Ethics Midterm Exam PDF

**1. Utilitarianism** Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues for the goodness of pleasure and the determination of right behavior based on the usefulness or consequences of an action. The principle of utility is about maximizing the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. -...

**1. Utilitarianism** Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues for the goodness of pleasure and the determination of right behavior based on the usefulness or consequences of an action. The principle of utility is about maximizing the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. - **Jeremy Bentham**: The most famous proponent of Utilitarianism. Bentham\'s doctrine is based on the idea that pleasure and pain are the motivations for all human actions. The principle of utility is about subjection to these sovereign masters: pleasure and pain. - **Felicific Calculus**: A framework that calculates the pleasure that actions can produce based on factors such as: - Duration: How long will the pleasure last? - Intensity: How intense is the pleasure? - Propinquity: How near or remote is the pleasure? - Extent: How widely does the pleasure affect others? - Certainty: How probable is the pleasure? - Purity: How free from pain is the pleasure? - Fecundity: How likely is the pleasure to be followed by similar pleasures? - **John Stuart Mill**: Believed that happiness, not pleasure, should be the standard of utility. He also argued that quality of pleasure is more important than quantity. - **Quote**: \"It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.\" - **Golden Rule**: Mill saw the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth (\"To do as you would be done by, and to love your neighbour as oneself\") as the ideal expression of utilitarian morality. - **Peter Singer**: "I\'m a Utilitarian, so I don\'t see the rule against lying as absolute; it\'s always subject to some overriding utility which may prevent its exercise." **2. Natural Law** Natural law is a system in which actions are considered morally correct if they align with the ultimate purpose or end goal of human nature. It follows the fundamental maxim: **"Do good and avoid evil."** - **Saint Thomas Aquinas**: Developed Natural Law by combining Aristotle\'s ethics with the teachings of the Catholic Church. He emphasized that the moral life is the life lived according to reason. - **Principle of Double Effect**: Used to judge the moral acceptability of actions that have two effects, one good and one evil. It was designed by Aquinas. - **Catholic Morality**: Emphasizes that the end does not justify the means. The means (action) must always align with moral law, regardless of the desired end. **3. Deontology** Deontology is an ethical theory that emphasizes the importance of duty in determining right and wrong, regardless of the consequences. It was developed by **Immanuel Kant**. - **Categorical Imperative**: Kant\'s foundational principle, stating that one should act only according to maxims that can be universalized. - **Quote**: \"Act only according to such a maxim, by which you can at once will that it becomes a universal law.\" - **Hypothetical Imperative**: Acting to achieve some external reward. - **Human dignity**: Kant emphasized the importance of treating humans as ends in themselves, not merely as means to an end. - **Moral Rights and Justice**: According to Kant, moral rights and justice are not absolute but are justified by their consequences for promoting the greatest good for the greatest number. - **Autonomy**: Refers to the ability to make decisions based on reason, not merely reacting to external stimuli. **4. Virtue Ethics** Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the individual and the development of moral virtues rather than on specific actions. - **Aristotle**: The foundational thinker of virtue ethics. He argued that the highest good of a person is happiness (eudaimonia), achieved through the practice of virtues. - **Arete**: Virtue and excellence. - **Telos**: The ultimate end or purpose. - **Contemplation**: The highest activity for Aristotle, requiring rationality and reasoning. - **Excellence**: The activity of the human soul that leads to happiness. - **Moral Goodness**: According to **Socrates**, moral goodness is a result of intellectual excellence. - **Intellectual Virtue vs. Moral Virtue**: Aristotle emphasized that knowing what is good is different from actually doing what is good. **5. Peter Singer** Peter Singer is a contemporary philosopher who is a proponent of **Utilitarianism**. He believes in maximizing the greatest good for the greatest number, applying this principle to various issues, including **animal rights**. - **Quote**: "I'm a Utilitarian, so I don't see the rule against lying as absolute; it\'s always subject to some overriding utility which may prevent its exercise." **6. Jeremy Bentham** Bentham is known for creating the framework of **Utilitarianism**. - **Hedonistic Utilitarianism**: He proposed that pleasure and pain are the motivations for all human actions. Happiness is equated with pleasure, and the principle of utility is centered on maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain for the greatest number of people. **7. John Stuart Mill** Mill, the **godson of Bentham**, modified the utilitarian approach by emphasizing the quality of pleasures over the quantity. - **Quote**: \"It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.\" **8. Felicific Calculus** A tool created by **Bentham** for calculating the pleasure or happiness produced by an action, based on criteria like duration, intensity, and fecundity. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 7. Duration | How long will it last? | +===================================+===================================+ | 1. Intensity | How intense is it? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 2. Propinquity | How near or remote? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 3. Extent | How widely it covers? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 4. Certainty | How probable is it? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 5. Purity | How free from pain is it? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 6. Fecundity | Lead to further pleasure? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **9. Gandhi** - **Quote**: "When a law is unjust, it is only right to disobey." Gandhi also emphasized breaking unjust laws openly and lovingly, accepting the consequences. **10. Martin Luther King Jr.