1789 - French Revolution PDF

**1789 - French Revolution** - **Start of Major Changes:** The French Revolution (1789) led to the fall of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic in France. - **Impacts:** It promoted ideas of \"liberty, equality, and fraternity,\" spreading revolutionary and nationalistic ideals across Europe, influencing other countries and ideologies. **Nationalism** - **What is Nationalism?** Nationalism is the belief that people who share a common culture, language, history, and territory should have their own nation-state. - **Inspired by the French Revolution:** The call for national identity grew, driving major nationalist movements in the 19th century. **Nationalism in Key European Countries:** 1. **France:** - The Revolution sparked national pride, uniting people around shared citizenship and laws, rather than monarchy. - **Napoleonic Wars**: Napoleon spread these ideas through his campaigns, inspiring nationalism in other regions. 2. **Italy (Italian Unification - Risorgimento):** - Italy was divided and often under foreign rule. Nationalism led figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Count Cavour to unite Italy, culminating in 1861. 3. **United Kingdom:** - British nationalism was already strong, focusing on the empire and the uniqueness of British institutions. 4. **Germany (German Unification):** - Germany, also divided, was unified through wars and diplomacy led by Otto von Bismarck, resulting in the German Empire in 1871. - **Understanding Nationalism:** Nationalism can unify people but can also create conflict, as it often excludes those considered \"outsiders\" and may lead to tensions between nations. **Key 19th-Century Ideologies** Several ideologies emerged as reactions to the French Revolution and the rise of nationalism: 1. **Conservatism** - **Definition:** Conservatism values tradition, social hierarchy, and stability, opposing drastic change. - **Context:** Post-Revolution, conservatives aimed to restore monarchies and resist revolutionary changes, with figures like Edmund Burke advocating gradual reforms. 2. **Liberalism** - **Definition:** Liberalism supports individual freedoms, democracy, and equality under the law, advocating constitutional government and free markets. - **Context:** Liberals sought reforms that expanded political rights and civil liberties, challenging monarchs and pushing for parliamentary systems. 3. **Socialism** - **Definition:** Socialism seeks social and economic equality, often through collective ownership of property and production. - **Context:** Socialism arose as a response to industrialization and its inequalities, with thinkers like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels calling for the working class to overthrow capitalist systems for a fairer society. - **Transformative Impact:** The French Revolution (1789) changed France and Europe by overthrowing the monarchy, abolishing feudal privileges, and establishing a republic. It altered the relationship between citizens and the government, inspiring other revolutions and political movements. - **Key Events:** - *Bastille Storming*: Symbolized the people's uprising against monarchy. - *Declaration of the Rights of Man*: Promoted individual rights and equality. - *Reign of Terror*: Led by Robespierre, this period was marked by political repression. - **Napoleon\'s Role and Impact:** After a coup in 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte became First Consul and later Emperor, centralizing power and establishing the *Napoleonic Code*, a civil law model for many European countries. - **Military Expansion:** Napoleon's conquests spread revolutionary ideas but also triggered nationalist resistance in occupied areas. - **Fall:** His 1812 failed invasion of Russia, followed by defeat in 1813, marked his decline. - **Goal:** After Napoleon\'s fall, the Congress of Vienna aimed to restore monarchies, redraw Europe\'s boundaries, and maintain a balance of power to prevent further revolutions. - **Principle of Legitimacy:** Monarchies displaced by Napoleon were reinstated to restore conservative order. - **Key Figures:** Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich played a leading role in these conservative efforts. 1. **Political Transformation:** - The revolution shifted power from monarchs, aristocrats, and the church to the people, introducing concepts of popular sovereignty and civil rights. - It set a foundation for modern democracy, though France experienced shifts between monarchy, republic, and empire. 2. **Conflict Between Conservatives and Reformers:** - Conservatives wanted to restore traditional structures, while reformers (or \"progressives\") pushed for republicanism and civil liberties, leading to ideological conflicts across Europe. - **French Occupation and Nationalism:** Under Napoleon, French control stirred resentment, and regions like Italy, Spain, and German states developed nationalist movements in response to foreign rule, seeking self-governance and unity. - **Fragile Peace:** The Congress managed to prevent major wars for decades, but it couldn't suppress nationalism and liberalism fully, leading to the revolutions of 1848. - **New Transport and Communication:** In the 19th century, railways, steamships, and the telegraph enabled ideas to spread more quickly, fueling movements like nationalism and socialism across Europe. - **Impact on Revolutions:** Quicker information flow helped spark the 1848 revolutions, as calls for democracy and workers\' rights spread widely. 1. **Nationalism in France:** - Nationalism grew from revolutionary ideals and was marked by a focus on the "will of the people" rather than monarchies or religious authority. - Under Napoleon, nationalism combined with imperial ambitions, fostering French pride and spreading revolutionary ideas across Europe. 2. **French Statecraft:** - **The July Monarchy (1830-1848):** Constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe tried to balance monarchist and republican interests. - **The Second Republic (1848-1852):** After the 1848 revolution, the republic returned, expanding democratic rights like universal male suffrage. - **The Second Empire (1852-1870):** Napoleon III established a more centralized empire, driving modernization but limiting political freedom. 1. **1789 - 1792:** *French Revolution* and the First French Republic; the monarchy falls, and republican ideals emerge. 2. **1804:** *Napoleon\'s Empire*; reforms like the Napoleonic Code, military expansion across Europe. 3. **1815:** *Congress of Vienna* restores the Bourbon monarchy, re-establishing conservative order. 4. **1830:** *July Revolution* leads to a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe. 5. **1848:** *February Revolution* establishes the Second Republic amid Europe-wide demands for rights. 6. **1852:** *Second French Empire* under Napoleon III, characterized by modernization but also authoritarianism. 7. **1870/71:** *Franco-Prussian War* and the fall of Napoleon III; leads to the Third French Republic and German unification. 1. **Overseas Empire Rivalry with Britain:** - France and Britain competed for colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Although Britain ultimately emerged as the dominant global naval power, France reestablished its empire in the 19th century, especially in North Africa and Southeast Asia. 2. **Continental Dominance with German States:** - France dominated under Napoleon but weakened after his fall. The *Franco-Prussian War* (1870) resulted in a major defeat for France and led to German unification under Otto von Bismarck, shifting continental power. 1. **Centralized Governance Around Paris:** - France's government was highly centralized, with Paris as its administrative and cultural hub, enabling unified policies across the country. 2. **Cycle of Governmental Forms:** - France cycled through forms of government from monarchy to empire and republic, finally settling into the Third Republic in 1871. 3. **Industrialization:** - Industrialization started in France in the mid-1800s, driven by railways and coal mining but lagging the UK, which led the industrial revolution. - **Draft as Unity Tool:** Conscription fostered national unity by unifying recruits from various backgrounds, embedding a sense of duty to the state. - **State Schools:** Promoted civic values and French identity, minimizing regional divides. - **Infrastructure Expansion:** Roads and railways connected rural and urban areas, promoting economic growth and integration. - **Print Media:** Newspapers helped spread nationalist ideas, creating a public sphere where national identity took root. - **Inclusive National Identity:** Civic nationalism focused on shared values and citizenship, emphasizing unity beyond ethnicity or class. - **Austrian Control:** Northern Italy (Lombardy, Venetia) was placed under Austrian rule. - **Restoration of the Papal States:** Pope retained control over central Italy; Bourbon rule was reinstated in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. - **Kingdom of Sardinia:** Expanded under the House of Savoy, it would later lead the unification efforts. - **Suppression of Unification:** Fragmentation intended to prevent nationalism, but instead fueled desire for a united Italy. - **Risorgimento:** Inspired by leaders like Giuseppe Mazzini, Count Cavour, and Giuseppe Garibaldi, it sparked a movement for independence and unity. - **Republican Insurrections:** Early revolts inspired by liberal and nationalist ideals were often suppressed by conservative powers. - **1st War:** Led by King Charles Albert against Austria but ended in defeat, leaving northern Italy under Austrian control. - **Alliance with France:** Victor Emmanuel II, with Cavour's help, gained French support, defeating Austria and unifying Lombardy with Piedmont-Sardinia. - **Austro-Prussian War Support:** Italy's alliance with Prussia led to the acquisition of Venetia after Prussia's victory over Austria. - **Final Unification Step:** Rome was annexed after French troops withdrew due to the Franco-Prussian War, completing Italy's unification. - **1848-49:** 1st War (defeat against Austria). - **1859:** 2nd War (successful with French support, gaining Lombardy). - **1866:** 3rd War (with Prussian support, gaining Venetia). - **1870:** Rome annexed, finalizing Italy\'s unification under the Kingdom of Italy. - **Colonial Rivalry:** Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, France and Britain competed for dominance in Africa, Asia, and the Americas, with Britain often emerging as the stronger colonial power. - **French Colonial Rebuilding:** Despite early losses, France expanded its influence in North Africa (Algeria) and parts of Asia in the 19th century. - **Continental Dominance Battle:** France's dominance under Napoleon led to eventual conflict with the German states, culminating in the Franco-Prussian War, after which Germany emerged as a continental power. - **France's Late Start:** Although industrialization began mid-19th century in France, it lagged behind Britain, which had a head start in railways, coal, and textile production. 1. **Military Struggle**: Italian unification, or *Risorgimento*, relied heavily on military campaigns led by figures like Garibaldi and King Victor Emmanuel II. Conflicts such as the Italian Wars of Independence (1848-49, 1859, 1866) aimed to wrest Italian states from foreign powers, particularly Austria and the Papal States. 