Introduction to Ethics (PDF)

Introduction to Ethics  What is Philosophy? Philosophy [from the Greek philos (love) and sophos (wisdom), "love of wisdom"] is the study of fundamental issues and problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language among others....

Introduction to Ethics  What is Philosophy? Philosophy [from the Greek philos (love) and sophos (wisdom), "love of wisdom"] is the study of fundamental issues and problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language among others. The earliest beginnings of philosophy are traced back to the sixth century B.C.E., when the first scientists of Western history, the Pre-Socratics – among them Thales, Heraclitus and Parmenides – advanced revolutionary theories concerning the natural world, human knowledge and humansm relationship with the gods. The pillars of philosophy include theoretical philosophy (metaphysics and epistemology), practical philosophy (ethics, social and political philosophy, aesthetics), logic, and history of philosophy.  What do we study in Philosophy? Popularly, Philosophy is associated with stargazing and asking questions that are as vague as they are irrelevant, and to which there are no answers. However, Philosophy deals in a clear and precise manner with the real world, its complex social and material nature, and our place in it. Because of this, philosophical fields of studies are diverse. Philosophy – the love of wisdom – is an activity of attempting to understand the world, in all its aspects. There are four pillars of philosophy: theoretical philosophy (metaphysics and epistemology), practical philosophy (ethics, social and political philosophy, aesthetics), logic, and history of philosophy. Theoretical philosophy asks questions about knowledge such as “Is anything absolutely certain?” and “What grounds our belief that the past is a good indicator of the future?” and questions about the world such as “What is the world like independently of human perception?” and “Does God exist?” Studying Practical Philosophy exposes us to such questions as: How ought we to live our lives? Which social and political arrangements are just or legitimate? The study of Logic teaches us what distinguishes good from bad reasoning and thereby enables us to think critically. In History of Philosophy we learn how the greatest thinkers in the history of humankind answered these and similar questions. All of these areas of interest are grounded in facts and responsive to the theories put forth by experts in a myriad of disciplines, such as physics and psychology. To study Philosophy is to see the connection between ideas, and to explicate that connection in a reasoned and logical way. In Ethics, an ethicist, for example, might draw upon behavioral psychology to argue that humans should lead a certain kind of life. This argument could have further implications about how government should legislate in order to ensure people can lead the lives they want to lead. A metaphysician or philosopher of science might help provide conceptual clarity and reason through the implications of competing quantum mechanical theories. All fields of inquiry are open to the philosopher’s refinement.  What is Ethics? Ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines right and wrong moral behavior, moral concepts (such as justice, virtue, duty) and moral language. Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". Ethics is the study of questions of morality, the search to understand what is right, wrong, good, and bad. It is the branch of philosophy that systematically studies moral ideals and goals, motives of choice, and patterns of good and bad conduct. Ethics refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. Ethics is traditionally subdivided into descriptive ethics, normative ethics, metaethics, and applied ethics.  Branches of Ethics 1. Descriptive Ethics Descriptive Ethics is the study of people’s beliefs about morality. It involves empirical investigation. It gives us a general pattern or a way of life of people in different types of communities. Descriptive Ethics studies the history and evolution of Ethics. It gives a record of certain taboos, customs or conventions. For example, it  states the history of various institutions like family or marriage. Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral consciousness is an example of Descriptive Ethics. Descriptive Ethics investigates people’s ethical ideals or what actions are condemned in a society. It aims to find out people’s beliefs about values, which actions are right and wrong and which characteristics of a moral agent are virtuous. Descriptive Ethics seeks the explanation of actual choices made by moral agents in practice. It tries to examine the ethical codes applied by various groups. Descriptive Ethics is a value-free approach to ethics. It is empirical investigation of people’s moral beliefs. 2. Normative Ethics Normative Ethics is also called as prescriptive ethics. It is the study of ethical theories that prescribe how people ought to act. It examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions. Normative Ethics suggests punishment when a person deviates from the path of ideals. It provides justification for punishing a person who disturbs social and moral order. It tries to establish certain theories on the guidelines of some norms. Normative Ethics offer the moral principles to use to resolve difficult moral decisions. Aristotle’s virtue ethics, Kant’s deontological ethics, Mill’s Consequentialism (Utilitarianism) and the Bhagwad Gita’s Nishkam Karmayoga are the theories in Normative Ethics. 3. Meta Ethics Meta Ethics is the study of what ethical terms and theories actually refer to. It determines the validity of theories advanced in Normative Ethics. We use certain moral concepts such as right, wrong, good or bad to evaluate human actions. These moral concepts are used as tools in passing moral judgments. Meta – Ethics analyzes ethical concepts. It studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts. Meta-Ethics seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties and evaluations. Meta Ethics deals with the questions such as ‘What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments?’, ‘What is the nature of moral judgments?’, ‘How may moral judgments be supported or defended?’ 4. Applied Ethics In recent years the branch of Applied Ethics is developed. It deals with the problems confronted in our life. It attempts to apply ethical theory to real life situations. It helps to use knowledge of moral principles to present dilemmas. There are certain issues which arise due to newly adopted life style. Applied Ethics deals with the questions such as, “Is getting an abortion immoral?” “Is euthanasia immoral?” “Is affirmative action right or wrong?” “What are human rights, and how do we determine them?” “Do animals have rights as well?” and “Do individuals have the right of self- determination?” Applied Ethics guides the individuals facing conflicting situation. Some critical moral issues arise due to the insensible and irresponsible attitude of human beings without any concern to other children of Mother Nature. Applied Ethics provides guidance in determining public policy and laws. Applied Ethics develops into Environmental Ethics, Media Ethics, Business Ethics, Ethics of Legal Profession and Ethics of Care. The ethical questions never have answer in ‘yes’/ ‘no’ or ‘right’/’wrong’ format. Ethical issues are multifaceted. Their satisfactory solutions are possible through consideration of different areas of life.  Ethics and Morality  Similarities of the terms  Ethics is from the Greek word “ethos”, meaning character or custom and morality/morals from the Greek word “mores”, meaning custom or manner; both words deal with the customs or manner in which people do things; meanings related to the way people act – either good or bad. So, the two have very similar, if not synonymous, meanings originally.  Both the terms are used to indicate a fine line between what activities should be considered good and what should be considered bad. Both ethics and morality work side by side to make the learning of good activities faster. Both concepts help any individual to be a better person.  Both morality and ethics loosely have to do with distinguishing the difference between “good and bad” or “right and wrong.”   Difference/s of the terms  Many people think of morality as something that's personal and normative (individual system) whereas ethics is the standards of “good and bad” distinguished by a certain community or social setting (social system); one therefore may say that Ethics is objective and morals subjective.  Ethics refers to rules provided by an external source, e.g., codes of conduct in workplaces or principles in religions. Morals refer to an individual’s own principles regarding right and wrong (internal source). Ethics are external standards that are provided by institutions, groups, or culture to which an individual belongs. For example, lawyers, policemen, and doctors all have to follow an ethical code laid down by their profession, regardless of their own feelings or preferences. Ethics can also be considered a social system or a framework for acceptable behavior. Morals are also influenced by culture or society, but they are personal principles created and upheld by individuals themselves.  Ethics is based on the dictates of the society (culture) on what is the right thing to do whereas morals is based on the belief (faith) of the individual in something is right or wrong. Ethics is dependent on others for definition. It tends to be consistent within a certain context, but can vary between contexts. