Exploring Public Speaking: 4th Edition PDF

GALILEO, University System of Georgia GALILEO Open Learning Materials Communication Open Textbooks Communication Summer 2019 Exploring Public Speaking: 4th Edition Barbara Tucker Dalton State College, [email protected] Kristin Barton Dalton State College, [email protected] Amy Burger Dalton State College, [email protected] Jerry Drye Dalton State College, [email protected] Cathy Hunsicker Dalton State College, [email protected] See next page for additional authors Follow this and additional works at: https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/communication-textbooks Part of the Communication Commons Recommended Citation Tucker, Barbara; Barton, Kristin; Burger, Amy; Drye, Jerry; Hunsicker, Cathy; Mendes, Amy; and LeHew, Matthew, "Exploring Public Speaking: 4th Edition" (2019). Communication Open Textbooks. 1. https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/communication-textbooks/1 This Open Textbook is brought to you for free and open access by the Communication at GALILEO Open Learning Materials. It has been accepted for inclusion in Communication Open Textbooks by an authorized administrator of GALILEO Open Learning Materials. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Authors Barbara Tucker, Kristin Barton, Amy Burger, Jerry Drye, Cathy Hunsicker, Amy Mendes, and Matthew LeHew This open textbook is available at GALILEO Open Learning Materials: https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/communication-textbooks/1 Exploring Public Speaking i Exploring Public Speaking: The Open Educational Resource College Public Speaking Textbook 4th Edition A Creative Commons Licensed Open Educational Resource for Introductory College Public Speaking Courses Exploring Public Speaking ii Primary Author and Editor: Dr. Barbara G. Tucker Contributors: Ms. Amy Burger Mr. Chad Daniel Mr. Jerry Drye Ms. Cathy Hunsicker Mr. Matthew LeHew Ms. Amy Mendes Consultants: Mr. Nick Carty Ms. Kim Correll Ms. Jackie Daniels Mr. Zach Drye (graphics) Dr. Clint Kinkead Dr. Sarah Min Dr. Tami Tomasello Dr. Marjorie Yambor In Memory of Dr. Kristin Barton, Originator of the Project and First Editor Textbook files available at http://exploringpublicspeaking.com For questions regarding this textbook, contact: Dr. Barbara G. Tucker Department of Communication Dalton State College 650 College Drive Dalton, GA 30720 Lorberbaum Liberal Arts 107B (706) 272-4411 [email protected] Exploring Public Speaking iii This text exists under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommer- cial-ShareAlike 4.0 License, and as such it may be used for non-commer- cial purposes. Any portion of this text may be altered or edited; however, author attribution is required, and if you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same li- cense as the original. Portions of this text were adapted from a free, open- source textbook without attribution as requested by the work’s original creator(s) and licensee(s). The authors of Exploring Public Speaking request that you let them know if you plan to use all or a major part of this textbook as a primary text for your basic communication classes. Photographs are used by permission of the Office of Marketing and Com- munication at Dalton State College and are copyrighted 2019. Exploring Public Speaking iv Introduction to the Fourth Edition of Exploring Public Speaking Exploring Public Speaking: The Open Educational Resource College Public Speaking Textbook began as the brainchild of Dr. Kris Barton, for- mer Chair of the Department of Communication at Dalton State College in Dalton, Georgia. It also was made possible through a generous Textbook Transformation Grant in 2015 from Affordable Learning Georgia, a highly successful program of the University System of Georgia. In applying for the original grant, Dr. Barton asked me to help him author/compile the text. The original goal of our creation of Exploring Pubic Speaking was to pro- vide a high-quality, usable, accessible, and low-cost textbook for the hun- dreds of students who take COMM 1110 at Dalton State College every year. This course is required of all degree-seeking students. We have already been able to save hundreds of thousands of dollars for students at our insti- tution with this text. Dr. Barton and I worked on creating the textbook from July 2015 until May 2016, with the goal of going live with the text in Summer of 2016. Tragically, Dr. Barton passed away in early May 2016. He has been greatly missed as a friend, colleague, father, scholar, teacher, and mentor. However, the launch of the book proceeded. In Summer 2017 I took on a significant revision and update, which I named the Second Edition. In that edition, I included information on college student success in the appen- dices for institutional reasons, and we have chosen to continue including those. In January 2018, colleague Matthew LeHew and I won a grant from the University System to create the ancillaries and improve the format for more accessibility. In April 2019, we were awarded another mini-grant to further revise the text and create a website for it. For this fourth edition, we have removed “Dalton State” from the title and examples for wider appeal. An appendix on library research retains the information for specific use of Roberts Library on our campus. We felt these changes were needed in the fourth edition because, unexpect- edly and happily, the text has also been downloaded close to 40,000 times from the GALILEO site as of August 2019 by readers all over the world, is used on six continents, and has been adopted at many other institutions. These institutions include state universities, well-known private universi- ties, community and technical colleges, liberal arts colleges, and dual en- rollment programs. Faculty users are welcome to submit their information on the form at http://exploringpublicspeaking.com for access to the ancil- laries. Exploring Public Speaking v Over 90% of the book is originally by Dr. Barton, me, or other colleagues at Dalton State College. Some parts, specifically from Chapters 9, 10, and 15, are adapted from another open resource public speaking text whose author prefers not to be cited. In Exploring Public Speaking, especially in its second through fourth editions, we have attempted to create a usable, zero-cost textbook for basic public speaking courses or courses that include basic public speaking skills as one of their primary learning outcomes. The free, open nature of the text means that instructors are able to use all or part of it, and add their own materials. We believe this text addresses all the subjects that traditional publishers’ books would address in an appropriate writing style and with appropriate college-level learning theory in mind. The appendices address some addi- tional topics that might be excluded from most texts, but that we believe add to the experience: learning theory, plagiarism, speaking online, speak- ing to diverse audiences, and humor in public speaking. In the third and fourth editions we have added “case study” examples and some different outline samples. We think this book is especially useful in coverage of PowerPoint, audience analysis and responsiveness, ethics in public speaking, persuasion, special occasion speeches, and structure of speeches. Because it was written by communication professors with decades of experience in the classroom, we are aware of the needs of basic public speaking students. Three ancillaries are currently available: electronic “flash cards” for study, PowerPoint slide decks on the 15 main chapters, and test banks for the 15 main chapters. As the website is developed, it will include videos of student speeches. Two editorial notes: As per the American Collegiate Dictionary (2016), in most cases we use the pronoun “they” when the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun, whether singular or plural, to avoid the awkward he/she/him/ her/his/her combinations. Second, we admit to some redundancy in the textbook. Because it is an open educational resource, some users do not access the whole text. For clarity, sometimes a concept that is explained in a preceding chapter is re-explained. Thank you for downloading Exploring Public Speaking, and the co-authors and I truly wish you happy teaching and learning with it. We welcome input. If you choose to use it, let us know at [email protected]. We keep a database of those who contact us about the book so that we can con- tact you about the text. Sincerely, Barbara G. Tucker Exploring Public Speaking vi Authors and Contributors Amy Burger (Chapter 5, Appendix E and F) Amy Burger is a reference and instruction librarian at Dalton State College. She is also pursuing a master’s degree in English with a concentration in rhetoric and professional writing from the Uni- versity of Tennessee at Chattanooga. She lives in Northwest Georgia with her husband Ross and their pets. Chad Daniel (Chapter 11/Expert Advice on the Voice from an Acting Instructor) Chad has his Master of Fine Arts degree in Theatre from Southern Methodist University and over twenty years of teaching and professional experience. Chad has performed and directed in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Dallas, Nashville, Austin; Lyon, France and London, England. He has spent three years studying Voice and Speech with some of the best teachers in the industry, and eight years teaching Voice at various institutions throughout the Southeast. Jerry Drye (Appendix D) Jerry Drye is a professional humorist, public speaker, and educator. His career has included work as a comedian, motivational humorist, broadcaster, conference and workshop leader, and educator. He is a gifted storyteller and award winning professor. He has been called the “…ultimate entertainer (Ven- able),” and “…the best combination of Humor and Humanity I have ever seen (Hawkins).” He earned the B.S. and M.S. degrees in Organizational Communication at Murray State University where he served as a graduate teaching assistant. He obtained the Ed.S. degree in Adult Education from the University of Georgia. His teaching career includes stops at Clemson University and Dalton State College. He has studied and practiced the craft of public address and the humor arts for many years. He is in high demand as a keynote speaker, workshop leader, and consultant. He teaches college classes in Humor Communication, Public Speaking, Human Communication, and Organizational Communica- tion. He has performed in concert halls, corporate board rooms, educational