Lesson 1: The Problem PDF

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Lesson 1: The Problem** | | +===================================+===================================+ | Stating a Problem | A. A problem exists when we know | |...

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Lesson 1: The Problem** | | +===================================+===================================+ | Stating a Problem | A. A problem exists when we know | | | enough to know that there is | | | something we don\'t know. | | | | | | Three ways in which a problem is | | | manifested are: | | | | | | 1. There is a gap in knowledge | | | | | | 2. Results of different | | | experiment are inconsistent | | | | | | 3. 3\. An isolated fact exist wh | | | ich | | | should be explained | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Science addresses only solvable | a. A problem is solvable if it | | problems | is possible to advance a | | | suitable hypothesis as a | | | tentative solution for it | | | | | | b. A suitable hypothesis is one | | | that is relevant to the | | | problem and is empirically | | | testable | | | | | | | | | | | | 1. with a relevant hypothesis, | | | one can make an inference | | | from the hypothesis to the | | | problem such that if the | | | hypothesis is true, the | | | problem is solved. | | | | | | 2. by \"testable\", we mean that | | | it is possible to determine | | | whether the hypothesis is | | | \"true\" or \"false\" | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Replacing \"true\" or \"false\" | a. a hypothesis is testable if, | | with \"degree of probability\" | and only if, it is possible | | | to determine a degree of | | | probability for it | | | | | | b. degree of probability means | | | that the hypothesis has a | | | likelihood between 0.0(it is | | | false) and 1.0 (it is true) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Kinds of possibilities | a. a task or other endeavor may | | | be presently attainable | | | | | | b. a task or other endeavor may | | | be potentially, but not | | | presently attainable. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Classes of testability | a. presently testable - we can | | | test a hypothesis now with | | | contemporary human | | | capabilities. | | | | | | b. the hypothesis is potentially | | | testable, that is we cannot | | | test hypothesis now, nor can | | | we be sure that it can ever | | | be tested, so that it remains | | | in a \"**wait-and-see**\" | | | category. If technological | | | advances are sufficient, then | | | someday the potentially | | | testable hypothesis is moved | | | to the presently testable | | | category. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Applying the probability | a. do the phenomena refer to by | | criterion of testability | the hypothesis concern | | | empirically observable | | | events? | | | | | | b. is the hypothesis properly | | | formulated so that it can be | | | tested? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Kinds of unsolvable problems | a. the structured problem | | | | | | b. inadequate defined terms that | | | lack operational definitions | | | | | | c. impossibility of collecting | | | relevant data | | | | | | d. vicious circulatory renders | | | problems unsolvable | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Some additional considerations | a. Problems should be | | | technologically or | | | theoretically important | | | | | | b. problems of the impasse | | | variety should be avoided | | | unless creative solutions are | | | possible | | | | | | c. psychological reactions to | | | problems - we should | | | emphasize a truth criterion | | | and not dismiss a discovery | | | only because it is disturbing | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Lesson 2: The hypothesis** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The nature of a hypothesis | a. It is tentative solution to a | | | problem | | | | | | b. it is empirical, meaning that | | | it refers to data that we can | | | obtain by observation of | | | natural phenomena | | | | | | c. it is testable statement | | | (proposition) | | | | | | d. the variable is an empirical | | | hypothesis are operationally | | | definable | | | | | | e. ideally, it is a qualitative | | | relationship between two | | | variables. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Classification of statements | a. analytical statements are | | | necessary true but | | | empirically empty. Often | | | tautological and do not | | | require verification. | | | | | | b. contradictory statements are | | | necessarily false and | | | empirically empty | | | | | | c. synthetic statements may be | | | true or false and potentially | | | carry information. hypotheses | | | are synthetic statements | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Characteristics of hypotheses | a. hypotheses are basically | | | stated as general | | | implications in the form | | | \"**If a is true, then b is | | | true.