2. **Strategic Diplomacy**: Alongside military efforts, Italy\'s leaders, notably Count Cavour, engaged in diplomatic alliances. Cavour\'s alignment with France (1859) and later Prussia (1866) was crucial, helping Italy secure Lombardy and Venetia by isolating Austria. 1. **Decentralized Governance**: After unification, Italy remained decentralized, with former state capitals retaining influence. Rome became the capital in 1870, but cities like Turin, Florence, and Naples continued to shape governance. 2. **Industrialization in the North**: Industrialization primarily developed in northern Italy, where regions like Lombardy and Piedmont saw growth in railroads, factories, and mining. However, the south, known as the Mezzogiorno, remained largely agrarian, creating regional inequalities. 3. **Challenges to Nation-Building**: Economic disparities, emerging socialist movements, and Catholic resistance created obstacles to unity. The Catholic Church retained significant influence, complicating the secular state\'s efforts to establish a cohesive national identity. 4. **National Identity**: Unification fostered a shared Italian identity, with military leaders becoming national heroes. The liberal bourgeois elites, especially in the north, also played a role in shaping the nation by supporting a constitutional monarchy with liberal values. 1. **Pre-Unification Fragmentation**: Before unification in 1861, Italy's fragmented states lacked unified markets and tariffs, slowing economic progress. Napoleon\'s rule introduced some modernization but did not catalyze widespread industrialization. 2. **Northern Focus**: After unification, industrialization accelerated in northern Italy. Regions like Lombardy and Piedmont became centres of textiles, engineering, and later automotive industries, with Milan and Turin emerging as industrial hubs. However, Italy\'s lack of natural resources like coal and iron slowed heavy industry. 3. **Southern Underdevelopment**: The Mezzogiorno remained agrarian, with limited infrastructure and poor educational opportunities, which intensified the north-south economic divide. The dominance of *latifundia* (large estates) hindered modernization, and the south's underdevelopment remains a lasting challenge. 1. **Government and Infrastructure**: Italy's government actively invested in railways, roads, and ports post-unification, particularly in the north. 2. **Foreign Investment**: Funding from Britain and France supported Italy's industries, particularly in textiles and finance. 3. **Urbanization**: Growing northern cities attracted workers, creating a concentrated industrial workforce. - Northern industrialization increased the economic gap with the agrarian south, intensifying social tension. - The Catholic Church's influence slowed modernization in rural areas. - Socialist movements and labor unions emerged, driven by demands for better worker conditions. - Italian industrialization was slow, mostly concentrated in Milan, Turin, and Genoa. - The north saw economic growth, while the south remained largely undeveloped, leading to lasting economic and social divides. - Suffrage gradually broadened, beginning with Catholic emancipation in 1829, then extending voting rights to middle-class men in 1832, urban working-class men in 1867, and rural working-class men in 1884. - Britain's imperial ambitions expanded in Africa and Asia (Scramble for Africa, The Great Game with Russia). - Conflicts like the Crimean War (1853-56) and the Indian Mutiny (1857-59) shaped British colonial policies. - Britain saw its "Golden Years" (1850-1870) with a 50% rise in GDP per capita, driven by advancements in textiles, coal, and steel. - This era saw relative social stability, with the rise of Victorian values like respectability and hard work. - Marked by political reforms, broadening suffrage, industrial expansion, and British imperial growth. - The Victorian period left Britain a more democratic, economically robust, and globally influential nation. - Napoleon's conquests dismantled the Holy Roman Empire and set the stage for future German unification. - Created in 1815, the Confederation included Austria and Prussia, whose rivalry prevented unity. - Efforts to unify Germany through the Frankfurt Assembly ultimately failed due to a lack of major state support. - Appointed Prussian Prime Minister in 1862, Bismarck prioritized a unified German state through military strength. - **Austro-Prussian War (1866)**: Solidified Prussian dominance over Austria. - **Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)**: United German states against France, culminating in victory and the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871. - German unification saw the gradual dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, rising nationalism, and strategic warfare. - Bismarck's realpolitik led to a unified, centralized German state under Prussian leadership by 1871, reshaping European politics. **1. Differences Between Country, Nation, State, and Government** - **Country**: A geographical area defined by borders that includes land, people, and a degree of sovereignty, though it does not necessarily imply political unity or a homogeneous population. - **Nation**: A group of people with a shared identity based on culture, language, history, or ethnicity. Unlike states, nations do not always have clearly defined borders and can span multiple countries (e.g., the Kurdish nation across Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Iran). - **State**: A political entity with a defined territory, permanent population, a government, and sovereignty, meaning it has supreme authority over its internal affairs and can engage in relations with other states. - **Government**: The system or organization exercising authority within a state. It is made up of institutions and individuals responsible for creating and enforcing laws, providing public services, and maintaining order. **Summary**: *A country is a physical territory; a nation is a cultural identity; a state is a political entity with sovereignty; and a government is the authority governing a state.* **2. Political Ideologies on the Left-Right Spectrum** - The **\"left-right\" political spectrum** originated in the French Revolution (1789--1799), where supporters of the monarchy and old order (conservatives) sat on the right of the presiding officer, while reformists advocating for equality sat on the left. This spatial seating arrangement became a shorthand for political beliefs: - **Left-wing**: Ideologies that prioritize social equality, progressive reform, and sometimes revolutionary change, often supporting policies for social and economic reform. - **Right-wing**: Ideologies that emphasize tradition, stability, hierarchy, and economic freedom, typically resisting rapid change. **Summary**: *The left-right spectrum remains a traditional way of classifying political ideologies, although today's ideologies often extend beyond this linear division.* **3. Contributions of Ancient Greece** - Ancient Greece was foundational to European culture and political thought, providing **major contributions** such as: - **The alphabet** (introduction of vowels) - **Historical documentation** (Thucydides) - **Philosophical inquiry** (Plato and Aristotle) - **Democratic governance** (deliberative democracy) - **The name "Europe"** (from the Greek myth of Europa and the Minoans) - **The Olympic Games**, celebrating unity through competition. **Summary**: *Ancient Greece's cultural and political contributions, from democracy to philosophy, provided a shared foundation that influenced European identity and unity.* **Key Historical Milestones and Contributions to European Development** 1. **Ancient Greece (431 B.C.)** - Contributed fundamental **concepts** that shaped European identity: - **Alphabet**: Inclusion of vowels, advancing literacy. - **History and Philosophy**: Works of historians like Thucydides and philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. - **Democracy**: Early models of deliberative governance. - **Identity of \"Europe\"**: A name rooted in Greek mythology. 2. **The Roman Empire (117 A.D.)** - Established **infrastructure and organizational models** that became cornerstones of European civilization: - **Engineering**: Roads, aqueducts, and urban planning. - **Legal Reasoning and Organization**: Foundations of civil law and governance. - **Pax Romana (Peace)**: Provided stability across vast territories. - **Concept of Empire**: Instituted by Caesar, emphasizing centralized power. 3. **Christianity (350--600 A.D.)** - Played a unifying role in European culture and morals: - **Latin Language**: Promoted a shared literacy and cultural identity across regions. - **Shared Morals and Ethics**: Christianity established common ethical standards. - **New Authority Source**: Religious leadership introduced a cohesive social order across diverse kingdoms. 4. **Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire (800 A.D.)** - Charlemagne\'s empire laid early foundations for political unity in Europe: - **Potential to Unite Kingdoms**: Inspired subsequent efforts toward regional unity. - **Secession and Civil War**: Highlighted the challenges of regional loyalty. - **Ur-France and Ur-Germany**: Precedents for modern European states. 5. **Treaty of Westphalia (1648)** - Set principles of state sovereignty and religious tolerance, key for European stability: - **End of Religious Wars**: Facilitated religious coexistence in Europe. - **Concept of State Sovereignty**: Established the idea that states operate with supreme authority over their territory. - **Professionalization of Warfare**: Introduced structured military protocols and rules. 6. **French Revolution and Napoleon (1789--1813)** - Introduced modern concepts in government and individual rights: - **Democratic System**: First modern European democracy was formed. - **Modern Social Ideals**: Ideas on governance, individual rights, and statecraft emerged. - **End of the Ancien Régime**: Triggered the shift from monarchy to republicanism. 7. **Congress of Vienna (1815)** - Aimed to balance power and maintain peace post-Napoleonic wars: - **International Negotiation**: Established a model for diplomatic collaboration. - **Modern Statecraft**: Rationalized and standardized governmental structures. 8. **Industrial Revolution (19th Century)** - Transformed European economies, social structures, and global influence. 9. **Enlightenment Ideas (16th--19th Century)** - Emphasized rational thought, science, and individual rights, reshaping European philosophy and governance. 