institutions, and churches and faith-based organizations. His motto is “Laughter is not a luxury; it is a necessity.” Cathy Hunsicker (Appendix B, Parts 3, 4, 5, and 6) Prior to obtaining credits to teach communication courses, Ms. Hunsicker taught reading and study skills for thirty years. She developed courses in reading, study skills, and problem solving for aca- demic institutions and businesses, such as Reading Area Community College, Alvernia College, and the Reading Eagle in Reading,PA; Dalton State College, Dalton, GA; various county associations and institutions in Berks County, PA; and Agere Systems (formerly AT&T) plants in Reading, Allentown, and Breiningsville, PA. Working with students with learning disabilities at the college level led to Ms. Hunsicker honing her repertoire of cognitive strategies and problem solving skills to assist all kinds of students, especially adults, in acquiring an enriched learning experience to further their edu- cation and/or seek promotion on the job. Exploring Public Speaking vii Amy Mendes (Appendix B, Part 7) Amy Mendes is a Lecturer in the Communication Department at Dalton State College. Her approach to teaching Public Speaking is very student centered. She believes that every individual has a sto- ry to tell if given the right tools, and cherishes the opportunity to help students find those tools. Ms. Mendes attended Berry College for her undergraduate degree in Communication, and earned a Master’s in Communication from Westchester University. She is currently working on her dissertation to complete a doctorate in Higher Education Administration. Amy is married to Dr. Vincent Mendes, and they have three lovely girls who eschew public speaking as much as possible. Matthew LeHew (Editor) As Assistant Professor at Dalton State College, Matthew LeHew teaches courses in public relations, in- tegrated marketing communication, film studies, and video production. His research interests include various areas of media studies, especially examination of virtual communities for online games. He is currently writing his dissertation for the Ph.D. in Communication (Media and Society track) at Geor- gia State University. He lives in Marietta, Georgia with his wife, son, and two dogs. Barbara G. Tucker (Editor and Primary Author) As chair of the Department of Communication at Dalton State College, Dr. Tucker oversees programs in communication, general studies, music, theatre, and interdisciplinary studies. She is Professor of Communication and has worked in higher education for over 40 years. She lives in Ringgold, Georgia, with her husband; they have one son. She is a novelist and playwright. Her research areas are the ba- sic course, open educational resources, historical perspectives on rhetoric, and gratitude. Her website is www.barbaragrahamtucker.com. Exploring Public Speaking i Table of Contents Introduction to Fourth Edition of Exploring Public Speaking............................................................ iv Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking...............................................................................................1 1.1 – What is Public Speaking?....................................................................................................... 2 1.2 – Anxiety and Public Speaking................................................................................................. 4 1.3 - Understanding the Process of Public Speaking....................................................................10 1.4 – The Value of Public Speaking in Your Life...........................................................................15 1.5 – Getting Started in Public Speaking......................................................................................16 Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and Listening....................................................................................... 20 2.1 – The Importance of Audience Analysis.................................................................................21 2.2 – Demographic Characteristics...............................................................................................21 2.3 – Psychographic Characteristics............................................................................................30 2.4 – Contextual Factors of Audience Analysis........................................................................... 34 2.5 – Listening in Public Speaking Settings................................................................................ 37 Chapter 3: Ethics in Public Speaking................................................................................................... 44 3.1 – Sources of Ethical Stances on Communication and Public Speaking................................ 45 3.2 – Credibility and Ethics.......................................................................................................... 49 3.3 – Plagiarism............................................................................................................................ 52 Chapter 4: Developing Topics for Your Speech................................................................................... 62 4.1 – Getting Started with Your Topic and Purpose.................................................................... 63 4.2 – Formulating a Specific Purpose Statement........................................................................ 64 4.3 – Formulating a Central Idea Statement............................................................................... 70 4.4 – Problems to Avoid with Specific Purpose and Central Idea Statements........................... 73 Chapter 5: Researching Your Speeches............................................................................................... 78 5.1 – Research............................................................................................................................... 79 5.2 – Accessing Information Through a Library.........................................................................80 5.3 – Research on the Internet..................................................................................................... 83 5.4 – Conducting Your Own Research......................................................................................... 85 Exploring Public Speaking ii Chapter 6: Organizing and Outlining Your Speech............................................................................. 89 6.1 – Why We Need Organization in Speeches............................................................................90 6.2 – Patterns of Organization..................................................................................................... 92 6.3 – Connective Statements.......................................................................................................101 6.4 – Outlining............................................................................................................................105 Chapter 7: Supporting Your Speech Ideas......................................................................................... 109 7.1 – Why Supporting Materials are Needed..............................................................................110 7.2 – Types of Supporting Materials........................................................................................... 114 7.3 – Attention Factors and Supporting Material..................................................................... 128 Chapter 8: Introductions and Conclusions.........................................................................................134 8.1 – General Guidelines for Introductions and Conclusions....................................................135 8.2 – Structuring the Introduction.............................................................................................136 8.3 – Examples of Introductions................................................................................................147 8.4 – Structuring the Conclusion................................................................................................149 8.5 – Examples of Conclusions...................................................................................................155 Chapter 9: Presentation Aids in Speaking..........................................................................................156 9.1 – What Are Presentation Aids?.............................................................................................157 9.2 – Functions of Presentation Aids......................................................................................... 158 9.3 – Types of Presentation Aids................................................................................................166 9.4 – Using Presentation Slides..................................................................................................179 9.5 – Low-Tech Presentation Aids............................................................................................. 189 Chapter 10: Language..........................................................................................................................193 10.1 – What Language Is and Does.............................................................................................194 10.2 – Standards for Language in Public Speaking....................................................................197 10.3 – Developing Your Ability to Use Effective Language in Public Speaking........................ 207 Chapter 11: Delivery........................................................................................................................... 210 11.1 – The Importance of Delivery.............................................................................................. 211 11.2 – Methods of Speech Delivery.............................................................................................212 11.3 – Preparing For Your Delivery.............................................................................................215 Exploring Public Speaking iii 11.4 – Practicing Your Delivery...................................................................................................219 11.5 – What to Do When Delivering Your Speech..................................................................... 224 Chapter 12: Informative Speaking.....................................................................................................238 12.1 – What is an Informative Speech?...................................................................................... 