\"** a is the | | | antecedence condition and b | | | is the consequent condition. | | | | | | *Hypothesis; If a person | | | experiences high level of | | | stress (a), then they will | | | have a higher likelihood of | | | developing anxiety (b)* | | | | | | b. a hypothesis stated in | | | **probability logic** | | | | | | c. a mathematical statement of a | | | hypothesis is **R=f(S)** | | | | | | d. hypotheses are **never | | | absolutely true or false, but | | | have a determinable degree of | | | probability.** | | | | | | e. in an experiment, confirmed | | | hypotheses also express a | | | necessary **(casual) | | | connection between the | | | antecedent and the consequent | | | condition.** The element of | | | necessity does not occur in | | | statements based on | | | correlational research. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Types of hypotheses | a. **Universal hypotheses** | | | assert that relationship | | | holds for all values of the | | | variables contained in it for | | | all time and at all places | | | | | | b. **Existential hypotheses** | | | assert that a relationship | | | holds for at least one case. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Arriving at a hypothesis, one | - abstract similarities to form | | may: | and relate a stimulus class | | | and response class. | | | | | | - reason, perhaps by analogy, | | | and practice creating | | | hypotheses | | | | | | - rely heavily on findings from | | | previous experiments to | | | extrapolate potential answers | | | to new problems | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Use hypotheses to guide research | ❖but be aware of **serendipity**, | | to economize research efforts | for it may lead to something of | | | importance that was not expected | | | in the research | | | | | | A study is designed to test | | | hypothesis that new teaching | | | method improves student | | | performance in math. | | | **Serendipitous findings** -- | | | during study, unexpected new | | | method also significantly boost | | | student confidence and interest | | | in learning | | | | | | ❖however, avoid experimental | | | **myopia** | | | | | | A study aims to test the | | | hypothesis that specific diet | | | reduces symptoms of depression. | | | **Avoiding myopia**, research | | | also monitor other variables such | | | as anxiety levels, physical | | | health, overall well-being. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Chapter 1: Introduction to | | | Psychology as Science** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Topic 1: Sources of Knowledge | | | and the Nature of Scientific | | | Explanation** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Sources of Knowledge in | - **Authority**- experts or | | Psychology | authority figures. | | | | | | - **Intuition**- gut feelings | | | or instincts. | | | | | | - **Rationalism**- reasoning | | | and logical thinking. | | | | | | - **Empiricism**- observation | | | and experience. | | | | | | - **Scientific Method** - | | | Combines empirical | | | observation with systematic | | | testing. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **PROS AUTHORITY** as source of | - **Efficiency** - Quick and | | knowledge | easy access to knowledge from | | | experts, especially in areas | | | where time or resources are | | | limited. | | | | | | - **Trusted Expertise** - Often | | | based on years of study and | | | experience, which can be | | | valuable in specialized | | | fields. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **CONS AUTHORITY** as source of | - **Risk of Bias or Error** - | | knowledge | Authorities can be wrong, | | | biased, or outdated, leading | | | to misinformation. | | | | | | - **Overreliance** - Blindly | | | accepting information without | | | questioning can limit | | | critical thinking and | | | independent analysis. | | | | | | - **Variability** - Not all | | | authorities are equally | | | credible or trustworthy | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **PROS INTUITION** as source of | - **Speed** - Provides quick, | | knowledge | instinctive responses without | | | the need for deep analysis or | | | reasoning. | | | | | | - **Experience-Based** - Often | | | derived from accumulated | | | experience, making it useful | | | in situations that require | | | rapid decision-making. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **CONS INTUITION** as source of | - **Subjectivity** - Highly | | knowledge | influenced by personal | | | biases, emotions, and | | | experiences, making it | | | unreliable in many cases. | | | | | | - **Lack of Evidence** - | | | Intuition is not | | | systematically tested or | | | validated, so it may lead to | | | incorrect conclusions. | | | | | | - **Inconsistency** - Different | | | people's intuitions can lead | | | to vastly different | | | conclusions. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **PROS RATIONALISM** as source of | - **Logical Structure** - | | knowledge | Promotes clear, logical | | | thinking and consistent | | | conclusions based on | | | principles. | | | | | | - **Internal Consistency-** | | | Rationalism is built on | | | coherent reasoning, making it | | | reliable when premises are | | | sound. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **CONS RATIONALISM** as source of | - **Detachment from Reality** - | | knowledge | Reasoning alone may lead to | | | conclusions that don't align | | | with empirical evidence or | | | real-world observations. | | | | | | - **Dependence on | | | Assumptions** - The accuracy | | | of conclusions depends on the | | | correctness of the initial | | | premises, which may not | | | always be accurate. | | | | | | - **Limited Scope** - Not all | | | phenomena can be fully | | | understood through logic | | | alone, especially those | | | involving human emotions or | | | behaviors. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **PROS EMPIRICISM** as source of | - **Grounded in Observation** - | | knowledge | Relies on tangible evidence, | | | making it a more objective | | | and verifiable source of | | | knowledge. | | | | | | - **Real-World Relevance** - | | | Empirical knowledge is based | | | on direct experience and | | | experimentation, which often | | | leads to practical | | | applications. | | | | | | - **Adaptability** -New | | | observations can lead to | | | updated conclusions and | | | knowledge. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **CONS EMPIRICISM** as source of | - **Limited Scope** - | | knowledge | Observations can be biased or | | | incomplete, leading to | | | inaccurate or incomplete | | | knowledge. | | | | | | - **Time-Consuming** - | | | Gathering empirical evidence | | | requires systematic | | | observation, experimentation, | | | and analysis, which can be | | | resource intensive. | | | | | | - **Interpretation | | | Challenges** - Data can be | | | misinterpreted or selectively | | | used, leading to flawed | | | conclusions. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **PROS SCIENTIFIC** method as | - **Objectivity** - Minimizes | | source of knowledge | bias by relying on | | | controlled, systematic | | | observation and | | | experimentation. | | | | | | - **Replicability** - Allows | | | findings to be consistently | | | tested and verified by | | | others, ensuring reliability. | | | | | | - **Predictive Power** - | | | Generates theories that can | | | predict future behavior or | | | phenomena, making it a | | | powerful tool for advancing | | | knowledge. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **CONS SCIENTIFIC** method as | - **Complexity** - The | | source of knowledge | scientific method can be | | | difficult to apply in areas | | | where control over variables | | | is limited, such as in social | | | or psychological studies. | | | | | | - **Ethical and Practical | | | Limits** - Certain | | | experiments cannot be | | | conducted due to ethical | | | concerns, limiting the scope | | | of scientific inquiry. | | | | | | - **Overemphasis on | | | Quantifiable Data** - | | | Sometimes overlooks the | | | subjective, qualitative | | | aspects of human experience | | | that are harder to measure | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The nature of scientific | - **Content:** *"Science is an | | explanation; | accumulation of integrated | | | knowledge"* | | Definition of Science | | | | - **Process definition:** | | | *"Science is an activity of | | | discovering important | | | variables in nature, of | | | relating those variables, and | | | of explaining those | | | relationships"* | | | | | | - **Content and process | | | combined:** *"science is a | | | systematically organized body | | | of knowledge about the | | | universe, obtained by the | | | scientific method".* | | | | | | **Scientific and nonscientific | | | discipline**: | | | | | | 1\. Science empirically applies | | | the scientific method to | | | solvable problems | | | | | | 2\. Humanities and arts use | | | nonscientific methods to study | | | solvable problems (typically) | | | | | | 3\. Metaphysical disciplines | | | neither employs scientific | | | method nor pose solvable | | | problems. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Features of Scientific inquiry | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Differentiating scientific | **TESTABILITY AND | | explanations from | FALSIFIABILITY** | | pseudoscientific or anecdotal | | | claims | - **Scientific Explanations:** | | | These are based on hypotheses | | | that can be tested and | | | potentially disproven. For | | | example, the theory of | | | gravity can be tested by | | | observing the behavior of | | | objects in free fall. | | | | | | - **Pseudoscientific Claims:** | | | These often lack testability | | | and cannot be disproven. For | | | instance, astrology makes | | | broad predictions that are | | | difficult to test | | | scientifically | | | | | | **EVIDENCE AND METHODOLOGY** | | | | | | - **Scientific Explanations:** | | | Rely on empirical evidence | | | gathered through controlled | | | experiments and observations. | | | The results are reproducible | | | and peer-reviewed. For | | | example, the effectiveness of | | | a new drug is tested through | | | clinical trials. | | | | | | - **Pseudoscientific Claims:** | | | Often rely on anecdotal | | | evidence and personal | | | testimonials, which are not | | | systematically gathered or | | | verified. An example is the | | | claim that certain crystals | | | can heal illnesses without | | | scientific evidence to | | | support it. | | | | | | **PEER REVIEW AND CONSENSUS** | | | | | | - **Scientific Explanations:** | | | Undergo rigorous peer review | | | by other experts in the