10. **Colonial Empires (16th--20th Century)** - Expanded European influence globally, though often at the cost of the cultures and autonomy of colonized regions. **World War I and the Path to European Integration** **Key Alliances and Powers** - **Central Powers (Triple Alliance)**: Comprised of the **German Empire**, **Austro-Hungarian Empire**, **Ottoman Empire**, and **Bulgaria**. Italy initially aligned with this group but remained neutral at the start of the war. - **Allied Powers (Triple Entente)**: Included **Great Britain**, **Russia**, **France**, and, from 1915, **Italy** after it shifted alliances. The **United States** joined in 1917 following Germany's actions like the **Zimmermann Telegram**. **Key Figures and Their Visions** - **Georges Clémenceau (France)**: Aimed to weaken Germany so it could no longer threaten France, pushing for punitive measures in the Treaty of Versailles. - **Woodrow Wilson (United States)**: Advocated for **14 Points** promoting peace, open diplomacy, disarmament, national self-determination, and the establishment of a **League of Nations** to prevent future conflicts. - **David Lloyd George (United Kingdom)**: Publicly supported harsh reparations for Germany but privately worried about the spread of Bolshevik ideas from Russia. **The League of Nations** The **League of Nations** emerged as the first attempt at international cooperation to ensure peace. It aimed for: - **Diplomatic Cooperation**: A forum to resolve conflicts. - **Collective Security**: Member states committed to collective action against aggressors. - **Territorial Settlements**: Addressed border disputes to reduce causes of conflict. However, the League struggled with enforcement, as member states could exit or ignore sanctions, leading to its ultimate dissolution in 1946. **Interwar Period and the Rise of Nationalism** - **Mussolini (Italy)** and **Hitler (Germany)** came to power, advocating aggressive expansionist nationalism. - **Hitler\'s Germany**: Left the League, rejected Versailles, and rebuilt its military in secret, culminating in the **annexation of Austria** and the **Munich Agreement** granting Germany Sudetenland in 1938. - The **Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact** (1939): A secret non-aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union, emboldening Germany to invade Poland, which marked the start of World War II. **Questions Addressed** 1. **What major historical events led to the need for European integration and cooperation?** - The devastation of WWI and the failures of alliances underscored the need for a more stable system to prevent war. The Treaty of Versailles and the subsequent League of Nations were initial attempts but lacked sufficient enforcement. - The economic and political crises of the interwar period, coupled with the rise of authoritarian regimes, highlighted the dangers of unchecked nationalism. 2. **How have these events shaped further integration?** - The failures of intergovernmental cooperation through the League of Nations and the rise of nationalism demonstrated the need for more robust, enforceable systems. This paved the way for post-WWII organizations such as the United Nations and the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), which eventually evolved into the **European Union (EU)**, focusing on economic integration as a path to peace. 3. **How can these events be explained by the theories discussed in class?** - **Intergovernmentalism**: The League of Nations is a prime example, as it was a coalition where sovereign states sought to cooperate without yielding authority. However, the limitations in enforcing cooperation revealed the flaws of pure intergovernmentalism. - **Supranationalism**: The failures of intergovernmentalism during the League era encouraged a shift toward supranational approaches post-WWII, where binding agreements and institutions (like the EU) would have authority beyond individual state sovereignty, fostering deeper integration and reducing the risk of conflict. **Post-War European Integration and Cooperation** **Key Meetings and Events** 1. **Allied Leaders Conference**: - **Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)**, **Winston Churchill (United Kingdom)**, and **Franklin Roosevelt (United States)** convened to discuss the post-war world, focusing on the future of Europe and specifically Germany. Germany\'s surrender on **May 8, 1945**, marked **Victory in Europe (V-E) Day**. 2. **Transition of Leadership**: - After Roosevelt's death, **Harry Truman** took over discussions regarding Europe\'s reconstruction and the handling of Germany. **Early Steps Towards Economic Cooperation** 1. **Benelux Treaty (1944)**: - Formed an intergovernmental cooperation among **Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands**, focusing on economic integration and a customs union agreement. The treaty took effect in **1948**, leading to the **Treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union in 1958**. 2. **Marshall Plan (1947)**: - Introduced by **US Secretary of State George Marshall** to combat hunger and poverty, prevent political extremism, and revive the European economy. The US conditioned aid on adherence to the American model of economic development, which the Soviet Union and its allies (Poland and Czechoslovakia) rejected. 3. **Berlin Airlift (1948-1949)**: - In response to the Soviet blockade of West Berlin, the **Berlin Airlift** delivered supplies via **200,000 flights**, demonstrating US commitment to defend Western Europe against Soviet influence. **Formation of Key Economic Organizations** 1. **OEEC (1948)**: - Established on **April 16, 1948**, the **Organisation for European Economic Cooperation** aimed to distribute Marshall Plan funds, reduce trade barriers, and enhance intra-European payment systems. It later evolved into the **Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)**. 2. **COMECON (1949)**: - The Soviet response to the OEEC was the **Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)**, which included Eastern Bloc nations and aimed at facilitating economic cooperation among them. **Defense Alliances and Military Cooperation** 1. **Brussels Treaty (1948)**: - Formed the **Western Union** (later known as the **Brussels Treaty Organisation**) among **Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the UK**, focusing on mutual defense. 2. **NATO (1949)**: - Established as a mutual defense pact under US leadership, NATO committed member countries to collective defense, which was crucial for the Western bloc during the Cold War. 3. **Division of Germany**: - Post-war Germany was split into two states: the **Federal Republic of Germany (West)** and the **German Democratic Republic (East)**. **Key Treaties and Supranational Initiatives** 1. **Schuman Declaration (1950)**: - Proposed by **Robert Schuman**, this initiative aimed to integrate the coal and steel industries of Western Europe to foster economic cooperation. 2. **Treaty of Paris (1951)**: - Created the **European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)**, establishing a common market for coal and steel, governed by a **supranational High Authority** and intergovernmental **Council of Ministers**. This treaty also led to the establishment of the **European Parliamentary Assembly** (advisory) and the **Court of Justice**. 3. **European Defence Community (EDC) (1954)**: - A proposed supranational defense organization, the EDC faced rejection by the French parliament despite initial ratification efforts. Subsequently, West Germany joined NATO in the same year. 4. **Western European Union (1954)**: - A treaty signed to enhance military cooperation among European nations. 5. **Treaties of Rome (1957)**: - Established two key organizations: - **European Economic Community (EEC)**: Focused on creating a single market, eliminating customs duties, and establishing common policies. - **European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM)**: Promoted cooperation in nuclear energy development. Both communities shared advisory assemblies and courts with the ECSC but maintained separate councils (intergovernmental) and commissions (supranational). **Summary** The post-World War II era marked a significant transition towards European integration, driven by a desire to prevent future conflicts, promote economic recovery, and establish cooperative frameworks. Initiatives like the Marshall Plan, the establishment of organizations such as the OEEC and NATO, and treaties like the ECSC and EEC laid the groundwork for modern European institutions, facilitating cooperation that would eventually lead to the formation of the European Union. These developments reflect the interplay between intergovernmental and supranational models of cooperation, shaping the political landscape of Europe for decades to come. **European Institutions: The European Commission and the European Council** **European Commission** 1. **What is the European Commission?** - The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union (EU), responsible for initiating legislation, implementing decisions, upholding EU treaties, and managing day-to-day operations. It acts as a driving force and guide for EU policies. 2. **What are the tasks of the Commission?** - **Initiating Union Legislation**: Holds the right of initiative to propose new laws and policies. - **Administering and Implementing EU Legislation**: Executes and enforces EU laws. - **Monitoring Compliance**: Acts as the guardian of the treaties by ensuring that EU law is observed and properly applied across member states. - **Representing the EU Internationally**: Negotiates on behalf of the EU in international organizations and agreements. - **Driving Force and Guide of EU Policies**: Shapes and directs various sectors, including economic, social, and environmental policies. 3. **Who are the members of the Commission?** - The Commission consists of **27 members**, known as **Commissioners**, with each member representing an EU member state. 4. **Who is the president? And what is their role?** - The current President of the European Commission is **Ursula von der Leyen** (2019-2024, with a possibility of reappointment in 2025). The president is proposed by the European Council and approved by the European Parliament (EP) through the **Spitzenkandidaten procedure**. The president sets the Commission's agenda, represents the EU at the highest levels, ensures effective functioning, and fosters relationships with other EU institutions. 5. **How does the institution make decisions? What voting mechanism do they use?** - The Commission generally makes decisions by consensus among the Commissioners. However, voting can occur if necessary, and specific decisions may be taken based on internal rules. 6. **What is the internal structure of the institution?** - The Commission has: - **27 Commissioners** (one from each member state) serving **5-year terms**, confirmed by the EP after hearings. - **6 Executive Vice Presidents**, including the **High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy** (currently **Kaja Kallas**). - **Secretariat General** that supports the Commission's functions. - **Cabinets** (one for each Commissioner), which provide political support. - **Directorate Generals** that handle specific areas of policy and administration. - Various **Services and Agencies** that assist in implementing EU policies and laws. **European Council** 1. **What is the European Council?** - The European Council is the institution that defines the general political direction and priorities of the EU. It serves as a collective of the heads of state or government and plays a crucial role in shaping EU policies. 2. **What are the tasks of the European Council?** - **Defining Political Directions**: Sets the strategic agenda for the EU and outlines priorities for future cooperation. - **Appointments and Nominations**: Handles key appointments within the EU framework, including leadership positions in various EU institutions. - **Foreign and Security Policy**: Shapes the EU's foreign policy and takes into account strategic interests and defense implications. - **No Legislative Functions**: The European Council does not enact laws but rather defines priorities and strategies. - **Decision-Making**: The European Council primarily operates by consensus, with decisions largely reflecting collective agreement rather than formal legislative functions. 