plasty: Repair of a vein Phleb/o/graphy, Ven/o/graphy: Process of obtaining an x- ray of a vein 91  Angioplasty (PTCA= percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty) 92  -ectasia = Stretching, Dilation Dilation or Dilatation = Stretching or increasein diameter Phleb/ectasia: Venous dilatation (stretching) Arteri/ectasia: Arterial dilatation Angi/ectasia: Vessel dilatation 93  -rrhexis = Rupture Rupture of the uterus Hyster/o/rrhexis, Rupture of the Metr/o/rrhexis bladder Cyst/o/rrhexis Rupture of the small Enter/o/rrhexis intestine Rupture of the heart Cardi/o/rrhexis Rupture of a vessel Angi/o/rrhexis Rupture of an artery Arteri/o/rrhexis Rupture of a vein Phleb/o/rrhexis 94  “rrh” rrheview ( I mean review…) Discharge or flow -rrhea Hemorrhage -rrhagia Suture -rrhaphy Rupture -rrhexis 95  With hepat/o Hepat/o/rrhexis: Rupture of the liver Hepat/o/rrhaphy: Suturing of the liver (wound) Hepat/o/rrhea: Excessive discharge of bile from the liver 96  With Cyst/o Cyst/o/rrhexis: Rupture of the bladder Cyst/o/rrhagia: Hemorrhage from the bladder Cyst/o/rrhea: Discharge from the bladder Cyst/o/rrhaphy: Suturing of the bladder 97  Esthesia = Feeling, Sensation Esthesi/o/meter: A device for measuring tactile sensitivity An/esthesi/a: Without or lack of sensation An/esthesi/o/logy: Study or specialty of anesthesia An/esthesi/o/logist: A physician specialist in anesthesia An/esthet/ist: A person who administers anesthetic agents An/esthet/ic: (n.) An agent that produces anesthesia. (adj.) Pertaining to anesthesia. Dys/esthesi/a: Abnormal sensation on the skin Hypo/esthesi/a: A dulled sensitivity to touch 98  Algesia = Oversensitivity to Pain Algesia = Hyper/esthesi/a = Oversensitivity topain Alges/i/meter: Instrument used to measure pain Alges/ic: Pertaining to pain An/alges/ia: Condition without pain 99  Analgesia Without pain Paralgesia Abnormal pain Paralgia Abnormal pain Paraplegia Paralysis of the lower body Para/lysis Loss of muscle function and sensation 100  Para- = Beside, Near, Abnormal Means beside, beyond, near, abnormal Para/nephr/itis: Inflammation near the kidney Para/hepat/itis: Inflammation near the liver Para/medic: Works beside a physician assisting in rescue operation –Para/salping/itis: Inflammation near the fallopian tubes Para/oste/o/arthr/o/pathy: Disease near a bone and joint 101  Para- = Beside, Near, Abnormal Para/noid: Delusions of persecution Para/sympathetic: Part of the autonomic nervous system (running besides sympathetic nerves) – Sympathetic nerves send signals to prepare the body to fight or flight when danger is near – Parasympathetic nerves return the body to its normal resting state Par/esthesia: Abnormal touch sensation 102  Combining Form My/o Muscle Kinesi/o Movement Rhabd/o Rod shaped Lip/o Fat Fibr/o Fibrous 103  Suffix -graph Instrument for recording -gram Record, picture -algia Pain -logy Study of -oma Tumor -pathy Disease 104  My/o = Muscle Myon = Muscle My/o/card/itis: Inflammation of the heart muscle My/o/gram: The chart/tracing of muscular contractions My/o/graph: The instrument to record muscular contractions My/o/graphy: The process of recording muscular contractions with myograph My/asthenia gravis: A motor disorder/disease marked by muscular fatigue and weakness. 105  Muscle Types Covers: skeleton Rhabdomy/o Function: Skeletal – Striated (skeletal, voluntary) movement Leiomy/o Covers: organs, vessels – Smooth (Visceral, Function: Movements of Involuntary) liquids, gases, and solids Myocardi/o Covers: heart – Cardiac Function: Maintain heartbeat 106  QUIZ 1-The prefix "my/myo" means muscle, so which word below means muscle pain? A- mydipsia B- myalgia C- myitis D- myoma 2-Hemiplegia A. Paralysis of the legs B. Right sided paralysis C. Left sided weakness D. Paralysis of the arms 3-Intercostal muscles A. Muscles between the spine B. Muscles between the ribs C. Muscles around the ribs D. Muscles inside the stomach 107 Urinary and Male Reproductive Systems 108  Urinary System Function: kidneys remove nitrogenous wastes (urea, creatinine and uric acid)from bloodstream and excrete these (also composed of water, salts and acids) in the form of urine via the ureters, bladder and urethra 109 110 Anatomy of the Urinary System Kidneys: bean shaped and fist sized; filter blood, reabsorb essential substances (water, sugar, salts) and excrete waste in the form of urine Ureters: tubes that carry urine to the bladder Bladder: muscular sac that holds urine