** - **Quote**: \"One who breaks an unjust law must do so openly, lovingly, and with a willingness to accept the penalty." King believed in acting against injustice, even in defiance of laws that promote inequality. **11. Catholic Morality** - The Catholic perspective on morality emphasizes that the **end does not justify the means**. Actions must be morally acceptable, even if they lead to a good result. - **Sanctity of Life**: Human life is sacred and must be protected. - **Intrinsic Value of Life**: Every human life has inherent value, given by God. **12. Utilitarian Morality** - The **end justifies the means**: In Utilitarianism, actions are judged based on their consequences, and the goal is to maximize overall happiness. **13. Circumstance** - **Circumstance** refers to the context of an action, including **who, when, how much**, and **in what manner** an action is performed. It is important to evaluate the total moral act, considering the context in which it takes place. **14. Saint Thomas Aquinas** - **Natural Law**: Aquinas\' philosophy asserts that moral life follows reason and aligns with the divine order. He believed in the importance of acting according to reason, following the natural law as a guide. **15. Review the following:** - **Principle of Double-Effect -** Used to judge the moral acceptability of the human act that has two effects: Good and Evil. Designed by Aquinas ### FOUR CONDITIONS 1. The action is good in itself or at least indifferent. 2. The good effect must come first before the evil effect or at least simultaneously. 3. The good effect must be intended. 4. There must be a proportionately grave reason for the evil effect to happen. - **War and Self-Defense**: The Catholic Church may justify actions in self-defense, even if unintended harm occurs. - The Vatican has applied the principle of double effect to questions of war and self-defense. If a nation must defend itself, the Church may justify actions that result in unintended civilian casualties, as long as the primary intent is self-defense. - **Just War Theory**: The principle that some wars may be morally justified. - In the context of just war theory, the Catholic Church applies the principle of double effect. This means that during a just war, certain actions may have unintended harmful consequences (such as civilian casualties), but they can be morally acceptable if the primary intent is to achieve a just and necessary goal, like ending aggression. - **Palliative Care**: Providing care to alleviate pain and suffering without causing harm. - In end-of-life care, when patients are in extreme pain, doctors may administer strong pain relief, even if it could hasten death as a side effect. The principle of double effect allows for this, provided the primary intention is pain relief, not causing death. - When a patient is terminally ill and keeping them on aggressive life support measures only prolongs suffering without providing any significant benefit, the Catholic Church may support the decision to withdraw such treatment under the principle of double effect - **Termination of Aggressive Medical Treatment**: Withdrawing treatment when it no longer provides benefit and prolongs suffering. ### Catholic Natural Law Principles at Play: +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | *Background:* | | | | *The Catholic Church\'s stance on contraception is a prominent | | example of how natural law principles are applied and debated.* | | | | *Catholic teaching, influenced by natural law, upholds the sanctity | | of life, procreation, and the marital act.* | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **[Sanctity of Life: ]** - Catholic natural law places a strong emphasis on the intrinsic value and dignity of every human life. All life is considered a gift from God, and human beings are stewards of this gift. **Intrinsic Value of Life:** - Aquinas, like the Catholic Church, emphasized the i**ntrinsic value of human life.** - His philosophy asserted that **human life is sacred and must be protected,** which aligns with the Church\'s stance on contraception. **[Procreation and the Marital Act]**: - Natural law within the Catholic context promotes the idea that the primary purpose of sexual intercourse is procreation and strengthening the marital bond. - Abortion is deemed immoral as it goes against the natural order of things. - Same Sex Marriage is deemed immoral as it goes against the natural order of things. **Heteronormative Understanding:** - Natural law theorists typically adhere to a heteronormative understanding of human relationships. They argue that, from a natural law perspective, the primary purpose of sexual relationships is procreation and the preservation of the species. Same-sex relationships, they contend, deviate from this natural purpose. **Reproductive Function:** - Natural law theorists argue that marriage, as they understand it, is closely tied to the reproductive function. Since same-sex couples cannot naturally procreate, they see their unions as not fulfilling the core purpose of marriage within a natural law framework - Natural law theory, through its recognition the **inviolable value of human life** whomever it belongs to, immediately offers an ethic of interpersonal relationships. **Four Types of Law (Aquinas)** 1. Eternal Law: The Designer\'s plan 2. Divine Law: A manual sent to us 3. Natural Law: What we observe 4. Human Law: What we write down **Eternal law (Top Tier):** - refers to what God wills for creation, how each participant in it is intended to return to Him. Given our limitations, we cannot grasp the fullness of the eternal law. Nevertheless, it is not completely opaque to us. - is at the highest level and represents the divine and unchanging order established by God. It is the ultimate source of all laws and principles in the universe. **Divine Law (Below Eternal Law):** - Divine law is derived from eternal law and represents specific commands and guidance given by God to human beings. - It includes religious scriptures, commandments, and teachings that shape religious morality. **Natural Law (Below Divine Law):** - Natural law is the moral and ethical principles derived from the rational understanding of eternal and divine law. It is accessible to human reason and conscience and serves as a guide for human behavior in harmony with the divine order. **Human or Positive Law (Lowest Tier):** - Human or positive law represents laws created by human societies, governments, and legal systems. These laws are based on natural law principles but can vary from one society to another. They are man-made and intended to regulate specific societal issues. Insofar as a human law goes against what nature inclines us toward, it is not properly speaking a law - in the ideal sense of directing us to the common good - but instead, is unjust and can be called a matter of violence. - Refers to what God wills for creation, how each participant in it is intended to return to Him. Given our limitations, we cannot grasp the fullness of the eternal law. Nevertheless, it is not completely opaque to us. - **Eternal Law** - The highest level and represents the divine and unchanging order established by God. It is the ultimate source of all laws and principles in the universe. - **Eternal Law**