Chapter 1: Experimental Psychology PDF

Meriel C. Acampado 2-C Psychology 2. Replicability – Findings must be Chapter 1: Experimental consistent when the experiment is Psychology repeated under similar conditions....

Meriel C. Acampado 2-C Psychology 2. Replicability – Findings must be Chapter 1: Experimental consistent when the experiment is Psychology repeated under similar conditions. - Essential for validating and Science – Latin word “scientia,” reliability of results. means knowledge 3. Systematic Observation – The - content, and process. scientific method involves systematic 1. Content of science is what we observation and measurement, which know like facts in psychology or allows researchers to gather accurate chemistry. data. 2. Process – systematic ways we - Non-scientific approaches rely on gather data, note relationships, causal observations or and offer explanations. unsystematic anecdotal evidence. Methodology – scientific techniques 4. Theory Development – The used to collect and evaluate data. scientific method supports the Data – facts gathered using scientific development of theories, which are methods. tested, refined, or discarded based on evidence. 5. Falsifiability – For a hypothesis to Experimental psychology applies be scientific, it must be falsifiable. the principles of the scientific - Must be possible to be proved method to understand human wrong. behavior and mental processes. - Ensures findings are reliable, valid, and can be generalized to The Characteristics of Modern broader populations. Science 1. Empiricism – Knowledge is derived The Need for Scientific from sensory experience, observation, and experimentation. Methodology - Empirical evidence is the 1. Objectivity – Psychology deals with foundation of scientific inquiry. subjective human behaviors. The 2. Systematicity – Scientific research scientific method provides a follows a systematic and organized structured approach to minimize approach. biases and personal opinions, - Careful design or experiments, ensuring that conclusions are based clear operational definitions of on empirical evidence rather than variables, and the use of intuition or anecdote. controlled conditions to isolate the factors being studied. Experimental Psychology Meriel C. Acampado 2-C Psychology 3. Skepticism – Maintains skeptical explain why behaviors and mental attitude, questioning assumptions, processes occur. and critically evaluating evidence. - Understanding the underlying 4. Theoretical Framework – Science causes and mechanisms, often operates within theoretical through the development and frameworks that guide the testing of theories. interpretation of data. 3. Prediction – Once psychologists - Theories provide explanations for understand the causes of certain observed phenomena and predict behaviors or mental processes, they future occurrences. can predict when these phenomena 5. Peer Review – Research findings are likely to occur in the future. undergo peer review, a process in - Accurate predictions can help in which experts evaluate the research various applied settings (e.g. for validity, significance, and clinical, educational, and originality. organizational). 6. Ethical Standards – Adheres to 4. Control – Influence or control ethical standards to ensure that behavior in positive ways. research is conducted responsibly, - Designing interventions to with respect for the rights and well- improve mental health and being of participants. enhance learning outcomes. Or optimize work performance. Objectives of Psychological Science Describe Behavior – What are they doing? Explain Behavior – Why are they doing that? Predict Behavior – What would happen if I acted this way? Change Behavior – What can I Do to get them to stop doing that? 1. Description – Describe behavior and mental processes accurately. - Involves identifying and cataloging various psychological phenomena and noting how they occur. 2. Explanation – Beyond description, psychological science seeks to Experimental Psychology Meriel C. Acampado 2-C Psychology From Pseudoscience to The Scientific Method: Tools of Psychological Science Psychological Science Pseudoscience – refers to practices or beliefs that claim to 1. Hypothesis Formation – A be scientific but lack empirical hypothesis is a specific, testable support and adherence to the prediction about the relationship scientific method. between two or more variables. 1. Lack of Empirical Evidence – Rely - Basis for experimentation. on anecdotal evidence or untested 2. Operational Definitions – Variables claims rather than rigorous empirical in a study are defined in measurable research. terms, known as operational 2. Non-falsifiable Claims – definitions. pseudoscience often makes claims - Allows the researcher to quantify that cannot be tested or falsified. and observe them accurately. 