Ethics Lesson Notes PDF

Lesson 1: Introduction to Philosophy 1. What is philosophy? 2. Branches of Philosophy  In loose contexts, philosophy is understood as a belief system, an organization of ideas that gives sense or framework to your life.  Philosophy is derived from the words “philia” which means “love of...

Lesson 1: Introduction to Philosophy 1. What is philosophy? 2. Branches of Philosophy  In loose contexts, philosophy is understood as a belief system, an organization of ideas that gives sense or framework to your life.  Philosophy is derived from the words “philia” which means “love of” and “Sophia”, meaning, wisdom.  Pythagoras, an ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician, who is believed to have coined the term "philosopher" to distinguish those who sought knowledge for its own sake from those who sought it for practical purposes.  We now define philosophy as the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, values, reason, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Branches of Philosophy 1. Metaphysics: The study of the nature of reality, existence, and the fundamental nature of being. It explores questions such as "What is the nature of reality?" and "What is the relationship between mind and body?“ 2. Epistemology: The study of knowledge and belief. It investigates the nature, scope, and limits of knowledge, asking questions like "What is knowledge?" and "How do we know what we know? 3. Logic: The study of reasoning and argumentation. It focuses on the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning, asking questions like "What constitutes a valid argument?" and "How can we distinguish between good and bad reasoning? 4. Aesthetics: The study of beauty, art, and taste. It explores questions about the nature of artistic expression, beauty, and aesthetic experience, such as "What is art?" and "What makes something beautiful?“ 5. Philosophy of Mind: The study of the nature of the mind, consciousness, and mental states. It explores questions such as "What is consciousness?" and "How do mental states relate to the physical body?“ 6. Philosophy of Religion: The study of religious beliefs, practices, and the nature of the divine. It explores questions about the existence of God, the problem of evil, and the relationship between faith and reason. 7. Political Philosophy: explores questions about government, political institutions, justice, liberty, rights, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority. It seeks to establish the best possible political arrangements and examines the ethical foundations of political practices and institutions. 8. Ethics: The study of morality and moral values. It examines what is right and wrong, good and bad, and explores questions like "What is the good life?" and "What are our moral obligations?"  What do you think is the relationship between Ethics and the other branches of Philosophy? Do you think they are inter- related? Lesson 2: Introduction to Ethics Lesson Overview 1. Definition of Ethics 2. Definition of Morality 3. Values 1. Definition 2. Characteristics 3. Types 4. Who is a "good person"? 5. Fields of ethics 1. Descriptive ethics 2. Metaethics 3. Normative ethics 4. Applied Ethics What is ethics? Derived from the Greek word “ethos”, which means “characteristic way of living”, ethics is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with human conduct, more specifically the behavior of individuals in society. Ethicsexamines the rational justification for our moral judgments; it studies what is morally right or wrong, just or unjust  Ina broader sense, ethics reflects on human beings and their interaction with nature and with other humans, on freedom, on responsibility and on justice. Ethics is also called moral philosophy, the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad and morally right and wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or principles.  What is Morality?  Morality refers to the principles and standards that individuals or societies use to distinguish between right and wrong, good and bad behavior.  Itencompasses beliefs, practices, and values that guide how people should act and interact with others. Morality often includes concepts such as justice, fairness, and rights, and is influenced by cultural, religious, philosophical, and social factors  Values  Values are fundamental beliefs or standards that guide the way individuals and groups behave and make decisions.  Characteristics: 1. They represent what is important to us and shape our actions, attitudes, and priorities. 2. They are fundamental beliefs or standards that guide the way individuals and groups behave and make decisions. 3. They represent what is important to us and shape our actions, attitudes, and priorities.  Types of Values 1. Personal Values - individual beliefs that guide personal behavior and choices (honesty, integrity, kindness, and responsibility) 2. Cultural Values - shared beliefs within a cultural group that influence collective behavior and social norms. (respect for elders, community solidarity, and traditions) 3. Moral Values - principles of right and wrong (justice, fairness, compassion, and altruism.) 