3. **Who are the members of the European Council?** - The European Council comprises: - **27 Heads of State or Government** of EU member states. - The **President of the European Commission**. - The **Union's High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy**. 4. **Who is the president? And what is their role?** - The President of the European Council has been: - **Herman van Rompuy** (2009-2014) - **Donald Tusk** (2014-2019) - **Charles Michel** (2019-2024) - **Antonio Costa** (2025 -...) - The president is elected by the Council using **Qualified Majority Voting (QMV)** for a **2.5-year term** with the possibility of one re-election. The president chairs the European Council meetings, prepares agendas, and presents reports to the European Parliament after meetings. 5. **How does the institution make decisions? What voting mechanism do they use?** - The European Council mainly makes decisions by **consensus**. When necessary, it can use **Qualified Majority Voting** for specific decisions, which allows for more efficient decision-making on certain issues. 6. **What is the internal structure of the institution?** - The internal structure includes: - The **President of the European Council**, who chairs meetings and coordinates activities. - **27 Heads of State or Government** who meet at least **four times a year** to discuss major issues and set the EU's strategic agenda. - Support staff and officials who assist in preparations and follow-ups on decisions made during meetings. **Historical Context** The foundations of these institutions are deeply rooted in the European integration process, initiated by pivotal events like the **Schuman Declaration** (9 May 1950), which aimed to integrate coal and steel industries of Western Europe. This declaration marked a significant step towards economic cooperation and laid the groundwork for future integration. **Key Treaties and Developments:** 1. **1951: European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)** - Established to regulate the coal and steel industries among member states to prevent conflict and promote economic cooperation. 2. **1957: Treaties of Rome** - Established the **European Economic Community (EEC)** and **Euratom**, furthering economic integration and cooperation among member states. 3. **1992: Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on European Union)** - Established the EU and set the stage for further political and economic integration, introducing the concept of EU citizenship. 4. **2007: Treaty of Lisbon** - Reformed the institutional structure of the EU, granting the European Council formal institutional status and creating the position of a permanent president. **Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers)** 1. **What is the Council of the EU?** - The Council of the European Union (often referred to as the Council of Ministers or simply the Council) is a key decision-making body in the EU. It represents the governments of the EU member states and works together with the European Parliament to adopt legislation and coordinate policies. 2. **What are the tasks of the Council?** - **Legislative Role**: Collaborates with the European Parliament to adopt EU legislation, including directives and regulations. - **Policy Coordination**: Coordinates policies among member states in various fields, including economic and foreign policy. - **Budgetary Authority**: Participates in the adoption of the EU budget. - **International Agreements**: Concludes international agreements on behalf of the EU. - **Foreign Affairs**: Develops the EU\'s foreign and security policy. 3. **Who are its members?** - The Council consists of **one minister from each EU member state**, typically the relevant minister based on the agenda (e.g., finance ministers for economic matters). This means there are currently **27 members**representing each of the EU member states. 4. **Who is the president? And what is their role?** - The presidency of the Council rotates among member states every **six months**. The current president (as of 2024) is **Spain** (Antonio Costa). The president\'s role includes: - **Chairing Meetings**: Presides over Council meetings and ensures discussions are orderly. - **Agenda Setting**: Prepares and organizes the Council\'s agenda. - **Facilitating Negotiations**: Acts as a mediator among member states to reach consensus. - **Representing the Council**: Represents the Council in dealings with other EU institutions and international entities. 5. **How does the institution make decisions? What voting mechanism do they use?** - The Council primarily makes decisions through **Qualified Majority Voting (QMV)**, where a majority of votes is required based on the population of member states. Key decisions may require a **unanimous vote**, especially when \"major interests\" are at stake. The voting mechanism has evolved over time: - **1951**: Majority decision established by the Treaty of Paris. - **1958**: Established 12 votes required if proposed by the Commission. - **1966**: Luxembourg Compromise introduced the notion of veto power for \"major interests.\" - **2001**: Treaty of Nice reformed voting for an enlarged EU. - **2007**: Treaty of Lisbon established a double majority system, requiring at least 55% of member states representing at least 65% of the EU population for QMV. 6. **What are the tasks/powers? (and can you explain?)** - The Council\'s tasks include: - **Legislative Adoption**: Working with the European Parliament to pass laws and regulations. - **Policy Coordination**: Ensuring that national policies are aligned with EU goals, particularly in areas such as economic and social policy. - **International Relations**: Representing the EU in international negotiations and agreements, including trade and diplomatic relations. - **Budgetary Powers**: In collaboration with the European Parliament, it plays a crucial role in the budgetary process. 7. **What is the internal structure of the institution?** - The Council consists of various configurations based on policy areas (e.g., Economic and Financial Affairs, Foreign Affairs, Justice and Home Affairs). Each configuration meets with the relevant ministers from member states. The **Secretariat** supports the Council\'s functions, facilitating meetings and document preparation. **European Parliament** 1. **What is the European Parliament?** - The European Parliament is the directly elected legislative body of the EU, representing the interests of EU citizens. It plays a crucial role in shaping EU laws and policies alongside the Council of the EU. 2. **What are the tasks of the Parliament?** - **Legislative Power**: Co-decides legislation with the Council of the EU, including budgetary matters and international agreements. - **Supervisory Role**: Monitors the activities of the European Commission and other EU institutions. - **Budgetary Authority**: Approves the EU budget and has the power to amend it. - **Representational Role**: Represents EU citizens and voices their concerns and interests. 3. **Who are the members of the Parliament?** - The European Parliament consists of **705 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs)**, who are directly elected by EU citizens every five years. The number of MEPs from each member state is roughly proportional to its population. 4. **How does the institution make decisions? What voting mechanism do they use?** - The Parliament typically votes on legislation using **simple majority** and **qualified majority** for certain decisions. Voting can occur in plenary sessions, where all MEPs participate, or in committee votes. Different types of votes (electronic, show of hands) are used depending on the context. 5. **What are the tasks/powers? (and can you explain?)** - The European Parliament\'s powers include: - **Legislation**: Participating in the legislative process alongside the Council, including proposing amendments and voting on final legislation. - **Budget Control**: Having the authority to scrutinize the EU budget and propose changes. - **Oversight**: Monitoring the actions of the European Commission, including approving the Commission's President and the entire College of Commissioners. - **Political Representation**: Serving as a platform for diverse political opinions from across Europe, influencing EU policy direction. 6. **What is the internal structure of the institution?** - The Parliament is organized into **committees** that specialize in specific areas (e.g., Environment, Foreign Affairs), which prepare legislation for plenary sessions. The Parliament has a **President** (currently **Roberta Metsola**), elected by MEPs to represent the Parliament externally and oversee its work. **Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers)** 1. **What is the Council of the EU?** - The Council of the European Union (commonly referred to as the Council of Ministers) is a primary decision-making body of the EU that represents the governments of the EU member states. It collaborates with the European Parliament to adopt legislation and coordinate policies. 2. **What are the tasks of the Council?** - **Negotiates and Adopts EU Laws**: The Council negotiates and adopts legislation, often in cooperation with the European Parliament. - **Policy Coordination**: Coordinates policies among member states in various areas (e.g., economic, environmental). - **Foreign and Security Policy**: Develops and implements the EU's common foreign and security policy based on guidelines set by the European Council. - **Concludes International Agreements**: Represents the EU in international negotiations and agreements. - **Adopts the EU Budget**: Approves the EU budget in collaboration with the European Parliament. - **Monitoring Member States\' Budgetary Policies**: Oversees the budgetary policies of member states. 3. **Who are its members?** - The Council comprises one minister from each EU member state, typically the minister relevant to the agenda topic, resulting in **27 members**. These members can be: - **Ministers** or **State Secretaries** from various sectors (e.g., finance, agriculture). 4. **What is the internal structure of the institution?** - The Council is organized into **10 configurations**, each focusing on specific policy areas, such as: - **General Affairs Council (GAC)** - **Foreign Affairs Council (FAC)**, chaired by the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. - **Economic and Financial Affairs Council (EcoFin)** - **Agriculture and Fisheries Council (AgriFish)** - **Justice and Home Affairs Council (JHA)** - **Permanent Representatives** (COREPER) assist in the Council\'s functions: - **COREPER II**: Composed of Permanent Representatives (Ambassadors) dealing with political, legal, and institutional matters. - **COREPER I**: Composed of Deputy Permanent Representatives focusing on technical and sectoral issues (e.g., internal market). 5. **How does the institution make decisions? What voting mechanism do they use?