239 12.2 – Types of Informative Speeches.......................................................................................240 12.3 – Guidelines for Selecting an Informative Speech Topic................................................... 244 12.4 – Guidelines for Preparing an Informative Speech........................................................... 246 12.5 – Giving Informative Speeches in Groups.........................................................................248 Sample Outline: Informative Speech on Lord Byron................................................................ 250 Sample Outline: Informative Speech on Haunted Places in Gettysburg.................................. 253 Chapter 13: Persuasive Speaking....................................................................................................... 256 13.1 – Why Persuade?................................................................................................................. 257 13.2 – A Definition of Persuasion............................................................................................... 257 13.3 – Why is Persuasion Hard?.................................................................................................261 13.4 – Traditional Views of Persuasion..................................................................................... 264 13.5 – Constructing a Persuasive Speech................................................................................... 267 Sample Outline: Persuasive Speech Using Topical Pattern...................................................... 277 Sample Outline: Persuasive Speech Using Monroe’s Motivated Sequence Pattern.................280 Chapter 14: Logical Reasoning...........................................................................................................286 14.1 – What is Correct Reasoning?............................................................................................ 287 14.2 – Inductive Reasoning........................................................................................................288 14.3 – Deductive Reasoning....................................................................................................... 292 14.4 – Logical Fallacies............................................................................................................... 295 Chapter 15: Special Occasion Speaking............................................................................................. 305 15.1 – Understanding Special Occasion Speeches.....................................................................306 15.2 – Types of Special Occasion Speeches................................................................................308 15.3 – Special Occasion Language..............................................................................................319 15.4 – Special Occasion Delivery................................................................................................320 Appendix A: Cultural Diversity in Public Speaking........................................................................... 324 Exploring Public Speaking iv Benefits and Challenges............................................................................................................. 324 Implications................................................................................................................................328 Appendix B: Succeeding as a College Student................................................................................... 330 Part 1: How To Be a College Student..........................................................................................331 Part 2: Learning to Learn........................................................................................................... 344 Part 3: Reading Your Textbooks and Other Resources............................................................. 356 Part 4: Effective Memorization..................................................................................................360 Part 5: Test Anxiety/Speech Anxiety......................................................................................... 363 Part 6: Test-taking...................................................................................................................... 364 Part 7: Avoiding Plagiarism........................................................................................................368 Appendix C: Public Speaking Online................................................................................................. 373 Preparation for Online Speaking............................................................................................... 373 During the Web Speech.............................................................................................................. 375 Ending......................................................................................................................................... 376 Speaking for an Online Class..................................................................................................... 376 Appendix D: Funny Talk: The Art and Craft of Using Humor in Public Address............................. 378 Humor and Audiences: Positives and Negatives....................................................................... 379 Humorous Speaking Tips...........................................................................................................380 Appendix E: APA Citation.................................................................................................................. 383 E.1– Citation...............................................................................................................................383 E.2—When to Cite......................................................................................................................384 E.3- Elements of Citation...........................................................................................................384 E.4-APA Resources..................................................................................................................... 385 E.5-Reference List...................................................................................................................... 385 Appendix F: Research with Dalton State Library Resources.............................................................389 “GIL-Find,” the Library Catalog.................................................................................................389 GALILEO....................................................................................................................................389 Appendix G: Glossary......................................................................................................................... 392 Appendix H: References.....................................................................................................................403 Exploring Public Speaking v Appendix I: Sample Outlines and Formats......................................................................................... 411 Informative Speech on Types of Coffee Around the World........................................................ 411 Persuasive Speech on Reading During Leisure Time.................................................................413 Sample Format 1..........................................................................................................................416 Sample Format 2.........................................................................................................................417 Sample Format 3.........................................................................................................................419 Appendix J: Case Studies....................................................................................................................421 Exploring Public Speaking 1 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, the student will be able to: Define public speaking, channel, feedback, noise, encode, decode, symbol, denotative, and connotative; Explain what distinguishes public speaking from other modes of com- munication; List the elements of the communication process; Explain the origins of anxiety in public speaking; Apply some strategies for dealing with personal anxiety about public speaking; Discuss why public speaking is part of the curriculum at this college and important in personal and professional life. Chapter Preview 1.1 – What is Public Speaking? 1.2 – Anxiety and Public Speaking 1.3 – Understanding the Process of Public Speaking 1.4 – The Value of Public Speaking in Your Life 1.5 – Getting Started in Public Speaking Exploring Public Speaking 2 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking 1.1 – What is Public Speaking? What is your mental picture when you think about “public speaking?” The President of the United States delivering an inaugural address? A sales representative seeking to persuade clients in a board room? Your minister, priest, or rabbi presenting a sermon at a worship service? Your professor lecturing? A dramatic courtroom scene, probably from Law & Order? Pol- iticians debating before an election? A comedian doing stand-up at a night club? All of these and more are instances of public speaking. Be assured that public speaking takes many forms every day in our country and across the world. Now let’s get personal: Do you see yourself as a public speaker? And when you do, do you see yourself as confident, prepared, and effective? Or do you see a person who is nervous, unsure of what to say, and feeling as if they are failing to get their message across? You find yourself in this basic public speaking course and probably have mixed emotions. More than likely, it is required for graduation in your major. Perhaps you have taken a formal public speaking course before. Although they are not as common in secondary education as in colleges (Education Commission of the States, 2015), public speaking instruction may have been part of your high school experience. Maybe you competed in debate or individual speaking events or you have acted in plays. These activities can help you in this course, especially in terms of confidence and delivery. On the other hand, it might be that the only public speaking experience you have had felt like a failure