4. Social Values - important to society as a whole and shape social interactions and policies. (include equality, freedom, and social justice) 5. Spiritual and Religious Values - derived from religious or spiritual beliefs (faith, devotion)  What / who is a “Good Person”? A "good person" can be understood in both subjective and objective terms, with perspectives varying depending on cultural, philosophical, and individual beliefs Subjective Description (1) Personal Values: A good person aligns their actions with their personal values, which might include honesty, kindness, and loyalty. (2) Cultural Norms: Different cultures have varying standards for what constitutes a good person. For example, in some cultures, filial piety (respect for one's parents) is a key virtue. (3) Intentions: The intentions behind a person's actions play a crucial role. A person who aims to help others and contribute positively to their community is often considered good.  Objective Description  Certain principles are often considered universally good, such as honesty, integrity, and respect for others. A person who upholds universal values are generally understood as a good person  Common Traits of a Good Person (1) Empathy: They understand and share the feelings of others. (2) Integrity: They adhere to moral and ethical principles consistently. (3) Altruism: They prioritize the well-being of others and act selflessly. (4) Respectfulness: They treat others with consideration and honor their dignity. (5) Responsibility: They take accountability for their actions and their impact on others Fields in ethics: 1. Descriptive ethics aims to describe the moral standard of a society. For instance, in the Philippine context, it addresses question on “what is the common moral standard for the Filipinos?” or, “what are the Filipino values?” 2. Metaethics deals with the inquiry on the sources or foundation morality. In this field, scholars are debating on whether morality is grounded on God, culture, personal taste, or reason. The question can also be posed in terms of searching for the origin of the moral standards. Meta-Ethical Views  Moral realism: the view that there are knowable and objective moral truths  Moral skepticism is a class of meta-ethical theories all members of which entail that no one has any moral knowledge. Many moral skeptics also make the stronger, modal claim that moral knowledge is impossible.  Moral Nihilism: a philosophical position that denies the existence of objective moral values and moral facts. It argues that there are no inherent or objective moral truths that universally apply to all individuals or cultures. 3. Normative ethics (also known as moral theory) aims to address the question on “what is the right action?” It does not search on the what is the ground of morality but articulates the question in terms of “ought” or “should”. It emphasizes the necessary prescription on any course of action we must undertake to be moral agents. Normative ethics is the study of what makes actions right and wrong. It is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief Normative ethics involves arriving at moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct.... The Golden Rule is a classic example of a normative principle: We should do to others what we would want others to do to us 4. Applied ethics is a discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply ethical theory to real-life situations. applied ethics focuses on specific cases and the ethical implications of particular actions, policies, technologies, or practices. It involves the examination of moral dilemmas and the development of ethical frameworks to guide decision-making in various fields. The discipline has many specialized fields, such as engineering ethics, bioethics, geoethics, public service ethics and business ethics. Lesson 3: The Moral Agent Lesson Overview 1. Moral Experience 2. Moral Agent 3. Moral Agency 4. Moral Courage 5. Universal and Non-Moral Standards Moral experience  Moral experience - Is any encounter wherein in a person understands that the values he or she believes to be important are either realized or thwarted  Moral experience happens even in mundane everyday settings wherein you take action based on your moral standards. For example, you have a moral experience when you decide to give a poor person some money because you feel that it is the right thing to do. Moral agent A moral agent is a being who is conscious of the concepts of right and wrong. For example, a grade 3 student who copies from his classmate during an exam can already be held accountable for his actions because he knows what is right and wrong. (thus very young children and most of those with mental disability may not be considered as a moral agent) We have a moral responsibility to NOT hurt others Moral Agency Moral agency is the ability to make ethical decisions based on what is right or wrong and can be held accountable for their actions. This capacity can be found in individuals or collective entities like businesses or health care institutions. Moral Courage This refers to the ability of an individual to stand up for their ethical or moral principles and values, even in the face of opposition, criticism, or personal risk. It involves the willingness to do what is right, just, or fair, regardless of the potential challenges or consequences which may include backlash, social isolation, professional repercussions, or even physical harm. Despite these risks, individuals with moral courage prioritize doing what is right.  