** - The Council primarily uses **Qualified Majority Voting (QMV)** for decisions, which requires: - **55% of Member States** (15 out of 27). - **65% of the EU's population**. - A **blocking minority** of more than four member states representing over 35% of the EU's population can prevent a decision. - **Unanimity** is required for sensitive topics such as foreign policy and taxation. **European Parliament** 1. **What is the European Parliament?** - The European Parliament is the directly elected legislative body of the EU, representing the interests of EU citizens. It plays a crucial role in shaping EU laws and policies, working alongside the Council of the EU. 2. **What are the tasks of the Parliament?** - **Legislative Power**: Co-decides legislation with the Council of the EU, including budgetary matters and international agreements. - **Supervisory Role**: Monitors the activities of the European Commission and other EU institutions. - **Budgetary Authority**: Approves and amends the EU budget. - **Political Representation**: Represents EU citizens and voices their concerns. 3. **Who are the members of the Parliament?** - The European Parliament consists of **705 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs)**, directly elected by EU citizens every five years. The number of MEPs per member state is roughly proportional to its population. 4. **How does the institution make decisions? What voting mechanism do they use?** - The Parliament typically votes using a **simple majority** or **qualified majority** for specific decisions. Voting can occur in plenary sessions or committee votes, utilizing various methods (electronic, show of hands). 5. **What are the tasks/powers? (and can you explain?)** - The European Parliament\'s powers include: - **Legislation**: Participating in the legislative process alongside the Council, proposing amendments, and voting on legislation. - **Budget Control**: Scrutinizing the EU budget and proposing changes. - **Oversight**: Monitoring the actions of the European Commission, including the approval of its President and Commissioners. - **Political Representation**: Serving as a platform for diverse political opinions across Europe, influencing EU policy. 6. **Historical Development of the European Parliament:** - **1951**: Creation of the European Parliamentary Assembly (advisory role) with 142 MEPs. - **1962**: Transformation of the Assembly into the European Parliament. - **1974**: Paris Summit decision for direct elections. - **1979**: First direct elections held. - **1970**: Treaty of Luxembourg extended the Parliament\'s budgetary powers. - **1986**: Single European Act enhanced assent and cooperation powers. - **1992**: Treaty of Maastricht marked the beginning of the Parliament's role as a co-legislator. - **1997**: Treaty of Amsterdam placed the Parliament on equal footing with the Council under the co-decision procedure. - **2007**: Treaty of Lisbon abolished the cooperation procedure, making the Parliament\'s assent a consent requirement. - **Enlargement**: Led to an increase in the number of MEPs. 7. **What is the internal structure of the institution?** - The Parliament is organized into **committees** that specialize in specific areas (e.g., Environment, Foreign Affairs), preparing legislation for plenary sessions. The **President** of the European Parliament (currently **Roberta Metsola**) is elected by MEPs to represent the Parliament and oversee its functions. **European Parliament** 1. **What kind of institution is the European Parliament?** - The European Parliament is a **supranational legislative body** of the European Union that represents the citizens of the EU. It is one of the main decision-making institutions in the EU and has legislative, supervisory, and budgetary powers. 2. **Who are its members and how many?** - The European Parliament comprises **705 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs)** following the UK's exit from the EU (Brexit). The number of MEPs from each member state varies according to population, with a minimum of 6 and a maximum of 96 (e.g., Germany). 3. **Who is the president? And what is his/her role?** - The current president is **Roberta Metsola** (re-elected). The president's roles include: - Presiding over sessions of the Parliament. - Representing the Parliament in external relations. - Ensuring that Parliament\'s rules and procedures are followed. - Facilitating the work of the Parliament and maintaining order during debates. - The presidency typically alternates between the two largest political groups (EPP and S&D) every 2.5 years, renewable once. 4. **How does the institution make decisions? What voting mechanism do they use?** - The European Parliament employs various voting mechanisms, including: - **Simple majority**: For most decisions. - **Qualified majority**: For specific legislative procedures. - Votes can occur in **plenary sessions** or within **committees**, using methods such as electronic voting or show of hands. 5. **What are the tasks/powers? (and can you explain?)** - The European Parliament has three main roles: - **Legislative Powers**: Debating and passing European laws in cooperation with the Council of the EU. - **Supervisory Powers**: Scrutinizing the work of other EU institutions, particularly the European Commission, to ensure accountability and democratic functioning. - **Budgetary Powers**: Debating and adopting the EU budget in collaboration with the Council, overseeing how EU funds are spent. 6. **What is the internal structure of the institution?** - The European Parliament's internal structure includes: - **Political Groups**: Comprising **8 political groups** and non-attached MEPs. - **Committees**: **20 parliamentary standing committees** and **4 subcommittees** that conduct detailed work on specific issues. - **Plenary Sessions**: The Parliament meets in **Strasbourg** for 12 plenary sessions per year. - **Administrative Functions**: Day-to-day operations are managed from **Brussels**, while the **Luxembourg** facility houses secretarial functions. **[Chapter 1. Understanding Integration]** **Key points** How we think about the EU and regional integration depends in large parts on how we think about states and their changing role powers in the world since 1945 Since WWII there has been a growth in the number of international organizations set up to promote cooperation among states, and based on the principles of communal management, shared interests and voluntary cooperation Multiple theories have been developed to explain the motives that led to integration in western Europe, and the dynamics of integration. The academic debate came to be dominated by theories of international relations. Functionalists argue that the best way to achieve global peace is through the creation of functionally specific interstate institutions, which bind states into a web of cooperation. **Neofunctionalists** argue that multiple actors play a role in integration, which is driven by a process of spillover through which governments find themselves cooperating in a growing range of policy areas **Intergovernmentalists** take the focus back to the deliberate and conscious decisions of governments and argue that the pace and nature of integration has been ultimately driven by state governments pursuing state interests. **Discussion questions** Which features of a state apply also to the EU and which do not? In what ways (if any) has the EU gone beyond being a conventional international organization? Are there any aspects of Mitrany's idea about functionalism that continue to help us understand the EU? How far do realist and liberal ideas from international relations continue to shed light on the dynamics of European integration? **Key terms** **Grand theory** Grand theory: theory that explains ethe entirety of a phenomenon, which has so far been lacking in efforts to explain and understand European integration. **Integrative potential** Integrative potential: a measure of the extent to which states will be able to integrate successfully, based on combination of economic and political factors. **International organization** The UN (HC in New York). Is both the expression of the key role played by states in global governance and the ultimate expression of the desire to encourage cooperation through the work of international organizations. Since the end of WWII, we have not only seen a growth in number of states, also growth of interstate cooperation. Motives are: \- Promote peace, encourage trade, share ideas and resources, reduce duplication, address shared problems such as illegal immigration, environmental decline, cross-border crime, terrorism and financial regulation. To make this more efficient, states create international organizations (IOs). Most of the IOs fall into one of 2 major categories: **International nongovernmental organizations (NGOs**): members are individuals or representatives of private associations. Amnesty International, Greenpeace, International Red Cross. **Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs):** members are states, goal is to promote cooperation among state governments. United Nations, World Trade Organization (WTO), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Council of Europe, Interpol. IGOs do not control territory, nor do they have much opportunity for independent action (bc they are based on voluntary cooperation of their members who define what IGOs can & can't do). WTO is exception: its dispute resolution procedure allows members to use the WTO to help resolve trade disputes. **International relations & realism** International relations: the study of relations among states, focusing on alliances, diplomacy, war and peace, and the dynamics of decisions reached by states working together or in competition with each other. Realism: has long been the foundational theory in the study of IR. It's a theory which argues that we live in an anarchic global system (one without rules or an authority above the level of the state) and that international relations are driven by a struggle for power among self-interested states. **Liberal intergovernmentalism** A theory combining elements of neofunctionalism and intergovernmentalism, arguing that intergovernmental bargains are driven by pressures coming from the domestic level. **Nation** A community whose members identify with each other based on shared language, ancestry, history, culture, territory, religion, myths and symbols. If a state is legal and political entity, then a nation is mainly a cultural entity. National identity began to grow rapidly at about the time of the French Revolution, soon becoming the main source of political legitimacy in Europe, and the glue that many governments used to extend and define their power. **Nationalism** A belief in the value of preserving the identifying qualities of a nation and promoting its interests, founded on self-determination. Pushed far enough, identification with nations my spawn nationalism. **Neofunctionalism & spillover** Ernst Haas was the author of the theory of neofunctionalism (= theory that states are not the only important actors in efforts to integrate, and that supranational institutions, interest groups and political parties all play a key role). He wanted to know why states voluntarily cooperated with their neighbors while acquiring new techniques for resolving conflicts. **Spillover:** a key element in neofunctionalist theory, describing the pressures through