Introduction to Ethics Reviewer PDF

Introduction to ETHICS DEFINITION and its meaning in the CONTEXT of HUMANISM ETHICS is defined as a PRACTICAL study dealing with the MORALITY of HUMAN CONDUCT. HUMAN CONDUCT is HUMAN ACT. HUMAN ACT is an action that flows from the deliberate FREE will, hence, the doer of the action is consciously...

Introduction to ETHICS DEFINITION and its meaning in the CONTEXT of HUMANISM ETHICS is defined as a PRACTICAL study dealing with the MORALITY of HUMAN CONDUCT. HUMAN CONDUCT is HUMAN ACT. HUMAN ACT is an action that flows from the deliberate FREE will, hence, the doer of the action is consciously aware of the action and therefore intentional. An ACT to be HUMAN must possess 3 important elements, namely: 1. KNOWLEDGE - the doer is fully aware of his actions, and is done deliberately. 2. FREEDOM - that the action is done without coercion, in other words, done without the influence of anyone or anything. - The action is done as per the dictates of one's own reason. 3. VOLUNTARINESS - an action done where both elements of KNOWLEDGE and FREEDOM are present. - In TAGALOG translation, KUSANG-LOOB A HUMAN ACT done entails MORAL RESPONSIBILITY, meaning, that the doer is liable to any consequences or result of the action. Anumang kahihinatnan o resulta ng KILOS na nagawa ay may kaakibat na PANANAGUTAN. **1. The MODELS of HUMANISMS:** *1. The GREEK ideal of FULL HUMAN development:* \- MAN according to the GREEKS is composed of POTENTIALITIES and ABILITIES for GROWTH and DEVELOPMENT. a\. The PHYSICAL ABILITIES \*The human body plays an important role in every individual. \*Helps man to carry out his everyday activities. \*The need to take care one's body and keep it to its top condition \* Even if the mind is willing, if the body is not able, still, we can do nothing. \* "MENS SANA IN CORPORE SANO." A HEALTHY MIND in A HEALTHY BODY. *2. The MENTAL ABILITIES:* \*Man is gifted with the capacity of thinking and reasoning. \* Can make decisions and distinctions. \* Makes inventions and innovations to make his dealings with life easier *3. The COMMUNICATION SKILLS:* \*Can communicate effectively \*Learns to read and write A man with the power of speech, speaks with wit and intelligence, can inspire and convince people. *4. SOCIAL SKILLS:* \* a Man portrays a specific role in his life. \*He can be a good son, a good brother, a good friend, a father, or a professional. \*He can be a good individual who can contribute for the betterment of his community. With ALL these Potentials and Abilities, according to the Greeks, Man can achieve the fullness of his existence by developing them in the level of EXCELLENCE **2. The ORIENTAL VIEW of HUMAN EXISTENCE:** Living a full life is not living a MORTAL LIFE, but rather, living a life as PART OF SOMETHING GREATER. (the GREATER REALITY) In other words, living a life with a PURPOSE. That is, finding one's meaning in life, losing oneself to it. *a. The HINDUISM* The Hindu believes that the GREATER REALITY is the BRAHMAN, that is, the Hindu GOD. - It is HOLY and SACRED and the source of ALL things. - The only thing that is real. - Apart from him, man is meaningless and useless. The ATMAN, on the other hand, is the HUMAN SOUL. A gift from God and therefore, holy and sacred. SIN - separates MAN from GOD It destroys the sanctity of the soul To regain the sanctity of the soul, Man must learn to live a life of SACRIFICE To seek the needs of others before oneself. To give premium on helping others without expecting anything in return. To live a life of SELFLESSNESS \- SACRIFICE teaches man to live a moral life as he prepares and cleanses his soul with moral deeds, and likewise, prepares himself in the time of death where he will return his soul to the rightful master of LIFE that is, GOD. *b. CONFUCIANISM* Confucius believed that the GREATER REALITY is the HUMAN SOCIETY. The HUMAN SOCIETY can be broken down to 3 simple units: 1. The Family 2. The circle of FRIENDS 3. The COMMUNITY or the STATE - To reach the fullness of one's existence one must perform his utmost obligations to the SOCIAL UNITS. Learn and fulfil his obligations and full responsibilities to the members of the family, the friends and in the community and state. *c. TAOISM* \- Is a teaching from the ancient China known as the "TAO", meaning -- the WAY. \- It is believed that it is the source of all things \- It is an ALL-ENCOMPASSING REALITY that leads and guide every being to move in the best possible way they can. \- To live a full life is to follow the TAO. To follow the TAO is to be WISE. TAOISM teaches the virtue of HUMILITY and Discipline. To be HUMBLE is to live in HARMONY with NATURE To be humble is to live a moral and peaceful life. To be humble teaches man to live a full human LIFE **3. HEBREW UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN LIFE** The Hebrew defines Human Life as composed of challenges and situations wherein man is called to respond to it in a worthy and noble way. - For it is in a way of overcoming the challenges that man draws the meaning of his existence. - Challenges makes man draw out what is inside him and become a better person. - This HUMANISM is not always limited to the RELIGIOUS faith, but in one's commitment to