Moral courage is often fueled by empathy and compassion for others who may be affected by injustice or unethical practices. Examples: (1) Exposing corruption, fraud, or unethical practices within an organization, even when it may lead to personal and professional consequences (2) Activists who work to address issues such as environmental conservation, gender equality etc. Moral Standards 1. Universal Moral Standards 2. Non –Moral Standards Universal Moral Standards suggest that ethical principles or norms that are applicable to all individuals and cultures, regardless of their specific beliefs, customs, or traditions. They are usually derived from reason. The right to live, liberty, and security, are considered fundamental and applicable to all individuals. Non-moral Standards - are also guides for behavior of members of a group but are typically concerned with aspects other than what is morally right or wrong. (1) Norms - are social expectations or rules that guide and regulate behavior within a particular group or society (2) Etiquette - refers to the set of socially accepted and expected behaviors, manners, and customs within a specific culture, society, or social group. It provides guidelines for appropriate conduct in various social situations, (3) Rules and Policies - Specific guidelines or instructions that dictate how something should be done in an institution but do not necessarily carry moral weight. For example, dress code policy and wearing of IDs at work or school. (4) Commandment - Authoritative directives often found in religious contexts. They serve as fundamental principles for followers to live by. Some religious organizations command fasting on certain days which may have no moral harm to others Lesson 4: Human Acts and Acts of Man Lesson Overview 1. What are human acts? 2. What are acts of man? 3. Elements of human acts 4. Conscience 5. Modifiers of human acts  Human acts are actions performed by a person who has full knowledge through free will. Human acts are grounded in the very nature of a person that he or she is intelligent and free. In other words, they refer to actions that are deliberately chosen, consciously performed, and involve moral responsibility. These actions are the result of an individual's free will and rational deliberation.  Act of man is one that is not dependent upon intellect and free will. It is done by a human person but is not proper to him as a person but it does stem from those faculties which are peculiar to man, namely intellect and free will. These occur instinctively, involuntarily, or without conscious deliberation. These actions may be driven by natural instincts, reflexes, or external forces. In plain language, an act of man is essentially an animal act. ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACTS: 1. Knowledge- it is employed in doing human act. This is to say that when the doer is conscious of his or her actions, his or her senses are active, and he or she is aware of the reason and the consequences of his or her actions. 2. Freedom-when the doer acts through his or her own initiative and choice without being forced by another person or situation, then the act is done on the basis of freedom. 3. Voluntariness-the act is done willfully when the doer consents to the act, accepting it as his or his own, and assume the accountability for its consequences. Conscience is often viewed as an internal moral guide that shapes and evaluates one's actions. Types of Conscience : Based on knowledge of right and wrong: 1. Correct/ true conscience – judges what’s good as good and what is evil as evil. 2. False/ erroneous conscience – incorrectly judges what is good as evil or vice versa. (an individual's judgment about what is morally right or wrong is flawed, incorrect, or mistaken.) Based on ethical decision making 1. Certain conscience – implies certainty in one’s decision. reflects a high degree of conviction and certainty in the moral judgment made by an individual. (“malinis ang kunsensya ko) 2. Doubtful conscience – uncertain in decision-making. individuals may experience doubt or hesitation when faced with complex moral dilemmas or situations where it is challenging to determine the morally appropriate course of action. 