which cooperation among states in one area of policy will lead to pressures to cooperate in other areas. **Regional integration association** Taken far enough, international cooperation can evolve into regional integration ![](media/image2.jpeg)= the promotion of cooperation and collective action among a group of states based on the identification of shared interests, common goals, the promotion of efficiency, pooling of resources, creation of opportunity. Although states may be motivated by broad philosophical goals such as peace & unity, integration is usually focused on economic cooperation like trade and investment. Arrangements include treaties, outlining goals and terms and the creation of new regional institutions charged with working towards those goals. \- **RIA: regional integration association** (group of states form this to encourage collective action and develop common rules on shared interests). **The state** A legal and political arrangement through which all large-scale political communities are organized, combining government, population, legitimacy, territory and sovereignty. Afbeelding met tekst, schermopname, Lettertype Automatisch gegenereerde beschrijving Concepts **Federalism & Functionalism** From federalism to functionalism The concern was that elites would rebuild the state system, raising the danger of a revival of interstate tensions and conflict. Answer = federalism = promotion of, or support for, the idea of federation. For European federalists, this means a belief in the merits of working towards replacing the European state system with a new European federation, or a United States of Europe. In conceptual terms, however, it is not really a theory and falls victim to the confusion between its explanatory role in analysing the nature of today's EU and its prescriptive role in explaining what some would like the EU to become. Jean Monnet: French bureaucrat. He advocated federalism. *ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community)* was first step. He is often regarded as the founding father of Europe. David Mitrany: critic of federalism. He advocated functionalism (= interstate institutions will develop its own peace etc, instead of the need for grand intergovernmental agreements). He is known as the pioneer of integration theory. **Intergovernmentalism, Regional integration & Supranationalism** The spotlight moves to governments after 1970s, Hoffmann thought that the states of western Europe should be regarded by the idea of intergovernmentalism: both theory and model, sees EU primarily as a meeting place in which representatives from the states negotiate with each other. Those ideas stand in contrast to supranationalism: the state or condition of transcending national boundaries, authority, or interests Global health governance therefore operated, not through supranationalism, but the transformation and networking of domestic administrations across borders. The key to understanding the EU is probably to combine intergovernmentalism and supranationalism, seeing them not as 2 points but as complementary aspects. **Westphalian system** The international state system is often known as the Westphalian system after the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. States had, however, begun to emerge well before 1648, and the worldwide reach of the state system did not accelerate until the break-up of European empires after 1945. The health of the system is questioned: arguing that the state is dying and pointing to the EU and other examples of regional integration as proof of how government and authority are being redefined. Others argue that states are becoming stronger as a reaction to globalization. **[Chapter 4: First steps (1944-58)]** **Key points** Europe had long sought means to cooperate int the face of conflict, but it took the traumas of two world wars to bring these ideas to a wider audience Western Europe in 1945 had 3 critical needs: to rebuild war-ravaged economies, to ensure internal and external security, and to limit the dangers of nationalism Economic reconstruction was given a boost by the US under the Marshall Plan, and security assurances were also provided by the US through **the North Atlantic treaty Organization (NATO)** Alongside failed efforts to create a European Defense Community and a **European Political Community (EPC),** Europeans made some progress with the creation of **the European Coal and Steel Community**. Although a useful first step in the process of building European economic ties, only France, West Germany, Italy and the 3 Benelux countries joined Economic cooperation was behind the signature in 1957 of the Treaties of Rome, creating **the European Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community.** The goals of the EEC included a single market, a common external customs tariff, and common policies on agriculture, trade, transport and competition **Discussion questions** What were the major historical causes for European conflict and war? What had changed by 1945 to make Europeans more receptive to the idea of cooperation? Why were France and Germany so central to the interests of European integration? How important were Bretton Woods, the Marshall Plan and the Suez crisis to the early history of European integration? Was the European Economic Community the best that could have been achieved at the time? Or could integrationists have afforded to have been more ambitious? **Key terms** **Marshall Plan** A program under which the US offered financial assistance to encourage post-war recovery in Europe. Often credited with providing the investments needed to pave the way for regional integration. \- A strong Europe would help prevent Soviet expansion and create a new market for US exports. ![](media/image4.jpeg) **Organization for European Economic Co-operation** The Marshall Plan also helped lay critical foundations for European integration. The US insisted on the creation of a new international body**, the Organization for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC),** to coordinate the distribution of aid of the Marshall Plan. Some see this as the first significant step in the process of post-war European integration. **North Atlantic Treaty Organization** = A defensive alliance created in 1949 among the US, Canada and most major western European states, designed in part to send a hands-off warning to the Soviet Union. More broadly known as the Atlantic Alliance. \- On one hand there was no firm commitment to a combined military response, on the other hand, the creation of NATO sent a strong message to the Soviets, who countered in 1955 with the creation of their own defensive agreement**: the Warsaw Pact** (the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance) **European Movement** In the new atmosphere of receptivity to cooperation in western Europe, several pro-European groups were founded or revived, but what was lacking was a strong political lead. The European Movement was created in 1948 to champion the cause of European integration. It was behind the setting up of the Council of Europe and continues today to lobby for a federal Europe. **Council of Europe (1946-50)** An organization founded in 1949 at the suggestion of Winston Churchill, which has gone on to promote European unity with a focus on issues relating to democracy and human rights. Goal: to achieve a greater unity between its members. **European Coal and Steel Community (1950-52)** The first organization set up to encourage regional integration in Europe, with qualities that were both supranational and intergovernmental. Monnet's plans to break down the coal and steel cartels, and the negotiations were hard, but Monnet prevailed and on 18 April 1951 the Treaty of Paris was signed, creating the ECSC. Like the Marshall Plan and NATO, it had an important psychological effect, obliging the governments of the Six to work together and learn new ways of doing business. **European Defense Community (EDC)** Even as western Europeans worked on the ECSC, they were also working on 2 other cooperative initiatives that probed patently overoptimistic in their reach. The first of these was the European **Defence Community.** = a failed plan to create a common European military as means of binding a rearmed West Germany into western Europe. A draft EDC Treaty was signed in May 1952, by the six members of the ECSC, but faced 2 handicaps: Lacked support from Britain (the only remaining large military power in Europe) Its core goal of building a Franco-German military force could not be achieved without the full remilitarization of West Germany. **Western European Union** Eager to encourage military cooperation that went beyond the loose obligations of NATO, Britain now proposed transforming the Western Union into **the Western European Union (WEU).** = a defensive alliance (created in 1954) that was always to be overshadowed by NATO, and, despite being given a potential new role in EU defense in the 1990, eventually became dormant. **European Political Community** The 2nd major initiative of early 1950s was the EPC. It was an attempt to create a political community to oversee the ECSC and the European defence Community, which collapsed with the demise of the latter. **Suez crisis** An attempt made by Britain, France and Israel to reverse Egypt's nationalization of the Suez \`canal, leading to an international outcry, the humiliation of Britain and France, and a change in British attitudes towards European integration. It was another shock to follow when the Suez crisis in 1956 happened. Britain and France were afraid Nasser (Egypt) would close the Suez Canal. US couldn't interfere because they were doing the same as the Soviets.  