and therefore left you embarrassed and wanting to forget it and stay far away from public speaking. It might have been years ago, but the feeling still stays with you. This class is not some- thing you have been looking forward to, and you may have put it off. May- be your attitude is, “Let’s just get it over with.” You might think that it’s just another course you have to “get through” in order to study your ma- jor—what really interests you—and start a career in your field. These are all understandable emotions because, as you have probably heard or read, polls indicate public speaking is one of the things Amer- icans fear the most. As Jerry Seinfeld has said in his stand-up comedy routine, According to most studies, people’s number one fear is public speaking. Number two is death. Death is number two. Does that sound right? This means to the average person, if you go to a fu- neral, you’re better off in the casket than doing the eulogy. (Garber, 2018) Exploring Public Speaking 3 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking (Note: this passage is quoted by many and found all over the Internet, but we will cite R. I. Garber here because he actually takes issue with Sein- feld’s statement as it is often quoted. Garber cites the original study, the Bruskin-Goldring Research Report from 1993. That report placed “speak- ing before a group” as the number one fear of 45% of the 1000 subjects. Therefore, while it is a stretch to think that most people fear death less than giving a short speech, aversion toward public speaking situations and tasks is common.) Before we go any further, though, what do we mean by “public speaking?” Public speaking The most obvious answer is “talking in front of a group of people.” For the purposes of this class and this book, public speaking is more formal an organized, face-to- than that. Public speaking is an organized, face-to-face, prepared, in- face, prepared, inten- tentional (purposeful) attempt to inform, entertain, or persuade a group tional (purposeful) of people (usually five or more) through words, physical delivery, and (at attempt to inform, times) visual or audio aids. In almost all cases, the speaker is the focus of entertain, or persuade attention for a specific amount of time. There still may be some back-and- a group of people forth interaction, such as questions and answers with the audience, but the (usually five or more) speaker usually holds the responsibility to direct that interaction either through words, phys- during or after the prepared speech has concluded. ical delivery, and (at times) visual or audio Garber (2010) cites two scholars of public speaking from the early 20th aids. century, Edwin Du Bois Shurter and James Albert Winans, who wrote of public speaking as an “enlarged conversation,” and as such it has some similarities to conversations but some major differences, too. As a conver- sation, it has elements of: awareness of and sensitivity toward your audience (in this case, more than one person); an exchange of explicit messages about content (facts, ideas, infor- mation) and less explicit ones about relationship (how you relate to one another, such as trust, liking, respect);[this content/relationship dichotomy will come up again in this book and is characteristic of all communication]; a dependence on feedback to know if you are successful in being un- derstood (usually nonverbal in public speaking, but still present); the fact that the public speaking communication is (almost always) face-to-face rather than mediated (through a computer, telephone, mass media, or writing). As an “enlarged conversation” public speaking needs to be more pur- poseful (to entertain, inform, or persuade); highly organized with certain formal elements (introduction and clear main points, for example); and usually dependent on resources outside of your personal experience (re- search to support your ideas). Of course, the delivery would have to be “enlarged” or “projected” as well— louder, more fluid, and more energetic, depending on the size and type of Exploring Public Speaking 4 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking room in which you are speaking—and you will be more conscious of the correctness and formality of your language. You might say, “That sucks” in a conversation but are less likely to do so in front of a large audience in certain situations. If you can keep in mind the basic principle that pub- lic speaking is formalized communication with an audience designed to achieve mutual understanding for mutual benefit (like a conversation), rather than a “performance,” you will be able to relate to your audience on the human and personal level. 1.2 – Anxiety and Public Speaking Why are so many people afraid of public speaking? This is a complex question, and the answer is tied to many personal and psychological fac- tors such as self-efficacy, self-confidence, past experience, training, culture, and context. The term “glossophobia,” combining the two Greek words Glossophobia for “tongue” and “fear or dread,” has been coined to refer to a severe fear of public …a severe fear of public speaking. People who suffer from glos- speaking sophobia tend to freeze in front of any audience, even a couple of people. They find their mouth dries up, their voice is weak and their body starts shaking. They may even sweat, go red and feel their heart thumping rapidly. (“Do You Suffer From Glossopho- bia?,” 2015) This fear may arise in situations such as responding to a professor in class, participating in a job interview, or having to interact with a stranger, not just giving formal speeches. For many people, fear of public speaking or being interviewed for a job does not rise to the level of a true “phobia” in psychological terms. A pho- bia is defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV as a state where someone experiences “significant and persistent fear when in the presence of, or anticipating the presence of, the object of fear, which may be an object, place or situation” (Grohol, 2013). They are just uncomfortable in public speaking situations and need strategies for addressing the task. Why Anxiety and Public Speaking? Scholars at the University of Wisconsin-Stout (“Public Speaking Anxiety,” 2015) explain that anxiety in public speaking can result from one of several misperceptions: “all or nothing” thinking—a mindset that if your speech falls short of “perfection” (an unrealistic standard), then you are a failure as a public speaker; overgeneralization—believing that a single event (such as failing at a task) is a universal or “always” event; and Exploring Public Speaking 5 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking fortune telling—the tendency to anticipate that things will turn out badly, no matter how much practice or rehearsal is done. Likewise, many new college students operate under the false belief that intelligence and skill are “fixed.” In their minds, a person is either smart or skilled in something, or they are not. Some students apply this false belief to math and science subjects, saying things like “I’m just no good at math and I never will be,” or even worse, “I guess I am just not smart enough to be in college.” As you can tell, these beliefs can sabotage someone’s college career. Also unfortunately, the same kind of false beliefs are applied to public speaking, and people conclude that because public speaking is hard, they are just not “naturally good” at it and have no inborn skill. They give up on improving and avoid public speaking at all costs. Modern research by Stanford University psychologist Carol Dweck (2007) and others shows that intelligence and related skills are “malleable,” meaning that they are open to change and growth. Understanding and accepting that your intelligence and skill in different areas is not fixed or “stuck,” but open to growth, will have a significant influence on your suc- cess in life. It will also help you see that just because learning a subject or task is hard does not mean you are not or cannot be good at it. Obstacles and barriers that make learning hard are opportunities for growth, not “getting off places.” There is more to Dr. Dweck’s research. We would recommend her book Mindset. Many students enter a public speaking class thinking “I’m just no good at this and never will be,” just like some students feel about college algebra or science. Dr. Dweck and other learning psychologists show that learning a new skill might be hard work, but the difficulty is not a sign that learning is impossible. Along with the wrong way of thinking about one’s learning and growth, two other fears contribute to anxiety in public speaking. The first is fear Exploring Public Speaking 6 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking of failure. This fear can result from several sources: real or perceived bad experiences involving public speaking in the past, lack of preparation, lack of knowledge about public speaking, not knowing the context, and uncer- tainty about one’s task as a public speaker (such as being thrown into a situation at the last minute). It is not the goal of this book to belittle that fear. It is real and justified to some extent because you might lack understanding of the public speaking task or lack good speaking experiences upon which to build. One of the goals and fringe benefits of this course is that you are not just going to learn about public speaking, but you are going to do it—at least four or five times—with a real audience. You will overcome some of your fears and feel that you have accomplished something of personal benefit. The second fear is fear of rejection of one’s self or one’s ideas. This one is more serious in some respects. You may feel rejection because of fear of failure, or you may feel that the audience will reject your ideas, or worse, you as a person. Knowing how to approach the public speaking task and explain your ideas can help. However, you should ask yourself deep and probing questions as to why you believe that your audience will reject you because this fear is rooted in a belief. You should ask yourself what possi- bly false belief is causing your anxiety. One of the core attitudes an effective and ethical public speaker must have is respect for and empathy with the audience. Your audience in this class is your peers who want to learn and want to get through the class success- fully (just like you do). Your audience also includes your instructor who wants to see you succeed in the course as well. Believe me, public speaking teachers get a lot of