field | | | before being accepted. This | | | process helps ensure the | | | validity and reliability of | | | the findings. | | | | | | - **Pseudoscientific Claims:** | | | Typically do not undergo peer | | | review and lack scientific | | | consensus. They are often | | | promoted by individuals or | | | groups without formal | | | scientific training. | | | | | | **ADAPTABILITY AND PROGRESS** | | | | | | - **Scientific Explanations:** | | | Are open to revision and | | | improvement as new evidence | | | emerges. Science is a dynamic | | | process that evolves over | | | time. | | | | | | - **Pseudoscientific Claims:** | | | Tend to remain static and are | | | resistant to change, even | | | when new evidence contradicts | | | them | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Characteristics of Modern Science | - **Scientific mentality** - | | | behavior and phenomena can be | | | understood through systematic | | | inquiry and observation. | | | | | | - **Gathering empirical | | | data** - information gathered | | | through observation, | | | measurement, and | | | experimentation rather than | | | relying on theory or personal | | | belief. | | | | | | - **Seeking general | | | principles** - Testing | | | predictions stemming from | | | theory has been the | | | cornerstone of psychological | | | science. Science progresses | | | only through progressive | | | better theories. | | | | | | - **Good Thinking** - | | | approaching research | | | logically, avoiding bias, and | | | following the rules of | | | critical thinking, like | | | weighing evidence objectively | | | when interpreting results. | | | **"Parsimony" -** must avoid | | | unnecessary assumptions to | | | support an argument or | | | explanation. | | | | | | - **Self-correction** - Science | | | is self-correcting; over | | | time, errors are recognized | | | and corrected through | | | replication and peer review | | | | | | - **Publicizing results** - | | | Research findings are shared | | | with the scientific community | | | through journals, | | | conferences, and other | | | forums, allowing others to | | | evaluate, critique, and build | | | on the work. | | | | | | - **Replication** - conducting | | | a study again to see if the | | | same results can be obtained, | | | which strengthens the | | | reliability of findings. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Topic 2: The Science of | | | Psychology** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Psychology as Science | **Psychology is materialistic | | | (Physicalistic), Objective, and | | | Deterministic.** | | | | | | - **materialistic view-** it | | | considers mental processes | | | and behaviors as **products** | | | of physical processes in the | | | brain and body. | | | | | | - **Objective-** relying on | | | empirical evidence and | | | scientific methods; | | | standardized tests, | | | controlled experiments, and | | | statistical analysis to study | | | and understand behavior and | | | mental processes. | | | | | | - **Determinism-** behavior and | | | mental processes are | | | influenced by **prior causes, | | | such as genetics, | | | environment, and past | | | experiences.** This view | | | holds that given enough | | | information, one could | | | predict behavior based on | | | these factors. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | - Psychology becomes a science | | | by applying the scientific | | | method to solve problems | | | which required that it become | | | materialistic, objective, and | | | deterministic. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | - **Behavior** (The most | | | complex subject matter) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | - **Experimentation** (The most | | | powerful research method) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The Objectives of Psychological | - **Description**- a systematic | | Science | and unbiased account of the | | | observed characteristics of | | | behaviors. | | | | | | - **Prediction-** the capacity | | | for knowing in advance when | | | certain behaviors would be | | | expected to occur---to be | | | able to predict them ahead of | | | time--- because we have | | | identified other conditions | | | with which the behaviors are | | | linked or associated | | | | | | - **Explanation-** we also | | | understand what causes it to | | | occur. | | | | | | -of the conditions that | | | reliably reproduce the | | | occurrence of a behavior. To | | | explain a behavior, we have | | | to use an experimental | | | research design in which we | | | systematically manipulate | | | aspects of the setting with | | | the intention of producing | | | the specific behavior. | | | | | | - **Control-** the fourth | | | objective, refers to the | | | application of what has been | | | learned about behavior. Once | | | a behavior has been explained | | | through experimentation, it | | | may be possible to use that | | | knowledge to effect change or | | | improve behavior. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **psychological science** | refers to the **accumulated body | | | of psychological knowledge** | | | (i.e., pertaining to brain, | | | behavior, social, or mental | | | processes) that has been | | | generated through the systematic | | | application of the scientific | | | method. The term psychological | | | science may also refer to the | | | process of conducting | | | psychological research through | | | use of the scientific method | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Psychology experiment | - a control procedure in which | | | at least two different | | | treatment conditions are | | | applied to subjects whose | | | behavior are then measured | | | and compared to test a | | | hypothesis about the effect | | | of a treatment on behavior. | | | | | | ✓ Observation ✓ Measurement ✓ | | | Experimentation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cause-and --effect relationship | - the relation between a | | | particular behavior and a set | | | of antecedents that always | | | preceded it -- whereas other | | | antecedents do not -- so that | | | the set is inferred to cause | | | the behavior. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | Necessary vs. sufficient | | | conditions | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | Identifying antecedent conditions | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Steps in scientific method | Step 1: Observe behavior or other | | | phenomena | | | | | | Step 2: Form a tentative answer | | | or explanation | | | | | | Step 3: Use hypothesis to | | | generate a testable prediction | | | | | | Step 4: Evaluate prediction by | | | observation | | | | | | Step 5: Use the observation to | | | support, refute, or refine the | | | original hypothesis | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Application of scientific method | ✓ Stating the problem and | | | formulate a hypothesis | | | | | | ✓ Test the hypothesis | | | | | | ✓ Select a sample of participants | | | | | | ✓ Randomly assign the groups | | | | | | ✓ Randomly assign groups to | | | conditions (treatment) | | | | | | ✓ Define the independent variable | | | | | | ✓ Define the dependent variable | | | | | | ✓ Control relevant extraneous | | | variable | | | | | | ✓ Conduct statistical test so | | | that you can confirm or | | | disconfirm they hypothesis | | | | | | ✓ Generalized and explain the | | | hypothesis, attempt to explain | | | findings by means of a more | | | general theory. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Key areas in psychology to | Psychophysics -- defined as the | | explore scientific study | study of how **physical stimuli** | | | are translated into | | | **psychological experience**. | | | (sensory and perceptual process) | | | | | | determining sensory thresholds, | | | such as the | | | | | | **absolute threshold** (the | | | minimum stimulus intensity that | | | can be detected) | | | | | | **difference threshold** (the | | | smallest detectable difference | | | between two stimuli). | | | | | | **Signal Detection theory** | | | developed within psychophysics, | | | helps in understanding how | | | decisions are made under | | | conditions of uncertainty. It | | | separates the ability to detect a | | | signal from the decision criteria | | | used by the observer. | | | | | | **Scaling methods** to quantify | | | subjective experiences, such as | | | magnitude estimation, where | | | participants assign numerical | | | values to the perceived intensity | | | of stimuli. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Key areas in psychology to | Learning is a key process in | | explore scientific study | human behavior. *"Any relatively | | | permanent change in behavior or | | | behavioral potential produced by | | | experience"* (Gordon, 1989). | | | | | | **Learning theories** provide | | | **a foundation** for designing | | | experiments. For instance, an | | | experiment might involve | | | rewarding participants for | | | completing tasks to see how it | | | influences their performance | | | | | | **Learning principles** can | | | guide **the structure of | | | experiments**, including the | | | selection of variables, controls, | | | and measurement techniques. | | | | | | Using **pre-tests and | | | post-test**s to **measure | | | learning outcomes** in | | | educational interventions. This | | | approach can help determine the | | | effectiveness of different | | | teaching methods or materials | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Key areas in psychology to | Memory encompasses various | | explore scientific study | aspects of cognitive processes, | | | methodologies, and theoretical | | | frameworks. | | | | | | **multi-store model of memory** | | | (sensory memory, short-term | | | memory, and long-term memory), | | | researchers can design | | | experiments to test how | | | information is transferred | | | between these stores | | | | | | **effects of different types of | | | encoding** (e.g., semantic vs. | | | phonetic) on memory retention. | | | Participants might be asked to | | | remember words based on their | | | meaning or sound, and their | | | recall performance can be | | | compared to determine which | | | encoding method is more | | | effective. | | | | | | **neuroimaging techniques** to | | | study the neural correlates of | | | memory processes. This can | | | provide insights into how | | | different brain regions are | | | involved