find ways to respond to the challenges of the situations. "NASA DYOS ANG AWA, NASA TAO ANG GAWA" **4. OTHER HUMANISMS** *a. HUMANISM of MORALITY* \- founded on following directly all the moral laws of one's religion and society. \- Obeying rules develops self-discipline and right decisions and moral action. \- Teaches a man to live a righteous life. *b. HUMANISM of CREATIVITY* \- Founded on being creative in all aspects of one's life. \- Being creative teaches man to make life's moments interesting and worth living. *c. HUMANISM of RELIGION* \- Defines man as a CHILD of GOD \- Living his life in following the will of GOD \- To love others as to Love GOD. \- Emphasis on Prayer and Worship in one's LIFE. *d. HUMANISM of LOVE* \- Founded on establishing deep relation with others. \- Acceptance of the whole person \- Being sensitive to the needs and experiences of others Philosophy and its definition ETHICS come s from the vast study of PHILOSOPHY... The reason why it is important to define it as to know why and where ETHICS came to be. **PHILOSOPHY can be defined and understood in 4 disciplines, namely:** 1. *The ETYMOLOGICAL View* - it defines a word by going back to the origin from where the word originated, Hence, PHILOSOPHY is derived from two **Greek words PHILEIN** meaning the love of, and **SOPHIA - meaning WISDOM** In PHILOSOPHY, wisdom that is being referred to is and must be rooted to TRUTH, since the end of PHILOSOPHY is the search for TRUTH. "Ang KATOTOHANAN lamang ang magpapalaya sa tao sa anino ng katangahan at kamangmangan..." 2. *The SCHOLASTIC View:* - The SCHOLATIC View defines PHILOSOPHY as a SCIENCE of beings in their ULTIMATE CAUSES, REASONS and PRINCIPLES which can be known and can be understood by PURE HUMAN REASON. - In other words, that everything can be known, explained, and understood by pure THINKING and REASONING alone. 3. *The EXISTENTIAL View:* - This defines PHILOSOPHY as a SEARCH for the meaning of LIFE... - To SEARCH means , to look , to find , to discover... the meaning, the purpose of one's existence... Why do we have to look for the meaning of our existence? - We are looking for the meaning of our Life primarily because we know that it is Important and Significant. - It consumes the whole person, i.e. we are giving our "ALL" to find something that is important in our LIVES, ***TIME, EFFORT, INTEREST...*** - It is an ONGOING search without STOPPING until the answer is FOUND. 4. *The PHENOMENOLOGICAL View:* This discipline defines PHILOSOPHY as an ATTITUDE... 1. Searching (naghahanap) 2. Questioning/Inquiry (nagtatanong) 3. Interacting (nakikialam) This ATTITUDE is instrumental to an individual to understand fully, explain, uncover the meaning and reasons of our EXPERIENCES. EXPERIENCE defines the meaning of one's life, because we learn from them... PHILOSOPHY should not be limited to mere speculation, not to pure searching, instead, looking at it as an ATTITUDE. A PHILOSOPHY of encounter which gives premium on concrete lived experience, not on hypothetical happening. An ATTITUDE that involves 3 processes. namely... 1. EPOCHE - ( a bracketing ) of what one already knows... in so doing , one can approach the object of the knowing with fresh unprejudiced judgement... - It is understanding freely without biases and assumptions in order to explain a phenomenon in terms of its own inherent system of meaning. 2. Eidetic Reduction - derived from the **Greek word "EIDOS" meaning, ESSENCE**. A process of removing the contingent material factors of an experience to its very nature... 3. Transcendental Reduction - is a process of putting one's experience in the level of my consciousness... - In this regard, we can easily understand the experience of others in so far as we personally experience the same... - Consciousness does not adapt itself to the object passively, rather, its very essence is to form meaning to the object... - There will be no object without a subject. And no subject without an object. - There will be no world without a man and no man without a world. As Friedrich Wittgenstein's concept of 'Dasein', That man is a being in the world, man as a being with the world. The world is a human world, and man is a being-in-the-world. The Divisions of PHILOSOPHY a. **The SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY** b. **The PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY** a. ***The SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY*** - It is a Philosophy that enriches the mind with principle to be speculated upon, to be thought of or to be known... - It directs itself to knowing things as they are without thinking of application, merely, the use of reason alone. - Its ULTIMATE aim is KNOWLEDGE rooted to TRUTH. - In this kind of PHILOSOPHY, one CONTEMPLATES or REFLECTS about the TRUTH of NATURE as well as the RELATION of all things. **The BRANCHES of SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY** 1. METAPHYSICS - a philosophical field that investigates the fundamental nature of REALITY, BEING, and EXISTENCE. - From the **GREEK word 'Ta Meta" - meaning BEYOND**; **"Ta Physika" meaning NATURE** 2. ONTOLOGY - a philosophical field closely related to METAPHYSICS. - It focuses on the study of the essential characteristics of existing things, of the ultimate being (GOD) of existence, and the status, order and structure of REALITY. The term "ONTOLOGY is derived from the **GREEK word "ONTA", meaning "really existing things"**. It is referred to as the THEORY of BEING. 