pleasure from hearing successful student speeches! Your audience wants you to succeed if for no other reason than a good speech is much easier and pleasant to listen to than a poor one. Again, gaining practice in this class with a real, live audience can help you work through the roots of your fear of rejection. Beyond dealing with the root fears that may cause you to have a “fright or flight” response when it comes to public speaking, there are some prac- tical answers to dealing with fears about public speaking. Of course, fear responses can be reduced if you know how public speaking works, as you will see throughout this textbook. But there are some other strategies, and most of them have to do with preparation. Addressing Public Speaking Anxiety Mental Preparation If your neighbor’s house were on fire, getting to the phone to call the fire department would be your main concern. You would want to get the ad- dress right and express the urgency. That is admittedly an extreme exam- Exploring Public Speaking 7 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking ple, but the point is about focus. To mentally prepare, you want to put your focus where it belongs, on the audience and the message. Mindfulness and full attention to the task are vital to successful public speaking. If you are concerned about a big exam or something personal going on in your life, your mind will be divided, and that division will add to your stress. The main questions to ask yourself are “Why am I so anxiety-ridden about giving a presentation?” and “What is the worst that can happen?” For ex- ample, you probably won’t know most of your classmates at the beginning of the course, adding to your anxiety. By midterm, you should be develop- ing relationships with them and be able to find friendly faces in the audi- ence. However, very often we make situations far worse in our minds than they actually are, and we can lose perspective. One of the authors tells her students, “Some of you have been through childbirth and even through military service. That is much worse than public speaking!” Your instruc- tor will probably try to help you get to know your classmates and minimize the “unknowns” that can cause you worry. Physical preparation The first step in physical preparation is adequate sleep and rest. You might be thinking such a thing is impossible in college, where sleep deprivation and late nights come with the territory. However, research shows the extreme effects a lifestyle of limited sleep can have, far beyond yawning or dozing off in class (Mitru, Millrood, & Mateika, 2002; Walker, 2017). As far as public speaking is concerned, your energy level and ability to be alert and aware during the speech will be affected by lack of sleep. Secondly, you would be better off to eat something that is protein-based rather than processed sugar-based before speaking. In other words, cheese or peanut butter on whole grain toast, Greek yogurt, or eggs for breakfast rather than a donut and soft drink. Some traditionalists also discourage the drinking of milk because it is believed to stimulate mucus production, but this has not been scientifically proven (Lai & Kardos, 2013). A third suggestion is to wear clothes that you know you look good in and are comfortable but also meet the context’s requirements (that is, your in- structor may have a dress code for speech days). Especially, wear comfort- able shoes that give you a firm base for your posture. Flip- flops and really high heels may not fit these categories. A final suggestion for physical preparation is to utilize some stretching or relaxation techniques that will loosen your limbs or throat. Essentially, your emotions want you to run away, but the social situation says you must stay, so all that energy for running must go somewhere. The energy might go to your legs, hands, stomach, sweat glands, or skin, with undesirable physical consequences. Tightening and stretching your hands, arms, legs, and throat (through intentional, wide yawns) for a few seconds before Exploring Public Speaking 8 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking speaking can help release some of the tension. Your instructor may be able to help you with these exercises, or you can find some on the Internet. Contextual preparation The more you can know about the venue where you will be speaking, the better. For this class, of course, it will be your classroom, but for other situations where you might experience “communication apprehension,” you should check out the space beforehand or get as much information as possible. For example, if you were required to give a short talk for a job interview, you would want to know what the room will be like, if there is equipment for projection, how large the audience will be, and the seating arrangements. If possible, you will want to practice your presentation in a room that is similar to the actual space where you will deliver it. The best advice for contextual preparation is to be on time, even early. If you have to rush in at the last minute, as so many students do, you will not be mindful, focused, or calm for the speech. Even more, if you are early, you can make sure equipment is working, and can converse with the audi- ence as they enter. Professional speakers often do this to relax themselves, build credibility, and gain knowledge to adapt their presentations to the audience. Even if you don’t want to “schmooze” beforehand, being on time will help you create a good first impression and thus enhance your credi- bility before the actual speech. Speech preparation Procrastination, like lack of sleep, seems to just be part of the college life. Sometimes we feel that we just don’t get the best ideas until the last min- ute. Writing that essay for literature class at 3:00 a.m. just may work for you. However, when it comes to public speaking, there are some definite reasons you would not want to do that. First, of course, if you are finish- ing up your outline at 3:00 a.m. and have a 9:00 speech, you are going to be tired and unable to focus. Second, your instructor may require you to Exploring Public Speaking 9 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking turn in your outline several days ahead of the speech date. However, the main reason is that public speaking requires active, oral, repeated practice before the actual delivery. You do not want the first time that you say the words to be when you are in front of your audience. Practicing is the only way that you will feel confi- dent, fluent, and in control of the words you speak. Practicing (and timing yourself) repeatedly is also the only way that you will be assured that your speech meets the assignment’s time limits, and speaking within the ex- pected time limits is a fundamental rule of public speaking. You may think your speech is five minutes long but it may end up being ten minutes the first time you practice it—or only two minutes! Your practicing should be out loud, standing up, with shoes on, with some- one to listen, if possible (other than your dog or cat), and with your visual aids. If you can record yourself and watch it, that is even better. If you do record yourself, make sure you record yourself from the feet up—or at least the hips up—so you can see your body language. The need for oral practice will be emphasized over and over in this book and probably by your in- structor. As you progress as a speaker, you will always need to practice but perhaps not to the extent you do as a novice speaker. As hard as it is to believe, YOU NEVER LOOK AS NERVOUS AS YOU FEEL. You may feel that your anxiety is at level seventeen on a scale of one to ten, but the audience does not perceive it the same way. They may perceive it at a three or four or even less. That’s not to say they won’t see any signs of your anxiety and that you don’t want to learn to control it, only that what you are feeling inside is not as visible as you might think. This principle re- lates back to focus. If you know you don’t look as nervous as you feel, you can focus and be mindful of the message and audience rather than your own emotions. Also, you will probably find that your anxiety decreases throughout the class (Finn, Sawyer, & Schrodt, 2009). In her Ted Talk video, Harvard Business School social psychologist Amy Cuddy discusses nonverbal com- munication and suggests that instead of “faking it until you make it,” that you can, and should, “fake it until you become it.” She shares research that shows how our behavior affects our mindsets, not just the other way around. Therefore, the act of giving the speech and “getting through it” will help you gain confidence. Interestingly, Dr. Cuddy directs listeners to strike a “power pose” of strong posture, feet apart, and hands on hips or stretched over head to enhance confidence. Final Note: If you are an audience member, you can help the speaker with his/her anxiety, at least a little bit. Mainly, be an engaged listener from beginning to end. You can imagine that a speaker is going to be more Exploring Public Speaking 10 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking nervous if the audience looks bored from the start. A speaker with less anxiety is going to do a better job and be more interesting. Of course, do not walk into class during your classmates’ speeches, or get up and leave. In addition to being rude, it pulls their minds away from their message and distracts the audience. Your instructor will probably have a policy on this behavior, too, as well as a dress code and other expectations on speech days. There are good reasons for these policies, so respect them. 1.3 - Understanding the Process of Public Speaking Earlier it was stated that public speaking is like an enlarged or projected conversation. Conversation and public speaking are two forms of human communication, of which there are also small group communication, orga- nizational communication, mass communication, and intercultural com- munication. All human communication is a process composed of certain necessary elements: People (often referred to as senders and receivers); context; message; channel; noise; feedback; and outcome. With all these elements working together, the act of communication can be very complex. The famous German philosopher Johann Goethe said something to the effect that (and we paraphrase here) if we understood how complex communication really is, we probably would not attempt it! (One translation has it, “No one would talk much in society if they knew how often they misunderstood others.”) Perhaps here we