temporarily, contains sphincters that hold the urine until pressure increases Urethra: after voluntary relaxation of the sphincter muscles, urine passes from the bladder, through the urethra and the urinary meatus(external opening) out of the body 111 112  Anatomy of the Kidney Glomerulus: collection of capillaries or blood vessels; initial stage of filtration occurs here Bowman Capsule: cup-like structure that surrounds glomerulus, collectswastes materials Renal Tubule: wastes pass through from Bowman capsule and thesetubules reabsorb the essential substances Nephron: combination of renal tubule and glomerulus; there are more than1 million nephrons in a kidney Renal Pelvis: tubules empty into this area of the kidney to collect wastes inthe calyces Calyx: small cup-like regions in the renal pelvis; hold the waste or urine tobe release via the ureters to the bladder 113 114 115 116  Male Reproductive System Function: produces and releases spermatozoa for fertilization with the female ovum and releases testosteronefor the production of male bodily characteristics such as beard, pubic hair and deeper voice 117 Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System Testes: male gonad Scrotum: sack that encloses testicles Perineum: area between the anus and the scrotum Seminiferous Tubules: inside testes, produce spermatozoa and testosterone Epididymis: large tube that stores spermatozoa; runs down the lengthof each testicle and is about 16 feet long Vas Deferens: carries sperm from epididymis to the seminal vesicles Seminal Vesicles: glands at the base of the bladder that secrete seminal fluid to lubricate the sperm so that they may remain motile 118 Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System continued: Ejaculatory Duct: tube that leads to theurethra; carries semen to the urethra Urethra: tube that carries urine or semenout of the penis Prostate Gland: secretes fluid that aids inthe motility of sperm, has a muscle that aids in ejaculation Bulbourethral Glands: also secrete fluidinto the urethra 119 120 Bacteria, Blood cells and Disordersof the blood 121 Blood Cells and Their Function Erythrocytes (also called Red Blood Cells) – These cells are made in the bone marrow and are necessary to carry oxygen to the cells of the body. – Oxygen is used up by the body cells in the process of converting food to energy (which is called?) and carbon dioxide (a waste product of the cell) is then carried to the lung for exhalation. – Hemoglobin (Hemo=blood; globin=protein) is a protein within the RBC that carries (binds with) oxygen through the blood stream. 122  Leukocytes: (also called white blood cells) There are several types of White blood cells that fall into two categories: 1. Granulocytes (3): Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils 2. Agranulocytes(2): Lymphocytes and Monocytes – Granulocytes: (contain granules that stain dark in the cytoplasm) 1. Neutrophils: (polymorphonuclear) This granulocyte has very tiny light staining granules. The nucleus is frequently multi-lobed with lobes connected by thin strands of nuclear material. These cells are capable of phagocytizing(eat or engulf/swallowing) foreign cells,bacteria, and viruses. When taking a Differential WBC Count of normal blood, this type of cell would be the most numerous. Normally, neutrophils account for approx 60% of all leukocytes. If the count exceeds this amount, the cause is usually due to infection. 123  Leukocytes Cont… 2. Eosinophil: This granulocyte has large granules (A) which are acidophilic and appear pink (or eosin/o=rosy) in a stained preparation. The nucleus often has two lobes connected by a band of nuclear material. The granules contain digestive enzymes that are particularly effective against parasitic worms in their larval form. These cells also phagocytize antigen - antibody complexes; and are thought to be active and elevate in allergic conditions such as asthma and food or insect allergies. These cells make up approx 3% of the leukocytes. 3. Basophils: The basophilic granules in this cell are large, stain deep blue to purple, and are often so numerous they mask the nucleus. These granules contain histamines (that cause vasodilation) and heparin (which is an anticoagulant). 