in **encoding, storage, | | | and retrieval of memories**. | | | | | | Memory research often involves | | | human participants, necessitating | | | careful consideration of ethical | | | issues, which can inform the | | | ethical design of other | | | psychological experiments | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Think of a topic in your field | a\. State your observations | | that you wish to work on: | | | | b\. Make tentative hypothesis | | | | | | c\. Make plans on how you can | | | correctly test these | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Chapter 2: Ethical | | | Considerations in Psychological | | | Research** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | General Principles | are aspirational in nature. Their | | | intent is to **guide and inspire | | | psychologists toward the very | | | highest ethical ideals of the | | | profession.** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Ethical Standards | are enforceable and detail | | | specific actions that must be | | | taken to ensure ethical conduct. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Code of Ethics | provides an official framework | | | within which professionals should | | | operate, ensuring consistency, | | | accountability, and clarity in | | | ethical decision-making. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | General Principles of APA | - **Principle A: Beneficence | | | and Nonmaleficence** - should | | | strive to benefit those with | | | whom they work and take care | | | to do no harm. | | | | | | - **Principle B: Fidelity and | | | Responsibility** - | | | Psychologists establish | | | relationships of trust and | | | are aware of their | | | professional and scientific | | | responsibilities. | | | | | | - **Principle C: Integrity** - | | | promote accuracy, honesty, | | | and truthfulness in science, | | | teaching, and practice. | | | | | | - **Principle D: Justice** - | | | recognize that fairness and | | | justice entitle all | | | individuals to benefit from | | | the contributions of | | | psychology and to access | | | quality services. | | | | | | - **Principle E: Respect for | | | People's Rights and Dignity** | | | -- researchers respect the | | | dignity and worth of all | | | people and their rights to | | | privacy, confidentiality, and | | | self-determination. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | A. Rights and Dignity of | 1\. we respect the rights, | | Participants | safeguard the dignity, and | | | protect and promote the welfare | | | of research participants. | | | | | | 2\. Before beginning any | | | research work in a community | | | not our own or not familiar to | | | us, we obtain essential | | | information about their mores, | | | culture, social structure, | | | customs, and traditions. | | | | | | 3\. We respect and abide by | | | their cultural expectations, | | | provided that this does not | | | contravene any of the ethical | | | principles of this Code of | | | Ethics. | | | | | | 4\. We respect the rights of | | | research participants should | | | they wish to discontinue their | | | participation at any time. We | | | are responsive all throughout | | | the research to participants' | | | non-verbal indications of a | | | desire to withdraw from | | | participation, especially if | | | the person has difficulty with | | | verbal communication, is a | | | young child, or is culturally | | | unlikely to communicate. | | | | | | 5\. We do not contribute nor | | | engage in research which | | | contravenes international | | | humanitarian law, such as | | | development of methods intended | | | to torture persons, development | | | of prohibited weapons, or | | | destruction of the environment. | | | | | | 6\. It is our duty to ask | | | participants about any factors | | | that could bring forth | | | potential harm, such as | | | pre-existing medical | | | conditions, and to detect, | | | remove, or correct any | | | foreseeable undesirable | | | consequences prior to research | | | proper. | | | | | | 7\. To ensure that participants' | | | rights are protected, we seek | | | independent and sufficient | | | ethical review of the possible | | | risks our research may pose to | | | them. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | B. Informed Consent to Research | 1\. We do not just ask | | | participants to sign in the | | | consent form; we recognize that | | | informed consent happens due to | | | the willingness of the | | | participants to work | | | collaboratively with us. | | | | | | 2\. We make sure that the | | | consent form is translated in | | | language or dialect that the | | | participants understand. We | | | will take reasonable measures | | | to guarantee that the | | | information was understood. | | | | | | 3\. When we conduct research | | | with persons below 18 years of | | | age, we obtain informed assent | | | from them and informed consent | | | from their parents or legal | | | guardian. | | | | | | 4\. When we conduct research | | | with adult participants who | | | have difficulties in | | | comprehension or communication, | | | we obtain informed consent from | | | adult family members of the | | | participants and approval from | | | independent advisors. 