can demystify some of it. Communication is a process, not a singular event. Later we will Communicaton look at models of communication, which can be helpful for understand- sharing meaning ing communication but are basically snapshots because a model cannot between two or more capture the dynamic process of communication. A simple, basic definition people of communication is “sharing meaning between two or more people.” Beyond a definition, we can break it down into its part or components and examine each. Human communication first involves people. That is pretty obvious, but we do not want to be so focused on the message or channel that we forget that people are at the center of communication. In public speaking it is common to call one person (the speaker) the “sender” and the audience the “receiver(s),” but in the real world it is not always as simple as that. Sometimes the speaker initiates the message, but other times the speaker is responding to the audience’s initiation. It is enough to say that sender Exploring Public Speaking 11 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking and receiver exchange roles sometimes and both are as necessary as the other to the communication process. Human communication and public speaking secondly requires context. Context has many levels, and there are several “contexts” going on at the same time in any communication act. These contexts can include: Historical, or what has gone on between the sender(s) and receiver(s) before the speech. The historical elements can be positive or negative, recent or further back in time. In later chapters we will see that these past events can influence the speaker’s credibility with the audience, as well as their understanding. Cultural, which sometimes refers to the country where someone was born and raised but can also include ethnic, racial, religious, and re- gional cultures or co-cultures. Culture is defined (Floyd, 2017) as “the system of learned and shared symbols, language, values, and norms Culture that distinguish one group of people from another.” Social, or what kind of relationship the sender(s) and receiver(s) are the system of learned involved in, such as teacher-student, co-workers, employer-employ- and shared symbols, ee, or members of the same civic organization, faith, profession, or language, values, and community. norms that distinguish Physical, which involves where the communication is taking place one group of people and the attributes of that location. The physical context can have from another cultural meaning (a famous shrine or monument) that influences the form and purpose of the communication, or attributes that influence audience attention (temperature, seating arrangements, or external noise). Each one of these aspects of context bears upon how we behave as a com- municator and specifically a public speaker. Third, human communication of any kind involves a message. That mes- sage may be informal and spontaneous, such as small talk with a seatmate on a plane, conversing for no other reason than to have someone to talk to and be pleasant. On the other hand, it might be very formal, intentional, and planned, such as a commencement address or a speech in this course. In this textbook all the chapters will be devoted to the creation of that formal message, but that does not diminish the importance of the other elements. The message is a product of all of them. Channel Fourth, public speaking, like all communication, requires a channel. We the means through think of channel in terms of television or something like a waterway (The which a message gets English Channel). Channel is how the message gets from sender to receiv- from sender to receiver er. In interpersonal human communication, we see each other and hear each other, in the same place and time. In mediated or mass communica- tion, some sort of machine or technology (tool) comes between the peo- ple—phone, radio, television, printing press and paper, or computer. Exploring Public Speaking 12 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking The face-to-face channel adds to the immediacy and urgency of public speaking, but it also means that physical appearance and delivery can affect the receiver(s) positively and negatively. It also means that public speaking is linear in time and we do not always get a “redo” or “do-over.” This element of channel influences structure, transitions, and language choices, which are discussed later in the book. Feedback The fifth element of human communication is feedback, which in public direct or indirect mes- speaking is usually nonverbal, such as head movement, facial expressions, sages sent from an au- laughter, eye contact, posture, and other behaviors that we use to judge dience (receivers) back audience involvement, understanding, and approval. These types of feed- to the original sender back can be positive (nodding, sitting up, leaning forward, smiling) or of the message less than positive (tapping fingers, fidgeting, lack of eye contact, checking devices). Can you think of some others that would indicate the audience is either not engaged in, confused about, or disapproving of the message or speaker? Feedback is important because we use it in all communication encounters to evaluate our effectiveness and to decide the next step to take in the spe- cific communication interaction. For example, a quizzical expression may mean we should explain ourselves again. Someone’s turning away from us is interpreted as disapproval, avoidance, or dismissal. These examples are all of nonverbal feedback, which is most common in public speaking. There are times when verbal feedback from the audience is appropriate. You may stop and entertain questions about your content, or the audience may fill out a comment card at the end of the speech. You should stay in control of the verbal feedback, however, so that the audi- ence does not feel as if they can interrupt you during the speech. Exploring Public Speaking 13 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking The sixth element of human communication is noise, which might be Noise considered interruptions or interference. Some amount of noise is almost always present due to the complexity of human behavior and context. anything that disrupts, There are just so many things that can come into the communication pro- interrupts, or inter- cess to obscure the messages being sent. Some of the ways that noise can feres with the commu- be classified include: nication process Contextual – something in the room or physical environment keeps them from attending to or understanding a message Physical – the receiver(s)’ health affects their understanding of the message, or the sender’s physical state affects her ability to be clear and have good delivery. Psychological – the receiver(s) or sender(s) have stress, anxiety, past experience, personal concerns, or some other psychological issue that prevents the audience from receiving an intended message. This short list of three types of noise is not exhaustive, but it is enough to point out that many things can “go wrong” in a public speaking situa- tion, enough to make us agree with Mr. Philosopher Goethe. However, the reason for studying public speaking is to become aware of the potential for these limitations or “noise” factors, to determine if they could happen during your speech, and take care of them. Some of them are preventable; for example, ones related to physical context can be taken care of ahead of time. Others can be addressed directly; for example, if you know the au- dience is concerned about a recent event, you can bring it up and explain how it relates to your topic. The final element of the communication process is outcome or result, which means a change in either the audience or the context. For example, if you ask an audience to consider becoming bone marrow donors, there are certain outcomes. They will either have more information about the subject and feel more informed; they will disagree with you; they will take in the information but do nothing about the topic; and/or they will decide it’s a good idea to become a donor and go through the steps to do so. If they become potential donors, they will add to the pool of existing donors and perhaps save a life. Thus, either they have changed or the social con- text has changed, or both. This change feeds back into the communication process. It is common for textbooks on public speaking and communication to pro- vide models of the communication process, depicting the relationship of these factors. There are several varieties of such models, some of which are considered foundational to the field of communication, such as Shannon and Weaver’s original linear, transmissional model from 1949 and other more recent ones. One model that focuses more on the process is the transactional model of communication. In it, the emphasis is more on the relationship between Exploring Public Speaking 14 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking the communicators and co-meanings created between them. This textbook Encode depends on a transactional model. If you go to Google images and search for “models of communication,” you will find many. the process of the sender putting his/her What these models have in common is the idea of process in time. They thoughts and feelings also will often use the word encode to express the process of the sender into words or other putting his/her thoughts and feelings into words or other symbols. Models symbols also use the word decode to express the process of the listener or receiv- er understanding those words and symbols and making meaning of them for themselves personally. Models of communication attempt to show the interplay of the many elements that take place in the communication act. Decode Em Griffin (1987), a long-time professor of communication at Wheaton the process of the College and author of several textbooks, compares the communication listener or receiver process to three games, dependent on one’s theory of how it works. Some understanding the think of communication like bowling, where the speaker throws a mes- words and symbols of sage at an audience in order to knock them down. The audience does not a message and making really respond or have very much to say about the act; they only react. meaning of them Some think of communication like table tennis (ping-pong); there is back and forth between the participants, but the goal is to win. Griffin says the better game metaphor is charades, or Pictionary®, where a team together Symbol