Britain and France withdrew from Suez  French doubtful of trustworthiness of US and more convinced of western European policy independence Britain began to realize it was no longer a world power and started to look more towards Europe: first they shunned the ECSC but within 5 years of Suez, it had applied for a membership of the European Economic Community. A new round of negotiations among the six ECSC members began in Venice in May 1956, paving the way for the signature in 1957 of the 2 Treaties of Rome, one creating the: **European Economic Community (EEC):** International organization with the key goal of establishing a single market among its member states and **European Atomic Energy Community:** International organization created to coordinate research in its member states on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. **Concepts** Bretton Woods system The arrangement agreed at Bretton Woods in 1944, by which it was hoped that the economic and financial mistakes of the mid-war years would be avoided, and new and more sustainable international commercial and financial system created. The key goal of the system was exchanging rate stability, using gold as the reference point, and free convertibility of currencies that would encourage trade. The system ended in August 1971 when the US unilaterally ended the convertibility of gold and the US dollar, sparking exchange rate volatility and helping encourage western Europe to take the first steps in what would eventually lead to the creation of the euro. Place: Mount Washington Hotel, set in the forested hills of Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. Creation of 2 international organizations: International Monetary Fund (would encourage exchange rate stability) and World Bank (would lend to European countries affected by war. **Cold War** = war or words, ideas and ideologies between US sand its surrogates, on the one hand and the Soviet Union and its surrogates on the other. It lasted from the late 1940s to the late 1980s and had an important effect on Europe because of its East/West political divisions and because of the stresses caused by straddling the divide between the two key protagonists. The end of the Cold War brought an important redefinition of the idea of Europe. **3 urgent priorities now faced European states:** Economic reconstruction was urgently needed if Europe was to recover and regroup, but it was clear that the region was too tired and drained to be able to achieve this alone Europeans not only continued to be suspicious of each other, but also faced the prospect of being the battlefield war between the Americans and the Soviets, leading perhaps to nuclear annihilation Nationalism had been the main cause of both world wars, and Europeans could not hope to live in peace unless it was channeled in a more benign direction. **Single market** Multi-state economic area, otherwise known as a common or internal market, in which there is free movement of ppl, money, goods and services -- the so called 'four freedoms. Although the main goal of the ECC was the creation of a single market, progress was halting until the passage of the 1986 Single European Act. Even critics of European integration mainly agree that the single market was a noble goal and complain that integration has since far overstepped this basic idea. But truly open market does not yet exist in the EU, because there are still restrictions on the movement of workers and limits on trade in service. **[Chapter 10: The European Commission]** **Key points** The European Commission is the bureaucratic-executive arm of the EU, responsible mainly for developing proposals for new laws and policies, and for overseeing their implementation in the member states It is headed by a College of Commissioners, whose members are nominated by the governments of each of the member states to 5-year renewable terms and must be confirmed by the European Council and the European Parliament The College is headed by a president, formally nominated by the European Council and confirmed by a majority vote in the EP. Commission presidents have become the most public face of the EU institutions. Most Commission staff work in Brussels-based directorates-general and services, but some work in Commission offices in EU member states abroad The detailed work of the Commission is undertaken by network of advisory, management and regulatory committees, supported by a Secretariat-General. In addition to responsibilities for EU law and policy, the Commission also manages the EU budget, has responsibilities in external relations, represents the EU in international trade negotiations, and processes applications for membership of the EU. **Key Terms** New institutionalism A revival of institutionalism that goes beyond formal rules and looks at how institutions shape decisions and define interest Institution A formal organization or a set of rules or practices associated with a particular phenomenon. ![Afbeelding met tekst, schermopname, Lettertype, nummer Automatisch gegenereerde beschrijving](media/image6.jpeg) **President of the Commission** The head of the Commission and one of the most visible of all the staff of the EU institutions. Appointed by the European Council for renewable five-year terms and charged with giving the Commission direction. They have the following powers: - To lay down guidelines for the work of the Commission and decide it's internal organization - To distribute policy portfolios and ask members to resign of the College of Commissioners if necessary. - To assign themselves whatever duties interest them - To chair meetings of the College - To take questions before the EP To represent the Commission in dealings with other EU institutions and key meetings of national government and their leaders. **College of Commissioners** Is the public face of the Commission. They are appointed for 5-year renewable terms, on from each of the member states, and each is given responsibility over a particular area of policy. The Parliament can remove the entire College through a motion of censure, although it has never happened. **Cabinet** The small group of assistants that works for a European Commissioner. Headed by a chef de cabinet, members provide advice, info and other services to the commissioners. **Directorate-general DG** A department within the Commission, headed by a director-general and given responsibility for generating and overseeing the implementation of laws and policies in particular areas. **Concepts** Executive The president of the European Commission is the most prominent figure in an institution that is in many ways the executive of the EU (as well as its chief bureaucracy). = The political institution responsible for overseeing the execution of laws and policies, and most often associated with the idea of political leadership in states. Some executives are presidents who are directly elected by voters (US, brazil, Nigeria, Cyprus, France), while others are prime ministers (or chancellors in Austria and Germany) by virtue of being the leader of the preferred candidate of the largest party or coalition of parties in government. **Comitology** The process by which executive decisions within the Commission are monitored and influenced by a network of advisory, management and regulatory committees. It traces its roots back to concerns among member states that the Commission might try to change policy while implementing it. Committees were once powerful, feeding charges of the secretive and undemocratic character of the Commission. After years of complaints from the EP, a 2006 decision gave the EP power to block decisions coming out of the Commission where they were quasi-legislative and adopted using the co- decision procedure **[Chapter 11: The council of Ministers]** The formal name of the Council is the Council of the European Union, although it's usually known simply as the Council of Ministers. It's often confused with the European Council (both are often referred to as 'the Council'). The Council was designed to be a link between the High Authority and national governments. What the council does College of Commissioners has approved a proposal for new law  sent to EP & Council of Ministers  goes first to working parties which identify points of (dis)agreement)  sent to Coreper  if approved it's sent back to the relevant council. ![](media/image8.jpeg) **Key Points** The council of ministers is where national government ministers make decisions on proposals for new laws The council of ministers is headquartered in Brussels, its membership changing according to the policy area under discussion Meetings of the Council of Ministers are chaired by representatives from the presidency of the Council, which rotates among member states every six months Most of the work of the Council is undertaken by the Committee of Permanent Representatives (Coreper), on of the most influential and most often overlooked institutions in the EU system of governance. The main job of the Council is to decide -- in conjunction with Parliament -- which proposals for new EU laws and policies will be adopted and which will not. It also shares powers with Parliament for approving the EU budget Most Council decisions use a qualified majority voting system, with each member state given a number of votes roughly in proportion to be the size of its population. **Key Terms** **Bicameral legislature** Part of the difficulty with understanding the Council stems from its highly unusual character; there is nothing quite like it in any political system. The closet point of equivalency lies in the bicameral legislatures that are found in about 40% of the countries in the world. = One consisting of two chambers with complementary functions, in contrast to a unicameral legislature with just one chamber. **Coreper** **The Committee of Permanent Representatives** in which delegates from each of the member states meet to discuss proposals for new laws before they are sent to the Council of Ministers for a final decision. Much of the work of the Council has already been settled before the ministers meet. This is what Coreper does. In addition to Coreper, the Council of Ministers has a complex network of working parties and committees that support the work of Coreper, and in this sense function as the foundations of the Council edifice. **Presidency of the Council of Ministers** Unlike the four other main institutions of the EU, the presidency of the Council of Ministers is held not by a single person but by the government of a member state, with each government taking turns in a pre-agreed rotation for 6 months. It's the leadership of all meetings of the Council of Ministers except the Foreign Affairs Council. 2021 first half it was Portugal, now it's Slovenia, next year it's France, then 2022 2nd half its Czech Republic. **Duties of presidency:** Prepares and coordinates work of the Council of Ministers, setting agendas for hundreds of annual meetings etc etc Arranges chairs and most meetings of Council of Minis & Coreper It mediates, bargains, promotes cooperation among memberstates. **Trio system** The arrangement under which the member state holding presidency works closely with its predecessor and successor to help encourage policy consistency. **Concepts** Legislative function The part of governing process that is concerned with making laws, that is typically the responsibility of the legislature (which might be a parliament, a congress, national assembly, or council). The function usually includes the ability to propose, draft, amend and either approve or reject new laws, and to amend or cancel existing laws. In some political systems, proposals for new laws come from the executive, while in others those proposals come from the legislature itself. Input into the legislative process is also usually accompanied by authority to discuss, amend and approve or reject the national budget. The Council has strong democratic credentials; its members are part of the democratically elected governments of the member states. The Council has significant power: it shares with Parliament the authority of legislative function within the EU system, and the Parliament has nothing to say without explicit agreement of the Council. **Qualified majority vote** A system of voting in which the winning block or group needs more than a simple majority. It is also sometime known as a 'supermajority'. It is used in the Council of Ministers, while supermajorities of two-thirds are required in national legislatures to approve constitutional amendments in several countries, including Canada, India, Japan, Nigeria and US. Substantive votes in the UN Security Council require the support of at least 9 of its 15 members. The goal is to ensure that key decisions can only be made with the support of a significant proportion of a population. When proposals are agreed within the Council, they must be reviewed by the Parliament. Once there were 3 different procedures, called codecision procedure, but now it's known as the 'ordinary legislative procedure'. It works as follows: 1. Commission submits proposal to Parliament and Council 2. First reading: parliament adopts position 3. If Council approves, act is adopted. If not, it adopts its own position and passes it back to Parliament 4. Second reading: parliament can approve the Council's text, reject it or modify it and sent it back 5. If Parliament amends the text and Council approves it then the proposal is adopted. 