3. COSMOLOGY - it is the study of the UNIVERSE as a RATIONAL and ORDERLY system - Also known as the THEORY of the WORLD or the UNIVERSE. - From the GREEK word "KOSMOS", meaning UNIVERSE. 4. PSYCHOLOGY - known as the THEORY of the MIND that focuses on the study of the MIND, SOUL and SPIRIT - Concerned with the soul or consciousness and its role in the functioning of the HUMAN body and in a SOCIAL group. From the **GREEK word PSYCHE meaning mind, soul or spirit.** 5. EPISTEMOLOGY - a study of the origin, nature, extent and veracity (truth, reliability, validity) of KNOWLEDGE. Also known as the theory of KNOWLEDGE. Fom the **GREEK word "EPISTEME" meaning KNOWLEGE.** 6. THEODICY - a philosophical field that studies the nature, being, goodness, and justice of GOD. - Also focuses on GOD - MAN relation and other doctrines related to DIVINITY. From the **Greek word "THEOS" meaning GOD** and **"DIKE" meaning JUSTICE or RIGHT**. 7. PHILOSOPHY of MAN - focuses on the study of the nature and essence of MAN as MAN. **SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY and POLITICAL SCIENCE as its Sub- branches:** 1. **The PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY** - It is a kind of a PHILOSOPHY whose concern is not only the pursuit of KNOWLEDGE and WISDOM, but also the "HOW" of this KNOWLEDGE can be applied or put into practice on to acquire the things that he needs and eliminates his difficulties and anxieties in his daily living. - It is a PHILOSOPHY that perfects the will with principles or knowledge to be acted upon, to be applied or to be put into practice. - Its function is primarily NORMATIVE and DIRECTIVE like in the case of LAWS, RULES or REGULATIONS that serves as a GUIDE or PATTERN for MORAL ACTIONS and DECISIONS. *The Branches of PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY* 1. SEMANTICS - it is the STUDY of the meaning of WORDS and its linguistic forms, their functions as a SYMBOL and the part that they play to the Human Thoughts and Behavior. - From the **GREEK words "SEMANEIN" - to Signify, "SEMANTIKOS" - Significant "SEMA"- Sign or Token of Identity**. 2. AXIOLOGY - is a PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY which investigates/analyzes the reasons of what makes a thing, a person, a place or event, desirable, valuable and important, significant. From the **Greek word "AXIOS' meaning worthy** 3. AESTHETICS - a PHILOSOPHICAL study dealing with BEAUTY and the ARTS. From the Greek word "AESTHETIKOS" - meaning , one who is perceptive of things through his sensation, feelings and, intuitions. - It studies the nature of beauty and examines the critical standards used in making judgement about what is beautiful and what is not. 4. LOGIC - a practical study of the correctness and validity of reasoning. - Provides us with principles which govern reason. - Investigates, discovers, and applies the laws and rules of correct thinking and reasoning. - Derived from the Greek word "LOGOS" meaning by which an inward thought is expressed. 5. ETHICS - a practical philosophy dealing with the MORALITY of HUMAN CONDUCT. - Investigates the right and wrong of man's actions as well as the pursuit of the GOOD life. - Derived from the Greek word " ETHOS" meaning a characteristic way of ACTING. ETHICAL SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT 1 Moral judgement or decisions made are justified accordingly by moral rules which in turn are grounded in ethical principles and ethical theories that the need to understand and study the moral schools of thoughts becomes expedient and a necessity. A doctor's decision of not performing an abortion on a patient with the moral precept, that is, it is morally wrong to kill an innocent or unborn human being by considering the principle of the "Sanctity of Human Life". Hence, the decision, the precept, and the principle maybe grounded in an ethical theory which may explain why abortion is against the Natural Law. In the following moral/ethical schools of thought will give us a chance to understand the extent and relevance of the moral principles on a given situation/condition where we are to make moral judgement of whether they are binding and morally acceptable. 