Exam Preparation 1 PDF

Definition of Consciousness Consciousness is the state of being aware of and able to think about one's surroundings, thoughts, and sensations. It is a continuum that ranges from full awareness to deep sleep, with varying levels of attention and awareness in between. For example, daydreaming while p...

Definition of Consciousness Consciousness is the state of being aware of and able to think about one's surroundings, thoughts, and sensations. It is a continuum that ranges from full awareness to deep sleep, with varying levels of attention and awareness in between. For example, daydreaming while performing tasks like driving showcases a state where consciousness is present but reduced in its attention to the external environment. Benefits of Having Consciousness Self-awareness: Allows individuals to reflect on their thoughts and behaviors, leading to personal growth and decision-making. Problem-solving: Consciousness helps in processing information and coming up with solutions. Social interaction: Being conscious allows for effective communication and empathy, which are crucial in social relationships. Learning: Conscious awareness is important for attention, which is essential for learning and retaining information. Tests for Consciousness/Self-awareness Rouge Test: This test evaluates self-awareness by marking a spot of rouge (or a similar substance) on an individual’s forehead and placing them in front of a mirror. If the individual touches or investigates the mark on their forehead, it suggests self- recognition. Humans typically begin passing this test around 18-24 months of age. Brain Areas Related to Consciousness Thalamus: Acts as a relay station for sensory information, playing a critical role in attention and awareness. It helps in filtering and directing sensory inputs to other parts of the brain, thus contributing to consciousness (Psych Chapter 8). Reticular Formation: This structure helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle and maintains alertness. It plays a significant role in controlling the arousal and consciousness levels of the brain. Benefits of Being Unconscious/Sleeping Restoration: Sleep helps restore energy and repair tissues. Memory consolidation: Important memories are strengthened during sleep, especially in REM sleep. Evolutionary adaptation: Sleep may have evolved as a way to keep individuals safe during periods of vulnerability (e.g., at night). How Altered Sleep or Jet Lag Affects Behavior/Cognitive Abilities Decreased cognitive function: Lack of sleep leads to problems in attention, memory, and decision-making. Mood disturbances: Individuals may become irritable or depressed due to disrupted sleep. Physical effects: Sleep disturbances can also lead to fatigue, slower reaction times, and even increased risks for accidents. How Bright Light Exposure Helps Jet Lag Bright light helps realign the body's internal clock (circadian rhythms) by signaling to the brain that it is time to be awake. This can help alleviate the symptoms of jet lag by adjusting the sleep-wake cycle to match the new time zone. How Sleep Requirements Change with Age Newborns: 14-17 hours Toddlers (1-2 years): 11-14 hours School-age children (6-13 years): 9-11 hours Adolescents (14-17 years): 8-10 hours Adults: 7-9 hours Older adults (65+): 7-8 hours. Definition of Phase Delay Phase delay is when the sleep-wake cycle is shifted later, causing individuals to go to bed and wake up later than usual. This typically occurs during adolescence when circadian rhythms naturally shift, causing teens to prefer staying up late and sleeping in. Owl vs. Lark Sleep Patterns Owls: Individuals who are more active and alert in the evening and prefer to go to bed late. Larks: People who are more energetic in the morning and prefer going to bed early. Definition of Circadian Rhythm A circadian rhythm is a biological process that follows a roughly 24-hour cycle, influenced by environmental cues like light and darkness. The most notable example is the sleep- wake cycle. Definition of Zeitgeber A zeitgeber is an external cue that helps synchronize an organism's internal biological clock to the external environment. Examples include light (the most important), temperature, and meal timing. Modern Negative Influences on Sleep Blue light exposure from electronic devices interferes with melatonin production. Inconsistent sleep schedules due to rotating work shifts or social activities. Stress and anxiety can make falling and staying asleep more difficult. Definition of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) Seasonal Affective Disorder is a type of depression that occurs at a specific time of year, usually in the winter when daylight hours are shorter. It is more common in northern regions of the U.S., where