6. If Council rejects, a Conciliation Committee is convened **[Chapter 12: The European Parliament]** ![](media/image12.jpeg) **Powers over legislation** Although the Commission has a monopoly on drafting of proposals for new laws, there are several ways in which the Parliament can play a role It can send representatives to the meetings held by the Commission to start the drafting process, helping shape the legislation and talking about issues the Commission thinks are important. It can publish 'own initiative' reports that draw attention to the problem, encouraging the Commission to respond It can send a request to the Commission that it submit a proposal on a problem related to the implementation of treaty obligations **Powers over other institutions** Parliament has several direct powers over other EU institutions that have helped it develop a modest system of checks and balances and have given EU citizens more of a role in influencing those institutions. Most substantial power the EP has over the Commission (also known as the nuclear option) is to force the resignation of the College of Commissioners through a motion of censure. **Key Points** The EP is the legislative arm of the EU, sharing powers with the Council of Ministers over discussing and approving legislative proposals developed by the EC, and over approving the EU budget. Plenary meetings of Parliament are held in Strasbourg, its committees meet in Brussels and its Secretariat is based in Luxembourg. Pressure to move Parliament to Brussels has been resisted by France The EP has 705 members elected to fixed and renewable 5-year terms: the number of seats being divided up among the member states based on population. The EP is headed by president elected by its members, and detailed parliamentary work is undertaken in a network of 20 standing committees. Most decisions are made under the ordinary legislative procedure, by which the EP and the Council can discuss and amend a proposal up to three times The EP has the right to confirm nominees to the presidency of the EC, the High Rep Forgn Aff, College of Commissioners, and the office of European ombudsman, and has powers of scrutiny over the Commission. **Key Terms** - President of the EP - The leader of the EP, elected by MEPs from among their number, the selection being predetermined because of negotiations among the major political groups. - Responsibilities: - Open, chair and close EP debates during plenary sessions - Apply rules of parliamentary procedure - Sign EU budget - Pass proposals to committees - Represent Parliament in legal matters - Preside over meetings of the Conference of Presidents and Bureau of the EP **Conference of Presidents** The EP is managed by 3 different bodies: - **Conference of Presidents**, consisting of the president and the heads of the EP political groups, and responsible for deciding the timetable and agenda for plenary sessions and managing EP committees. - **Bureau of the EP. Functions** like governing council. (Responsible for administrative, organizational and staff issues - **Conference of Committee Chairs** (discusses organizational issues, watches progress of legislative proposals) **Member of the European Parliament** A representative elected from one of the EU member states to serve in the European Parliament. Each MEP represents the same number of people, but then Germany would have 120 MEPs while Cyprus would have one and Malta and Luxembourg none. There's a formula for it now. MEPs are **Consultation procedure** The original legislative procedure used in the EP, by which it could comment on proposals from the Commission but had little more than the power of delay. In its early years, the EP was mainly limited to the modest consolation procedure, which gave the Council of Ministers the final says over adoption **Cooperation procedure** A legislative procedure introduced by the Single European Act, giving the Ep right to a second reading on selected proposals. **Ordinary legislative procedure** The most common legislative procedure now used in the EP, under which it has the right to as many as three readings on a legislative proposal. **Consent procedure** The last of the EP's legislative powers is the consent procedure, by which the support of the EP is needed in four kinds of decisions: **Accession of new member sates** **Withdrawal of member state**s (although what would happen if the EP did not give its consent is unclear) **The conclusion of international agreements** **Imposition of penalties by the Council of Ministers on a member state for violations** **European ombudsman** An official appointed and monitored by the EP and charged with investigating complaints of maladministration by any of the EU institutions except the ECJ. **Concepts** **Check and balances** An arrangement in which government institutions are given powers that counterbalance on another, obliging them to work together to govern and make decisions. The powers of executives, legislature and courts in democracies are routinely checked and balanced. In the case of the EU, the distribution and expression of those powers has changed often, in many cases to the benefit of the EP. **Legislature** The institution of government that is responsible for making laws and (in democracies, at least) for representing the interests of voters. Legislatures are typically elected by voters, who usually choose their representatives based on political party labels, and representatives are usually responsible for introducing, debating and voting on proposals for new laws (or amendments to existing laws). Most legislatures also usually have powers over budgets and powers of oversight over other institutions in government. The EP is one of only 2 directly elected transnational legislatures in the world, and the only directly elected EU institution. As such, it has most of the powers that we associate with conventional legislatures. - Represents interests of voters - Deliberates on matters of public importance - Has powers to make laws - Authority over budget - Power of oversight or scrutiny over the other institutions But it lacks ability to make legislation (belongs to Commission), shares power to amend adopt legislation with Council of Ministers, shares power to approve EU budget with Council of ministers, ability to hold other EU institutions is limited. The most important power that the European Parliament lacks is that of making and bringing down governments. In most member states, the government is decided based on the balance of political parties in the legislature, and to stay in power, it must keep the support and confidence of legislature. In the case of the EU, the political make-up of the EP has little bearing on the membership or stability of the other EU institutions. **[Chapter 13: The European Council]** Although the European Council and the Council of Ministers are often confused, and sometimes interchangeably referred to as 'The Council', their membership, rules, structure and legal personalities are quite distinct. Among the critical differences +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | European Council EC | Council of Ministers | +===================================+===================================+ | Members are heads of government | | | (or state) of | | | | | | the EU member states, not the | | | ministers (dus Rutte) | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Has its own appointed president | Presidency is held by member | | | state on a | | | | | | rotational basis | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Council discusses broad strategy | Ministers discuss and vote on | | issues | proposals for new | | | | | | laws | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Council mainly uses only one | Ministers take votes | | means of decision- | | | | | | making (consensus) | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Has no legislative functions and | | | no direct | | | | | | relationship with the European | | | Parliament | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Multiple personalities of the European Council** Decision-maker of last resort Collective presidency Body that parallels other EU institutions There are 3 keys to understanding the way the Council works and fits into the EU system: - Flexibility: level of freedom and independence that no other EU institution has (lack of rules, regulation) - Informality: agendas kept general, meetings kept small and informal - Delegation: focusses on big picture, leaves other institutions to work out the details **What the Council does according to the Treaty of Lisbon** Responsible for taking strategic decisions Responsible for making nominations or appointments to senior positions nominates president of EC; appoints College of Commissioners; elects High Representative for Foreign Affairs and leadership of European Central Bank. ![](media/image14.jpeg) 5-year strategic agenda for EU agreed in the Council in June 2019 Protecting citizens and freedoms Developing a strong and vibrant economic base Building a climate-neutral, green, fair and social Europe Promoting European interests and values on the global stage **Key Points** EC is the forum within which the heads of government and state of the EU member states meet to discuss broad strategic issues. The Council is much like a board of directors for the EU, meeting multiple times annually in Brussels, using summitry and bargaining, and making decisions based on a consensus The Council evolved out of ad hoc meetings held by the six leaders of the EEC, meeting for the first time as the EC in 1975, and being given formal legal recognition only in 2009. The EC is headed by president elected by EU leaders, and whose job is to provide it with direction and consistency Much like the Council of Ministers, the EC has a mix of intergovernmental, supranational and confederal qualities In addition to providing the EU with strategic direction, the Council plays a role in the appointment of several senior positions in the EU hierarchy, including the president of the Commission, members of the College of Commissioners, the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and the leadership of the European Central Bank. **Key Terms** **Game of theory** A set of theories about human behaviour based on mathematical principles but with many applications in the social sciences, including the study of power relationships. **Head of government** In parliamentary systems, the head of government is the head of the political party with the most seats in national legislature, or the head of a party within a multi-party coalition government. = the elected leader of a government, who comes to office because of the support of voters who identify with their party and platform Head of state = the figurehead leader of a state, who may be elected or appointed, or -- in the case of monarchs -- may inherit the position. It's mainly symbolic.

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