1\. ***Ethical Relativism*** \*also known as "Moral Relativism". \*An Ethical doctrine that claims that "there are no universal or absolute moral principle." \*That the standards of Morality (the rightness, wrongness, goodness and badness of an act) are always relative and subjective to a particular culture or society." \*the moral opinion of an individual is as good as any other for there is no objective basis for saying that a particular action is right or wrong apart from a specific social group. **Strength of Ethical Relativism:** \*one would be considered too ambitious if not arrogant in claiming that one knows absolute and objective moral principle that are true, valid and binding on all people. Example: The case of the arctic Eskimos on the practice of abandoning old relative or member of their group in the snow and allowing them to die of starvation is morally legitimate. The practice of marrying the brother's widow among early Israelites and among Muslims as well. In some African culture, to kill twin children is considered as morally right and just. Likewise, offering virgins in worship of a volcano is a moral practice. In some Eskimo's tradition of lending their wives to sleep with a visitor is a form of high respect and acceptance. In the Ifugao tradition of the "Olog" or the Trial marriage and the "live-in" practice of the liberated Americans to test marital compatibility. All of these practices attest to the moral claims of Ethical relativism that the moral precepts depend on a given culture, regardless of the action is right or wrong it depends on the society judging it. **Criticisms and Objections:** - Ethical Relativism contradicts common beliefs and ordinary experiences. - The case of Ninoy Aquinos's assassination was a heinous crime is universally acknowledged around the world. - The view of Hitler's execution of 6 million Jews to die in a gas chamber has been condemned by the world as a barbaric massacre. - In view of a doctor who sees an injured person will voluntarily apply medical attention which is the call of duty and not a culture-base reaction. - The sense of oughtness to do what is due transcends any socio-cultural considerations or upbringing. - When Confucius says, "do unto others what you want others do unto you" is not applicable only to the Chinese alone but to the whole Humanity. - Ethical Relativism is self-contradictory and inconsistent. Claiming that there is no absolute and binding moral precept, hence its own view is not valid at all. ***2. Situation Ethics -- Situationism*** Advocated by Joseph Fletcher, an American Protestant medical doctor and the author of Situationism As Fletcher's preferred approach to the problem of morality States that the moral norm depends upon a given situation, and in whatever situation it may be, one must act in the name of Christian love. *Fletcher sites 3 types of love* The philia- the love of a child The Eros- sexual love, between a man and a woman, a tomboy to a woman or a gay to a man. The Agape- refers to one's care and concern and affection towards others. The love of God, the Christian love. Considered by Fletcher as that best exemplifies Agape. Love of and for ones' neighbor just as Christ exemplified is a love in which one cares for the wellbeing of another regardless of his station in life, characterized by charity respect and responsibility towards others. A kind of love which everybody should act, should settle what is right and wrong in any complicated situation according to Fletcher. *The 6 Propositions of Christian Love:* 1\. Only one thing is intrinsically good, namely love and nothing else. 2\. The Ultimate norm of Christian decision is love and nothing else. 3\. Love and justice are the same for Justice is love distributed. 4\. Love wills thy neighbor's good, whether we like him or not. 5\. Only the End Justifies the means; nothing else. 6\. Decisions are ought to be made situationally not prescriptively. The CLASSIFICATIONS of ETHICS TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS - Consequences - Measures the Good and Bad that arises from the behavior - Focus: What is good - A MORAL PRINCIPLE that explains that the morality of an action is based on its outcome, result or consequence. - The basis of morality depends on the end result or consequence of the action done. From the **Greek word TELEOS or TELOS, meaning end or purpose.** Ex. a man stealing a P1,000.00 from a store. The action itself is UNETHICAL or IMMORAL in the context of deontological ethics, but what if the reason of stealing is for the purpose of buying a medicine for a dying love one? That is, to save a person's life. Is the action, morally justifiable? DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS \- Defines that morality depends on the nature of the action itself. \- The action is wrong because it is intrinsically wrong and it is right because it is by nature right. \- The consequence of the action is not considered. \- The judgement of an action is according to some form of moral laws. From the **Greek word DEON, DEONTOS, meaning DUTY or RESPONSIBILITY.** Ex. STEALING regardless of intention, that is, good, is still considered as immoral. The basis of the MORALITY of an action is based on the action ITSELF. It follows that if the action is immoral, no matter how good the intention maybe, is still considered as immoral, since the basis of morality on DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS is the nature of the ACT itself. Recently, ETHICIANS and MORALIST had introduced some classifications into: **a. ACT ETHICS** - the basis of morality depends on the ACTION itself. **b. RULE ETHICS** in which the basis of morality appeals to a set of rules or principles to determine the morality of an act. The best example of a rule ethics is the 10 commandments. The action should be based on the set of rules or norms that will determine whether the action is right or wrong. Hence, if the action contradicts the rule or norm, then, the action is said to be immoral.