there is less sunlight during winter months. Treatment often involves light therapy. Definition of Melatonin Melatonin is a hormone produced by the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles. It is typically released in response to darkness and helps signal the body that it is time to sleep. What Does Blue Light Negatively Affect? Blue light exposure, especially at night, reduces melatonin production, which can interfere with the ability to fall asleep and stay asleep. It also disrupts circadian rhythms. What Type of Light Is Better for Preserving Melatonin? Dim, warm-colored lights, such as red or orange, are better for preserving melatonin and promoting sleep. These types of light have less impact on melatonin production compared to blue or bright white light. What Brain Structure Regulates Circadian Sleep Cycles? The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), located in the hypothalamus, is the primary brain structure that regulates circadian sleep cycles. The SCN receives direct input from the retina about light levels, helping to synchronize the body’s internal clock with the external environment. What Happens If a Certain Nucleus in the Hypothalamus is Lesioned? If the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus is lesioned, the body's ability to maintain regular circadian rhythms, including sleep-wake cycles, is disrupted. This can result in irregular sleep patterns and a loss of synchronization with environmental light- dark cycles. Sleep Lab Measurements Sleep labs measure various physiological signals to monitor sleep, including: Electroencephalography (EEG): Measures brain wave activity. Electromyography (EMG): Monitors muscle tone. Electrooculography (EOG): Tracks eye movements during sleep. Sleep Stages Awake: o Alpha Activity: Occurs when a person is awake but relaxed, usually with their eyes closed. Alpha waves have a frequency of 8-13 Hz.  o Beta Activity: Occurs during active wakefulness, often associated with focused attention or mental activity. Beta waves have a frequency of 13-30 Hz. Sleep: The stages of sleep are characterized by different brain wave patterns. o REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement): Brain activity during REM sleep is similar to wakefulness, with fast, low-amplitude brain waves. REM sleep is associated with vivid dreaming, and the body experiences muscle atonia (paralysis) to prevent acting out dreams. o Non-REM Sleep: Non-REM sleep is divided into four stages: ▪ Stage 1: A transitional phase between wakefulness and sleep. This stage features low-amplitude, mixed-frequency brain waves (mostly theta waves). The body begins to relax, and both heart rate and breathing slow down. ▪ Stage 2: Characterized by the presence of sleep spindles (short bursts of high-frequency brain waves) and K-complexes (large, slow brain waves that appear in response to external stimuli). Heart rate and body temperature continue to decrease. ▪ Stage 3: The beginning of slow-wave sleep (SWS), characterized by delta waves, which are high-amplitude, low-frequency brain waves. This stage is the start of deep sleep. ▪ Stage 4: Deepest stage of non-REM sleep, with predominant delta waves. Waking up from this stage is difficult, and individuals tend to feel disoriented if awakened. In What Stage Do the Following Occur? Sleep Spindles: Occur in Stage 2 sleep. K Complexes: Also occur in Stage 2 sleep. Theta Waves: Present in Stage 1 sleep. Delta Waves: Occur in Stage 3 and 4 (slow-wave sleep). Slow-Wave Sleep (SWS): Occurs in Stage 3 and 4. What Type of Sleep is Also Called “Paradoxical Sleep”? REM sleep is also known as paradoxical sleep because, although the brain is highly active (similar to wakefulness), the body is in a state of paralysis. At What Point in Development Do People Need the Most Sleep? Newborns need the most sleep, typically around 14-17 hours a day. As individuals age, the total amount of sleep required decreases. Definition of REM Rebound REM rebound refers to the phenomenon where; after being deprived of REM sleep, individuals spend more time in REM sleep when they are allowed to sleep normally again. This suggests that REM sleep is homeostatically regulated. How is REM Sleep Related to Mood? REM sleep is believed to play a role in emotional regulation. People who are deprived of REM sleep often experience mood disturbances, such as increased irritability and difficulty managing stress. REM sleep may help process emotional experiences and maintain emotional well-being. What Sleep Stage Do Behaviors Such as Bedwetting, Sleepwalking, and Night Terrors Happen In? These behaviors typically occur during Stage 3 and 4 of non-REM sleep (slow-wave sleep). They are known as parasomnia and involve physical activities like sleepwalking or bedwetting. During