tries to understand meaning and one player has to make many attempts to get the team to guess the right answer. It is collaborative and involves trial a word, icon, picture, and error. Models of communication that show the value of feedback in re- object, or number that calibrating the message are like the image of charades. An ethical speaker is used to stand for or sees public speaking as more than attacking the audience and more than represent a concept, winning. thing, or experience Additionally, communication is referred to a symbolic process. In this context, a symbol is a word, icon, picture, object, or number that is used to stand for or represent a concept, thing, or experience. Symbols almost always have more than one specific meaning or concept they represent. A flag, for example, is a symbol of a country or political unit, but it also rep- Denotative resents the history, culture, and feelings that people in that country experi- the objective or literal ence about various aspects of the culture. meaning shared by The word “car” or “automobile” represents a machine with four tires, most people using the windows, metal body, internal combustion engine, and so on, but it also word represents personal, individual experiences and associations with cars. We call this difference denotative (the objective or literal meaning shared by most people using the word) and the connotative (the subjective, cul- Connotative tural, or personal meaning the word evokes in people together or individ- the subjective or per- ually). One of the authors and her husband recently visited the National sonal meaning the Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky. Nothing like a car museum word evokes in people shows that “car” has deep and broad cultural meanings beyond metal, rub- together or individu- ber, and glass. ally Exploring Public Speaking 15 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking Now that we have looked at the process of communication, let’s apply it to public speaking. The speaker originates and creates a structured message and sends it through the visual/oral channel using symbols and nonverbal means to the audience members as a group, who provide (mostly nonver- bal) feedback. The speaker and audience may or may not be aware of the types of interference or noise that exist, and the speaker may try to deal with them. As a result of the public speaking, the audience’s minds, emo- tions, and/or actions are affected, and possibly the speaker’s as well. Humans have been aware and using public speaking for purposes of per- suasion, religious preaching, and community-building for millennia. Co- rax, Tisias, Plato, Isocrates, and Aristotle studied or wrote books about rhetoric in the Hellenistic Age of Greek Civilization (third and fourth centuries BCE), and as scholars have widened their view, found that India and China had conceptualizations of rhetoric through Buddha and Con- fucius, and Han Fei Tzu (Kennedy, 1980), as did Egyptians (Hutto, 2002). Public speaking as an art form and a social force has been around a long time. Marcus Cicero (106-43 B.C. E.) was a renowned politician, orator, and advocate of rhetoric in the late Roman Republic. For centuries he was considered the role model for aspiring public speakers. He discussed the process of public speaking in a unique way, proposing that a speaker go through the “canons (laws) of rhetoric” to create a speech. These steps are: 1. invention (creating content), 2. disposition (organization and logic of arguments), 3. style (choosing the right level and quality of vocabulary), 4. memory (actually, memorizing famous speeches to learn good public speaking technique), and 5. delivery (nonverbal communication). This book will take this same basic approach as the canons of rhetoric in helping you walk through the process of constructing a presentation. 1.4 – The Value of Public Speaking in Your Life Despite the long history of public speaking, dating back to at least 500 BCE, it is not unusual for students to question why this course is included in the curriculum of their major. You might have put it off or be taking it in your first semester. You might believe that it will have little use in your future career. The actual experience of completing the course may change your mind, and we would encourage you to do some research on our own about the question of how public speaking fits into your career. Perhaps you could talk to some professionals in your future career field, or perhaps your instructor will discuss this in class or assign a short speech about it. However, here are three reasons why you can benefit from this course. First, public speaking is one of the major communication skills desired by Exploring Public Speaking 16 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking employers. Employers are frequently polled regarding the skills they most want employees to possess, and communication is almost always in the top three (Adams, 2014). Of course, “communication skills” is a broad term and involves a number of abilities such as team leadership, clear writing in business formats, conflict resolution, interviewing, and listening. However, public speaking is one of those sought-after skills, even in fields where the entry-level workers may not do much formal public speaking. Nurses give training presentations to parents of newborn babies; accountants advocate for new software in their organizations; managers lead team meetings. If you are taking this class at the beginning of your college career, you will benefit in your other future classes from the research, organizational, and presentational skills learned here. College freshmen enter with many ex- pectations of college life and learning that they need to “un-learn,” and one of those is the expectation that they will not have to give oral presentations in classes. However, that is wishful thinking. Different kinds of presenta- tions will be common in your upcoming classes. In research done at the authors’ college involving 341 graduating seniors’ perceptions of the basic public speaking course showed that 72% of respondents agreed with the statement, “I feel that I used what I learned in the course in other courses I took towards my degree.” Another reason for taking a public speaking course is the harder-to-mea- sure but valuable personal benefits. As an article on the USAToday College website states, a public speaking course can help you be a better, more in- formed and critical listener; it can “encourage you to voice your ideas and take advantage of the influence you have;” and it gives you an opportunity to face a major fear you might have in a controlled environment (Mas- sengale, 2014). Finally, the course can attune you to the power of public speaking to change the world. Presentations that lead to changes in laws, policies, leadership, and culture happen every day, all over the world. 1.5 – Getting Started in Public Speaking To finish this first chapter, let’s close with some foundational principles about public speaking, which apply no matter the context, audience, topic, or purpose. Timing is everything We often hear this about acting or humor. In this case, it has to do with keeping within the time limits. As mentioned before, you can only know that you are within time limits by practicing and timing yourself; being within time limits also shows preparation and forethought. More impor- tantly, being on time (or early) for the presentation and within time limits shows respect for your audience. Exploring Public Speaking 17 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking Public speaking requires muscle memory If you have ever learned a new sport, especially in your teen or adult years, you know that you must consciously put your body through some training to get it used to the physical activity of the sport. An example is golf. A golf swing, unlike swinging a baseball bat, is not a natural movement and re- quires a great deal of practice, over and over, to get right. Pick up any golf magazine and there will be at least one article on “perfecting the swing.” In fact, when done incorrectly, the swing can cause severe back and knee problems over time (Duvall, 2019). Public speaking is a physical activity as well. You are standing and some- times moving around; your voice, eye contact, face, and hands are in- volved. You will expend physical energy, and after the speech you may be tired. Even more, your audience’s understanding and acceptance of your message may depend somewhat on how energetic, controlled, and fluid your physical delivery. Your credibility as a speaker hinges to some extent on these matters. Consequently, learning public speaking means you must train your body to be comfortable in front of an audience and to move in predictable and effective ways. Public speaking involves a content and relationship dimension You may have heard the old saying, “People don’t care how much you know until they know how much you care.” According to Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967), all human communication has two elements going on at the same time: content and relationship. There are statements about ideas, facts, and information, and there are messages communicat- ed about the relationship between the communication partners, past and present. These relationship message have to do with trust, respect, and credibility, and are conveyed through evidence, appeals, wording (and what the speaker does not say) as well as nonverbal communication. That said, public speaking is not a good way to provide a lot of facts and data to your audience. In fact, there are limits to how much information you can pile on your audience before listening is too difficult for them. However, public speaking is a good way to make the information meaning- ful for your audience. You can use a search engine with the term “Death by PowerPoint” and find lots of humorous, and too true, cartoons of audienc- es overwhelmed by charts, graphs, and slides full of text. In the case, less is more. This “less as more” principle will be re-emphasized throughout this textbook. Emulation is the sincerest form of flattery Learn from those who do public speaking well, but find what works best for you. Emulation is not imitation or copying someone; it is following a general model. Notice what other speakers do well in a speech and try to Exploring Public Speaking 18 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking incorporate those strategies. An example is humor. Some of us excel at using humor, or some