3. Scrupulous conscience – meticulous, afraid of committing evil. It refers to a state in which an individual experiences excessive, unwarranted, or exaggerated feelings of guilt, anxiety, or fear about the moral rightness or wrongness of certain actions 4. Lax conscience – a lack of moral sensitivity, diligence, or strictness in evaluating the rightness or wrongness of certain actions. A person rushes and is quick in justifying its self. Modifiers of Human Acts There are circumstances where human acts may be modified and be deemed as acts of man. They are the things that may affects the human act’s essential qualities and thus lessen the moral character of the human act. These are the factors that diminish the responsibility of the agent. 1. Ignorance- pertains to lack, want, or absence of necessary knowledge in a person capable of such. Vincible - doing wrong when one ought to have known better (avoidable such as smoking and littering) Invincible - is doing something wrong when one could not have known better (for example due to lack of education or misunderstanding due to language barrier) 2. Passion or Concupiscence - defined as a compelling desire for something. It can also refer to a person's sexual desire or lust 3. Fear-defined as a feeling induced by perceived danger or threat. 4. Violence-a physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the purpose of compelling the said person to act against his or her will. 5. Habits- are inclination to perform specific acts acquired by repetition, and characterized by decreased power of resistance and increased facility of performance. Habit does not destroy voluntariness, and acts from habit are always voluntary, at least in cause, as long as the habit is allowed to endure. Lesson 5: Moral Dilemma Concepts to be discussed in this lesson: 1. What is dilemma 2. What is moral dilemma? Levels of moral dilemma Characteristics of moral dilemma Introduction:  Dilemma - a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two or more alternatives, especially equally undesirable ones. Dictionary Definitions of dilemma: Cambridge Dictionary: “a situation in which a choice has to be made between possibilities that will al have results you do not want” Oxford Dictionary: “a situation in which a difficult choice has to be made between two or more alternatives, especially ones that are equally undesirable.”  Ethical dilemmas, also called ethical paradoxes or moral dilemmas, are situations in which an agent stands under two (or more) conflicting moral requirements, none of which overrides the other. In other words, an agent is confused about the right decision to make because there are several competing values that are seemingly equally important and urgent. The following are usually present when an individual is experiencing a moral dilemma: 1. Conflict of Values: A moral dilemma typically involves a conflict between two or more values or ethical principles. For example, honesty vs. kindness or justice vs. mercy. 2. No Clear Right Answer: In a moral dilemma, there is often no clear "right" answer. Each possible action has its own set of ethical justifications and potential consequences. 3. Significant Consequences: The choices involved in a moral dilemma usually have significant consequences, impacting not only the individual making the decision but also others involved Levels of moral dilemma 1. Personal Moral Dilemmas 2. Interpersonal Moral Dilemmas 3. Organizational or Professional Moral Dilemmas 4. Societal Moral Dilemmas 5. Global Moral Dilemmas Discussion: Personal Moral Dilemmas: These dilemmas involve decisions that individuals face in their everyday lives. They often revolve around issues such as honesty, loyalty, and personal integrity. For example, deciding whether to tell the truth about a mistake at work even if it may result in negative consequences is a personal moral dilemma. Interpersonal Moral Dilemmas: These dilemmas involve conflicts between individuals or within relationships. They may include issues like trust, loyalty, and fairness. For instance, choosing between supporting a friend in a dispute even if you think they are wrong or siding with the opposing party can be an interpersonal moral dilemma. Organizational or Professional Moral Dilemmas: These dilemmas occur within the context of one's job or organization. They often involve ethical issues related to workplace practices, such as whistleblowing, conflicts of interest, or ethical violations within the organization. Societal Moral Dilemmas: These dilemmas pertain to broader societal issues and often involve complex ethical, social, and political considerations. Topics like abortion, euthanasia, capital punishment, and environmental ethics fall into this category. Resolving societal moral dilemmas often requires considering the greater good and the impact of decisions on a large scale. Global Moral Dilemmas: These dilemmas transcend national boundaries and involve moral considerations on a global scale. Issues like climate change, international conflicts, humanitarian crises, and global health crises (e.g., distributing vaccines during a pandemic) are examples of global moral dilemmas. Resolving these dilemmas often requires cooperation among nations and addressing issues that affect humanity as a whole.