3. Absence of Peer Review – 3. Experimental Design – Selection of Pseudoscientific claims are typically participants, assignment to not subjected to the scrutiny of peer experimental and control groups, and review. the manipulation of independent 4. Overreliance on Confirmation – variables to observe their effect on Pseudoscience may focus on dependent variables. confirming their claims while 4. Data Collection – Experiments, ignoring evidence to the contrary. surveys, observations, and case 5. Use of Jargon without Substance – studies, are used to gather data. pseudoscience often uses scientific- - Has strengths and limitations sounding language without a solid depending on the research theoretical or empirical foundation. question. 6. Resistance to change – 5. Statistical Analysis – Once data are Pseudoscience tends to resist change collected, statistical methods are used and cling to outdated ideas despite to analyze results. contrary evidence. - E.g. descriptive statistics or inferential statistics. 6. Theory Development and Testing – Based on the findings, theories may be developed or refined. Tested through further research. 7. Peer Review and Publication – Experts evaluate the study’s methodology, significance, and contribution to the field. Experimental Psychology Meriel C. Acampado 2-C Psychology - No negative consequences. Chapter 2: Research 3. Explanation of procedures – Ethics Researchers must provide a detailed explanation of what the study Researchers must treat participants involves, including the procedures ethically and responsibly. Whether that will be followed. they are animals or humans. Their - Participants can ask questions safety and welfare must be about the research. considered. 4. Disclosure of Risks and Benefits – Researchers are legally responsible Researchers need to outline any for what happens to their participants potential risks or discomforts during and after the study. associated with the study and explain - any harm to the physical, the potential benefits. emotional, or psychological of the 5. Privacy and Confidentiality – participants, the researcher could Researchers must assure participants be held liable. that their data will be kept private and confidential. - Protect their data from IRB or Institutional Review unauthorized access. Board – A committee is 6. No Waiving of Rights – Participants responsible for reviewing and cannot be asked to waive their legal approving research proposals to rights or to release the researchers, ensure they adhere to ethical study sponsors, institutions, or agents standards and that the risks to from liability in case of injury participants are minimized and (Federal Guidelines: 45 CFR justified by the potential benefits. 46.115). Risk/Benefits Analysis – IRB must determine whether any risks to the individual are outweighed Timeline/Evolution of Ethical by potential benefits or the importance of the knowledge to Standards in Research be gained. Pre-World War II Era – minimal ethical guidelines, lacked consideration for participant welfare. Informed Consent 1947: Nuremberg Code – Post- WWII trials revealed unethical 1. Voluntary Participation – experiments by Nazi doctors. Participants must agree to be part of Established the need for voluntary, the study freely. informed consent, and ethical - No coercion or undue pressure. treatment of participants. 2. Right to Withdraw – Participants 1974: National Commission can withdraw from the study at any Created – To develop ethical time. guidelines for human research in the Experimental Psychology Meriel C. Acampado 2-C Psychology U.S. following growing concerns Deception and Full Disclosure about research practices. 1979: Belmont Report The relationship between the 1. Respect for persons – autonomy researcher and participants should be and informed consent. as open and honest as possible. 2. Beneficence – Minimize harm In some psychological studies, and maximize benefits. however, the true purpose of the 3. Justice – Fair distribution of study is disguised. research burdens and benefits. - E.g.: Milgram Experiment The researchers adhered to the principle of full disclosure by completely debriefing subjects at the Ethical Guidelines Align with end of the experiment-that is, Civil Law Requirements and explaining the true nature and include: purpose of the study. Obtaining IRB approval before conducting studies. Researchers should consult an IRB or Anonymity and Confidentiality colleagues if ethical issues arise – and in Research must ensure all safeguards are in Anonymity and confidentiality are place. crucial in protecting participants’ Even with IRB approval, researchers privacy. are ultimately responsible for Research should collect data conducting ethical research. anonymously, using codes or - Securing fully informed consent fictitious names instead of personal from participants, especially identifiers. those at risk. The American Psychological Protecting the Welfare of Association Guidelines (APA) Animal Subjects Animal Welfare Act of 1966 Established ethical standards for To include new