5. When | | | we conduct research with | | | detained persons, we pay | | | attention to special | | | circumstances which could | | | affect the latter's ability to | | | give informed consent. | | | | | | 6\. When obtaining informed | | | consent as required in section | | | III.J. of this Code of Ethics, | | | it is our duty to inform | | | research participants about: | | | | | | ✓ the purpose of research, | | | expected duration, and | | | procedures; | | | | | | ✓ mutual responsibilities; | | | | | | ✓ their right to decline to | | | participate and to withdraw from | | | the research once participation | | | has begun; | | | | | | ✓ the foreseeable consequences of | | | declining or withdrawing; | | | | | | ✓ reasonably foreseeable factors | | | that may be expected to influence | | | their willingness to participate | | | such as potential risks, | | | discomfort, or adverse effects; | | | | | | ✓ how to rescind consent if | | | desired; | | | | | | ✓ any prospective research | | | benefits; | | | | | | ✓ protections and limits of | | | confidentiality and/or anonymity; | | | | | | ✓ incentives for participation; | | | | | | ✓ whom to contact for questions | | | about the research and research | | | participants' rights; and | | | | | | ✓ contact details of mental | | | health professionals in case | | | participants experience distress | | | due to the study. | | | | | | We shall provide an opportunity | | | for prospective participants to | | | ask questions and receive | | | answers. | | | | | | 7\. When conducting intervention | | | research using experimental | | | treatments, it is our duty to | | | clarify to participants at the | | | beginning of research the | | | following: ❖ experimental | | | nature of the treatment | | | | | | ❖ services that will or will not | | | be available to the control | | | group(s) if appropriate; | | | | | | ❖ means by which assignment to | | | treatment and control groups will | | | be made; | | | | | | ❖ available treatment | | | alternatives if an individual | | | does not wish to participate in | | | the research or wishes to | | | withdraw once a study has begun; | | | and, | | | | | | ❖compensation for or monetary | | | costs of participating, and if | | | appropriate, including whether | | | reimbursement from the | | | participant or a third-party | | | payor will be sought. | | | | | | 8\. In longitudinal research, we | | | may need to obtain informed | | | consent on more than one | | | occasion. | | | | | | 9\. In conducting online data | | | gathering procedures using | | | digital survey platforms, we | | | ensure that informed consent is | | | obtained in the same rigorous | | | manner as in face-to-face | | | surveys. Such consent to | | | participate in the study must | | | be secured before the | | | respondent gains access to the | | | actual survey or data gathering | | | instruments. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | C. Informed Consent for Recording | 1\. It is our duty to obtain | | Voices and Images in Research | informed consent from research | | | participants before recording | | | their voices or images for data | | | collection, **except when:** | | | | | | **a.** the **research consists | | | only of naturalistic | | | observations** in public places, | | | and it is not anticipated that | | | the recording will be used in a | | | manner that could cause personal | | | identification or harm; and, | | | | | | **b.** the research design | | | **includes deception**, and | | | consent for the use of the | | | recording is obtained during | | | debriefing. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | D. Research Participation of | 1\. When we conduct research | | Client, Students and Subordinates | with our clients, students or | | | subordinates, we do not coerce | | | them to participate, rather, we | | | inform them about their right | | | not to participate and we do | | | not reprimand or penalize them | | | for doing so. | | | | | | 2\. When research participation | | | is a course requirement or an | | | opportunity for extra credit, | | | we inform our clients, students | | | or subordinates about equitable | | | alternative activities that | | | could fulfill their educational | | | or employment goals. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | E. Dispensing with Informed | 1\. We may dispense informed | | Consent for Research | consent only on the following | | | conditions: | | | | | | a\. when we believe that the | | | research would not distress or | | | create harm to participants or | | | general welfare or when our | | | study involves: | | | | | | i\. the study or normal | | | educational practices, | | | curricula, or classroom | | | management methods conducted in | | | educational settings; | | | | | | ii\. only anonymous | | | questionnaires, naturalistic | | | observations, or archival | | | research for which disclosure | | | of responses would not place | | | participants at risk of | | | criminal or civil liability or | | | damage their financial | | | standing, employability, or | | | reputation, and confidentiality | | | is protected; | | | | | | iii\. the study of factors | | | related to job or organization | | | effectiveness conducted in | | | organizational settings which | | | would not affect the | | | participants' employability, | | | and when confidentiality is | | | protected; or, | | | | | | b\. when it is mandated by law | | | or is an institutional | | | regulation. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | F. Offering Inducements for | 1\. We may fairly compensate | | Research Participation | participants for the use of | | | their time, energy, and | | | knowledge, unless such | | | compensation is refused in | | | advance. | | | | | | 2\. We make reasonable efforts | | | not to offer undue, excessive | | | or, inappropriate reward, | | | financial or other inducements | | | for research participation, | | | which could likely pressure or | | | coerce participation. | | | | | | 3\. When we offer psychological | | | and professional services as an | | | incentive for research | | | participation, it is our duty | | | to clarify the nature of the | | | services, including the risks, | | | obligations and limitations. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | G. Deception in Research | 1\. We refrain from conducting | | | research involving deception**, | | | except**: **a. when we have | | | determined that the use of | | | deceptive techniques is | | | justified by the study's | | | significant prospective | | | scientific, educational, | | | medical, or applied value;** | | | and, **b. when effective | | | non-deceptive alternative | | | procedures are not possible.** | | | | | | 2\. We **do not** deceive | | | prospective research | | | participants about our study | | | that is **reasonably expected | | | to interfere with their | | | decision to give informed | | | consent.** We ensure that the | | | level of risk, discomfort, or | | | inconvenience that could cause | | | physical pain or severe | | | emotional distress is not | | | withheld from the participants. | | | | | | 3\. It is our duty to explain | | | any deception as an integral | | | feature of design and conduct | | | of an experiment to those who | | | participated in research as | | | soon as possible, preferably at | | | the end of their participation | | | but not later than the end of | | | data gathering. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | H. Debriefing | 1\. We debrief by informing the | | | participants that they have | | | contributed to the body of | | | knowledge and we make sure that | | | they have also learned from | | | their participation. | | | | | | 2\. We give participants an | | | opportunity to obtain the | | | nature, results, and | | | conclusions of the research. We | | | also take reasonable steps to | | | correct any misconceptions | | | participants have about our | | | research, especially when the | | | participants were led to | | | believe that the research has a | | | different purpose. | | | | | | 3\. When participants' trust may | | | have been lost due to | | | incomplete disclosure or | | | temporarily leading | | | participants to believe that | | | the research had a different | | | purpose, we seek to re- | | | establish trust and assure them | | | that the research procedures | | | were carefully structured and | | | necessary for scientifically | | | valid findings. | | | | | | 4\. If scientific or humane | | | values justify delaying or | | | withholding this information, | | | we take reasonable measures to | | | reduce the risk of harm. | | | | | | 5\. When we become aware that | | | our research procedures have | | | harmed a participant, we act to | | | correct and minimize the harm. | | | | | | 6\. If after debriefing, the | | | participants decided to | | | withdraw their data, we shall | | | respect and grant their | | | request. The participants have | | | the right to appeal that their | | | own data, including recordings, | | | be destroyed. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Humane Care and Use of Animals in | 1\. We do not use animals in | | Research | research, **except** when there | | | is a sufficient reason to say | | | that it is the only way to: | | | | | | a\. **further increases | | | understanding of the structures | | | and processes underlying human | | | or animal behavior;** | | | | | | b\. **increase understanding of | | | the specific species used in | | | the study; or** | | | | | | **c. eventually augments benefits | | | to the health and welfare of | | | humans or other animals.** | | | | | | 2\. We comply with current laws, | | | regulations and professional | | | standards when we acquire, care | | | for, use, and dispose animals | | | used in research. | | | | | | 3\. We take reasonable steps to | | | ensure that animals used in | | | research are treated humanely | | | and are not exposed to | | | unnecessary discomfort, pain, | | | or disruption. If possible, a | | | psychology practitioner trained | | | in research methods and | | | experience in care of | | | laboratory animals shall | | | supervise all procedures in | | | researches of this kind. | | | | | | 4\. We make sure that all | | | individuals under our | | | supervision have received clear | | | instructions and guidelines in | | | research methods and in care, | | | maintenance, and handling of | | | animals or specific species | | | being us