types of it. Some of us do not, or do not believe we do, no matter how hard we try. In that case, you may have to find other strengths to becoming an effective speaker. Know your strengths and weaknesses Reliable personality inventories, such as the Myers Briggs or the Gallup StrengthsQuest tests, can be helpful in knowing your strengths and weak- nesses. One such area is whether you are an extravert or introvert. Intro- verts, estimated by one source as up to 50% of the population (Buettner, 2012), get their psychological energy from being alone while extraverts tend to get it from being around others. This is a very basic distinction and there is more to the two categories, but you can see how an extravert may have an advantage with public speaking. However, the extravert may be tempted not to prepare and practice as much because they have so much fun in front of an audience, while the introvert may overprepare but still feel uncomfortable. Your public speaking abilities will benefit from in- creased self-awareness about such characteristics and your strengths. (For an online self-inventory about introversion and extraversion, go to http:// www.quietrev.com/the-introvert-test/) Remember the Power of Story Stories and storytelling, in the form of anecdotes and narrative illustra- tions, are your most powerful tool as a public speaker. For better or worse, audiences are likely to remember anecdotes and narratives long after a speech’s statistics are forgotten. Your instructor may assign you to do a personal narrative speech, or require you to write an introduction or con- clusion for one of your speeches that includes a story. This does not mean that other types of proof are unimportant and that you just want to tell stories in your speech, but human beings love stories and often will walk away from a speech moved by or remembering a powerful story or exam- ple more than anything. Conclusion This chapter has been designed to be informative but also serve as a bit of a pep talk. Many students face this course with trepidation, for various reasons. However, as studies have shown over the years, a certain amount of tension when preparing to speak in public can be good for motivation. A strong course in public speaking should be grounded in the communica- tion research, the wisdom of those who have taught it over the last 2,400 years, and reflecting on your own experience. John Dewey (1916), the twentieth century education scholar, is noted for saying, “Education does not come just from experience, but from reflecting Exploring Public Speaking 19 Chapter 1: The Basics of Public Speaking on the experience.” As you finish this chapter and look toward your first presentation in class, be sure to give yourself time after the experience to reflect, whether by talking to another person, journaling, or sitting quietly and thinking, about how the experience can benefit the next speech en- counter. Doing so will get you on the road to becoming more confident in this endeavor of public speaking. Something to Think About Investigate some other communication models on the Internet. What do they have in common? How are they different? Which ones seem to ex- plain communication best to you? Who are some public speakers you admire? Why? (Do not name deceased historical figures whom you have not heard personally or face-to-face.) When this class is over, what specific skills do you want to develop as a communicator? What behavior done by public speakers “drives you nuts,” that is, creates “noise” for you in listening to them? When you experience communication anxiety, what happens in your body and mind? Exploring Public Speaking 20 Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and Listening Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and Listening Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, the student will be able to: Define audience-centered, audience analysis, and demographic char- acteristics; List and explain the various demographic characteristics used to ana- lyze an audience; Define the meanings of attitudes, beliefs, values, and needs; Diagram Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and explain its usefulness to public speaking; Describe contextual factors that should be considered when prepar- ing a speech; Describe typical barriers to listening in public speaking situations; Explain ways an individual can improve his/her listening when in an audience; and Apply what he/she knows about listening to improve personal prepa- ration of a speech. Chapter Preview 2.1 – The Importance of Audience Analysis 2.2 – Demographic Characteristics 2.3 – Psychographic Characteristics 2.4 – Contextual Factors of Audience Analysis 2.5 – Listening in Public Speaking Settings Exploring Public Speaking 21 Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and Listening 2.1 – The Importance of Audience Analysis One of the advantages of studying public speaking and improving your own skills is that you become much more aware of what other speakers do. In one respect, we are able to look for ways to emulate what they do—for example, how they might seamlessly incorporate stories or examples into their speaking, or how they might use transitions to help audiences follow the speech’s logic. In another respect, we become aware of how a speaker might use dramatic delivery or emotional appeals to hide a lack of facts or logic. A course in public speaking should include ways to improve one’s listening to public speaking. This chapter will look at the audience from both sides of the lectern, so to speak. First it will examine how a presenter can fully understand the audi- ence, which will aid the speaker in constructing the approach and content of the speech. Secondly, this chapter will examine the public speaker as audience member and how to get the most out of a speech, even if the top- ic does not seem immediately interesting. As discussed in Chapter 1, we have Paul Watzlawick, Janet Beavin, and Don Jackson (1967) to thank for pointing out to us that communication al- ways involves a content dimension and a relationship dimension. Nowhere does that become more important than when we look into what is com- Audience analysis monly known as audience analysis. Their concept about content and rela- tionship dimension will guide this chapter. You are not using the speech examining and looking to dump a large amount of content on the audience; you are making that at your audience first content important, meaningful, and applicable to them. Additionally, the by its demographic way the audience perceives you and your connection to them—such as characteristics and whether there is mutual trust and respect—will largely determine your suc- then by their internal cess with the audience. The speaker must respect the audience as well and psychological traits the audience should trust the speaker. Demographic 2.2 – Demographic Characteristics characteristics When we use the term audience analysis, we mean looking at the au- the outward character- dience first by its demographic characteristics and then by their internal istics of the audience psychological traits. “Demo-” comes the Greek root word demos meaning “people,” and “-graphic” means description or drawing. Demographic characteristics describe the outward characteristics of the audience. Stereotyping This textbook will discuss eleven of them below, although you might see longer or shorter lists in other sources. Some of them are obvious and generalizing about a some not as much. But before we get into the specific demographic charac- group of people and teristics, let’s look at three principles. assuming that because a few persons in that First, be careful not to stereotype on the basis of a demographic character- group have a charac- istic. Stereotyping is generalizing about a group of people and assuming teristic, all of them do that because a few persons in that group have a characteristic, all of them Exploring Public Speaking 22 Chapter 2: Audience Analysis and Listening Totalizing do. If someone were sitting near campus and saw two students drive by in pickup trucks and said, “All students at that college drive pickup trucks,” taking one characteris- that would be both stereotyping and the logical fallacy of hasty general- tic of a group or person ization (see Chapter 14). At the same time, one should not totalize about and making that the a person or group of persons. Totalizing is taking one characteristic of a “totality” or sum total group or person and making that the “totality” or sum total of what that of what that person or person or group is. Totalizing often happens to persons with disabilities, group is for example; the disability is seen as the totality of that person, or all that person is about. This can be both harmful to the relationship and ineffec- tive as a means of communicating. If a speaker before a group of profes- sional women totalizes and concludes that some perception of “women’s issues” are all they care about, the speaker will be less effective and possi- bly unethical. Avoiding stereotyping and totalizing is important because you cannot as- sume everything about an audience based on just one demographic char- acteristic. Only two or three might be important, but in other cases, several demographic characteristics matter. The age of a group will be important in how they think about investing their money, but so will the socio-eco- nomic level, career or profession, and even where they live. Even their reli- gious beliefs may come into it, since many religious groups have teachings about how much income should be given to charity. A good speaker will be aware of more than one or two characteristics of the audience. Second, in terms of thinking about demographic characteristics, not all of them are created equal, and not all of them are important in every situa- tion. When parents come to a PTA meeting, they are concerned about their children and playing the important role of “parent,” rather than being concerned about their profession. When senior citizens are thinking about how they will pay for their homes in retirement years, their ethnicity prob- ably has less to do with it as much as their age and socio-economic level. Third, there are two ways to think about demographic characteristics: pos- itively and negatively. In a positive sense, the demographic characteristics tell you what might motivate or interest the audience or even bind them together as a group. In a negative sense, the demographic characteristic

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