these episodes, individuals may have little to no memory of the events. Which Sleep Stage Does Sleep Talking Happen In? Sleep talking can occur in any stage of sleep, but it is most common during NREM sleep, particularly stages 1 and 2. What Does Sleep Look Like Throughout the Course of the Night? Sleep occurs in cycles, typically lasting around 90 minutes. During the course of the night, an individual moves through the different stages of non-REM sleep (Stages 1-4) before entering REM sleep. This cycle repeats multiple times, with REM sleep periods becoming longer and deeper stages of non-REM sleep (Stages 3 and 4) becoming less frequent as the night progresses. Two Main Types of Memory: Declarative and Non-Declarative Declarative Memory: Involves facts and information that can be consciously recalled, such as knowledge of events or concepts (e.g., knowing historical dates or personal experiences). Non-Declarative Memory: Involves skills and tasks that are learned through experience and are typically performed unconsciously, such as riding a bike or playing a musical instrument. Which Types of Sleep Are Important for Each Type of Memory? Declarative memory (memory for facts and events) is most strongly consolidated during slow-wave sleep (SWS), particularly during stages 3 and 4 of non-REM sleep. Non-declarative memory (skills and tasks) is associated with REM sleep. This type of sleep is important for learning procedural skills, such as motor tasks. What Is Slow-Wave Sleep Also Important For? In addition to its role in memory consolidation, slow-wave sleep (SWS) is important for: Physical restoration: It helps the body recover, repair tissues, and maintain energy levels. Growth hormone release: SWS is associated with the secretion of growth hormones, which are crucial for physical development and repair. Vertebrate Sleep Patterns All vertebrates experience some form of sleep, but only birds and mammals experience REM sleep, which is characterized by rapid eye movements and vivid dreaming. Definition of Activation-Synthesis Theory The activation-synthesis theory suggests that dreams result from the brain’s attempt to make sense of random neural activity during sleep. According to this theory, the brain synthesizes and interprets this activity, weaving it into a coherent narrative, which becomes the content of the dream. Definition of Evolutionary Analysis An evolutionary analysis posits that dreams may have evolved to simulate threatening situations, allowing individuals to practice responses in a safe environment. This could help individuals prepare for real-life dangers and improve survival chances. Types of Sleep Disorders Nightmares How Does Sleep Look Different?: Nightmares typically occur during REM sleep, when vivid dreaming takes place. How Could Lucid Dreaming Help?: In lucid dreaming, the dreamer becomes aware that they are dreaming, which can allow them to alter the content of the dream and potentially reduce the emotional impact of the nightmare. Insomnia How Does Sleep Look Different?: Insomnia involves difficulty falling or staying asleep, leading to reduced total sleep time and altered sleep stages. o Onset Insomnia: Difficulty falling asleep. Common causes include anxiety, stress, or stimulants like caffeine. o Maintenance Insomnia: Difficulty staying asleep. Causes include depression, chronic pain, or sleep disorders like sleep apnea. Narcolepsy How Does Sleep Look Different?: Individuals with narcolepsy may enter REM sleep directly from wakefulness, which is abnormal. This can lead to sudden, uncontrollable sleep episodes during the day, often triggered by strong emotions. Sleep Paralysis How Does Sleep Look Different?: Sleep paralysis occurs when the body remains in the state of muscle atonia (paralysis) typically associated with REM sleep, while the brain is awake.  How Can Someone Be Helped Out of It?: Encouraging the person to focus on moving a small part of their body (like a finger or toe) can help them break free from paralysis. Reducing stress and improving sleep hygiene may also help. Cataplexy How Does Sleep Look Different?: Cataplexy is associated with narcolepsy and involves sudden loss of muscle tone while awake, often triggered by emotions like laughter or anger. What Brings on Cataplectic Attacks?: Strong emotional reactions such as excitement, laughter, or anger can trigger cataplexy. Sleep Apnea How Does Sleep Look Different?: Sleep is frequently interrupted due to breathing difficulties. o Obstructive Sleep Apnea: Caused by a blockage of the airway, often due to relaxed throat muscles during sleep. o Central Sleep Apnea: Caused by the brain failing to send the proper signals to muscles that control breathing. o CPAP Machine: A Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) machine helps keep airways open during sleep by delivering a steady stream of air through a mask. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) When Is Risk the Highest?: The risk is highest in infants under 12 months of age. How Many Deaths Annually?: Approximately 3,500 deaths per year in the U.S. are attributed to SIDS. When Is It More Likely?: SIDS is more likely when infants sleep on their stomachs or in environments where they can overheat. How Is It Related to Serotonin?: Research suggests that abnormalities in serotonin function may play a role in SIDS, as serotonin helps regulate breathing and arousal during sleep. REM Sleep Behavior Disorder How Does Sleep Look Different?: In REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD), the muscle paralysis normally experienced during REM sleep does not occur. This allows individuals to physically act out their dreams, often leading to violent movements. Sleep-Related Eating Disorder How Does Sleep Look Different?: Individuals may engage in eating behaviors during non-REM sleep without conscious awareness. They often have no memory of these behaviors when they wake up. Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI) How Does Sleep Look Different?: FFI is a rare genetic disorder that progressively worsens sleep. Patients lose the ability to fall into deep sleep, leading to severe insomnia, hallucinations, and eventually death. There is no cure, and the condition is fatal within a few months to a few years of onset. When Do Symptoms Appear? Symptoms of Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI) typically begin to appear in middle age, around 40 to 50 years old, although this can vary slightly. The disease progresses rapidly after the onset of symptoms (Psych Chapter 8). How Is the Thalamus Involved? FFI primarily affects the thalamus, which plays a crucial role in regulating sleep and wakefulness. The disease causes degeneration of the thalamus, leading to severe insomnia, as the thalamus is responsible for controlling the sleep-wake cycle (Psych Chapter 8). Are There Any Treatments? There are currently no cures for FFI. Treatment is mainly focused on managing symptoms, but even this has limited effectiveness. Medications like sedatives have been used to attempt to improve sleep, but they do not stop the progression of the disease. Definition of Blindsight Blindsight is a phenomenon in which individuals with damage to the primary visual cortex are able to respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them. Although they report not being able to "see" objects, they can often make accurate guesses about the location or movement of those objects. Definition of Prosopagnosia. How Do People Work Around It? Prosopagnosia, also known as "face blindness," is a neurological condition characterized by the inability to recognize faces, even those of close family members. Individuals with prosopagnosia often work around this condition by relying on other cues, such as voice, clothing, or distinctive features like hair or gait, to recognize people. Definition of Fusiform Face Area (FFA) The fusiform face area (FFA) is a region of the brain located in the fusiform gyrus, and it is specialized for facial recognition. This area becomes highly active when individuals view faces, distinguishing them from other objects. Definition of Galvanic Skin Response. When Is It Increased in People with Prosopagnosia? Galvanic skin response (GSR) is a measure of electrical conductance of the skin, which varies with the amount of sweat gland activity, typically in response to emotional arousal. In people with prosopagnosia, GSR can be increased when they unconsciously recognize a familiar face, even though they are not consciously aware of recognizing that person. Definition of Capgras Delusion. What Could Cause It? How Is Their Galvanic Skin Response Different? Capgras delusion is a psychiatric disorder in which individuals believe that someone close to them (e.g., a spouse or family member) has been replaced by an imposter. This delusion is thought to be caused by a disconnection between the brain areas responsible for face recognition and those responsible for emotional responses. People with Capgras delusion typically have a normal conscious recognition of faces but show no galvanic skin response when seeing a familiar face. This suggests that the emotional connection to the face is disrupted. Definition of Unilateral Neglect (aka Hemineglect). What Causes It? Unilateral neglect, or hemineglect, is a condition in which individuals fail to attend to one side of their body or the space around them, usually the left side. It is most often caused by damage to the right parietal lobe of the brain, which impairs the ability to process sensory information from the opposite (left) side of space.