regulations that psychologists and students involved address the psychological well-being in research or practice. of higher animals. Ensures adherence to principles that Includes enriched environment of protect participants' welfare. nonhuman primates. Experimental Psychology Meriel C. Acampado 2-C Psychology Animal Rights Movement Ethical Reports Modern animal rights activism is Transparency is a process involved in based on the core tenet that many ethical reporting. nonhuman creatures have Being truthful, accurate, and thorough fundamental rights that should be while supplying the necessary acknowledged, considered, and information is the cornerstone of safeguarded. appropriate, professional, and ethical Placing animals “beyond use” by behavior. humans means ending exploitative industries and activities such as puppy mills, whaling, and laboratory testing. Fraud in Science When scientific study methods, procedures, or results are purposefully misrepresented, it is referred to as “scientific fraud”. Include actions such as fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism when it comes to proposing, carrying out, evaluating, or publishing research findings. Plagiarism is the use of another’s work, words, or ideas without attribution. - Latin word for “kidnapper” and is considered a form of theft, a breach of honesty. - Three main categories: (1) using a source’s language without quoting, (2) using information from a source without attribution, and (3) paraphrasing a source in a form that stays too close to the original. Experimental Psychology Meriel C. Acampado 2-C Psychology Chapter 4: Alternatives Steps in Constructing a Survey to Experimentation 1. Map out your research objectives, making them as specific as possible. - Target audience - Type of survey Value-laden – influences or 2. Design the survey items. crafted by personal beliefs, - The first step is to decide how you values, or attitudes. are going to address the - Not purely factual or objective. imposition of units. - Avoid value-laden questions and Close-ended Questions – answers in surveys and structured questions, answered by interviews. one of a limited number of alternatives from which a participant must choose. Survey Research Open-ended Questions – Solicits information about opinions and A useful way of obtaining feelings by asking questions so information about people’s opinions, that the person must respond with attitudes, preferences, and behaviors more than a yes or no, or a 1-10 is simply by asking. rating. Surveys allow us to gather data about - Can often be used to clarify or experiences, feelings, thoughts, and expand answers to closed motives that are hard to observe questions. directly. - Content Analysis: a system Surveys allow us to gather large for quantifying responses to amounts of data efficiently. open-ended questions by Written questionnaires and face-to- categorizing them according face interviews are the two most to objective rules or common survey techniques in guidelines. psychology research 3. Avoid double-barreled (compound) questions. - Asks for responses about two or Constructing Surveys more different ideas. Constructing a good survey is a research project all by itself, with steps that need to be followed to ensure that valid information is gathered and that the questions are really asking what the researcher intended to ask. Experimental Psychology Meriel C. Acampado 2-C Psychology Measuring Responses Selecting Levels of Measurement Survey responses can be measured by using one of the four types of scales. It is possible to measure a response by more than one of these scales. Nominal – frequency distributions, mode, chi-square tests. Ordinal – Frequency distributions, mode, median, rank-order correlations (e.g., spearman’s rho). Levels of Measurements Interval – Frequency distributions, mode, median, Nominal Scales – simplest level of mean, standard deviation, t-tests, measurement. It classifies response ANOVA, correlation (e.g., items into two or more distinct Pearson’s r). categories based on some common Ratio – Frequency distributions, feature. mode, median, standard - Does not quantify the items in any deviation, t-test, ANOVA, way. correlation (e.g., Pearson’s r), - Sometimes called the lowest level regression analysis. of measurement because it provides no information about magnitude. Ordinal Scale – which is a rank ordering of response items. The magnitude of each value is measured in the form of ranks. Interval Scale – Measures magnitude or quantitative size using measures with equal intervals between the values. - Has no true zero point. Ratio Scale – The highest level of measurement, which has equal intervals between all values and a true zero point. - Measurement of physical properties, such as height and weight, are characteristics whose quantity or magnitude can be measured using ratio scale. Experimental Psychology Meriel C. Acampado 2-C Psychology Experimental Psychology