124  Leukocytes cont… – Agranulocytes (Do not contain dark staining granules in the cytoplasm; and are produced in the lymph nodes and spleen) 1. MONOCYTE This cell is the largest of the leukocytes and is agranular. The nucleus is most often "U" or kidney bean shaped; the cytoplasm is light blue with no granules. These cells leave the blood stream and enter tissues to become macrophages. As a monocyte or macrophage, these cells are phagocytic and defend the body against viruses and bacteria. – These cells account for 4-9% of all leukocytes. 125  Leukocyte cont… 2. LYMPHOCYTE : The lymphocyte is an agranular cell with a clear cytoplasm which stains pale blue (Notice that the nucleus almost fills the cell leaving a very thin rim of cytoplasm.) This cell is much smallerthan the three granulocytes. These cells play an important role in our immune response. The T- lymphocytes act against virus infected cells andtumor cells. The B-lymphocytes produce antibodies. Patients with AIDS keep a careful watch on theirT-cell level, an indicator of the AIDS virus' activity. 126  Blood Cells cont… Platelets (also called Thrombocytes): are cell fragments, and are seen next to the "t's" in the picture below. Platelets are important for proper blood clotting (also called coagulation). 127  What is Anemia? Anemia refers to a medical condition in which there is a reduction in the number of erythrocytes or the amount hemoglobin in the circulating blood. There are many different kinds of Anemia's: Vitamin B-12- Your body needs vitamin B12 to make red blood cells. In order to provide vitamin B12 to your cells you must eat enough foods that contain vitamin B12, such as meat, poultry, shellfish, eggs, and dairy products. Hemolytic- Hemolytic anemia is a condition in which there are not enough red blood cells in the blood, due to the premature destruction of red blood cells. Pernicious- Pernicious anemia is a decrease in red blood cells that occurs when the body cannot properly absorb vitamin B12 from the gastrointestinal tract. Vitamin B12 is necessary for the proper development of red blood cells. Sickle cell- Hemoglobin is a protein inside red blood cells that carries oxygen. Sickle cell anemia is caused by an abnormal type of hemoglobin called hemoglobin S. Hemoglobin S distorts the shape of red blood cells, especially when exposed to low oxygen levels. The distorted red blood cells are shaped like crescents or sickles. These fragile, sickle-shaped cells deliver less oxygen to the body's tissues. They can also clog more easily in small blood vessels, and break into pieces that disrupt healthy blood flow. Sickle cell anemia is inherited from both parents. 128  Anemia cont… Aplastic anemia is a failure of the bone marrow to make enough blood cells. All blood cell types are affected. Aplastic anemia is generally caused by injury to blood stem cells. Normal blood stem cells divide and turn into all blood cell types, mainly white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. When blood stem cells are injured, there is a reduction in all blood cell types. Certain drugs Chemotherapy Disorders present at birth (congenital disorders) Drug therapy to suppress the immune system Pregnancy Radiation therapy Toxins such as benzene or arsenic 129  Ischemia: Is an inadequate blood supply (or circulation) to a local areaof the body due to blockage of the blood vessels to the area. It is generally caused by vasoconstriction (narrowing of vessels), thrombosis (clots), embolism (fat, air or bacterial clumps) or injury to a vessel. Many people have ischemic episodes without knowing it. Some causes are: Sickle Cell Anemia Compression of blood vessels Ventricular Tachycardia Plaque build-up in arteries (atherosclerosis) Blood clots Extremely low blood pressure as caused by heart attack Congenital Heart Defects 130  Types of Bacteria Streptococcus: is a berry shaped bacterium that grows in twisted chains. One group of strep can cause conditions such as Strep throat, tonsillitis, rheumatic fever and kidney disorders; and another types causes infections of the teeth, sinuses, and valves in the heart. Staphylococci: are spherical bacteria that brow in bunches (like grapes) This bacteria can cause lesions that are external such as: skin abscesses, boils, and styes; or internal causing abscesses in the bone and kidney. A White blood cells move through the walls of the blood vessels into the area of the infection and collects within the damaged tissue. During this process, pus forms. Pus is the buildup of fluid, living and dead white blood cells, dead tissue, and bacteria or other foreign substances. Diplococci: are in pairs. This bacteria is the most common bacteria arranged spherical cause of bacterial pneumonia in adults and a STD called gonorrhea (gonococci) in the reproductive system 131  Leukocytosis Leukocytosis is a condition characterized by an elevated number of white cells in the blood What causes leukocytosis? Infection: An infection is a common cause of leukocytosis. An infection may be caused by germs called bacteria. It may also be caused by a virus or a parasite (a bug that may live in your bowels). Inflammation: Inflammation (swelling, pain, and redness) is another common cause of leukocytosis. Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints that may cause leukocytosis. Tissue damage: You may get leukocytosis when your body tissue is damaged, such as from burns. Some diseases that cause tissue damage include cancer and heart disease. Immune reactions: Leukocytosis may occur when your immune system reacts too strongly. Bone marrow problems: You may get leukocytosis if your bone marrow makes too many WBCs. Medicine: Some medicines may cause leukocytosis. Stress: You may get leukocytosis if you have a lot of emotional stress. Leukocytosis may also occur if your body goes through physical stress. 132  Spleenomegaly The spleen is a small organ located just below your rib cage on your left side. It filters blood and removes old and damaged red blood cells, bacteria, and other particles as they pass through the blood vessels within the spleen. It produces lymphocytes and assists the immune system. It also disposes of dying RBC’s and manufactures WBC’s (lymphocytes) to fight disease. Normally, your spleen is about the size of a fist, but a number of conditions can cause spleenomegaly; such Various Infections (including Bacterial, viral and Parasitic infections), Diseases of the liver, Blood diseases, and Cancer 133  134  Tonsillitis: Tonsils are made of soft glandular tissue and are part of the immune system. They are the two bumps or mounds of tissue located in the back of the throat, and are made up of what is called lymphoid tissue. Lymphoid tissue produces lymphocytes; white blood cells that help to filter and fight bacteria and viruses which you may ingest or breathe in. Antibodies and immune cells in the tonsils help to kill germs and help to prevent throat and lung infections. Streptococcal infections can sometimes cause them to become infected and inflamed 135  Amniocentesis Amniocentesis is a procedure that is carried out during pregnancy, usually to diagnose various chromosome or genetic conditions in the unborn, developing baby. A sample of the amniotic fluid inside your uterus (womb) that is surrounding the baby is taken using a fine needle. Tests are done on the fluid in the laboratory. Amniocentesis is offered after 12 completed weeks of pregnancy (usually between 15- 18 weeks). The most common reason for a pregnant woman to be offered amniocentesis is to see if their developing baby has a chromosome disorder such as Down's syndrome. There is a small risk of complications with amniocentesis, including miscarriage. 136  What is a Hernia???????? A Hernia occurs when the contents of a body cavity. In this condition, a weak spot or opening in a body wall, often due to laxity of the muscles, allows part of the organ to protrude. Hiatal hernia is a condition in which the upper portion of the stomach protrudes into the chest cavity through an opening of the diaphragm called the esophageal hiatus Inguinal hernia: occurs when part of the intestines or tissues pushes through a weak spot in your muscle. This causes a bulge in the groin region or scrotum Rectocele: also called a vaginal hernia.. The rectum is the last part of the large bowel (colon) where stool is stored for a short time. In women, the rectum is just behind the vagina. 137  Blepharoptosis Blepharoptosis, also referred to as ptosis, is defined as an abnormal low-lying upper eyelid margin with the eye in primary gaze. 138  Laparoscopy Laparoscopy is a surgery that uses a thin, lighted tube put through a cut (incision) in the belly to look at the abdominal organs (peritoneal cavity) or the female pelvic organs. Laparoscopy is used to find problems such as cysts, adhesions, fibroids, and infection. Tissue samples can also be taken for biopsy through the tube/instrument (laparoscope). 139  QUIZ 1-Nephrectomy A. Surgical removal of a nerve B. Surgical repair of a nerve C. Surgical removal of a kidney D. Surgical repair of a kidney 140 141 142 143 144 145 Good Luck 146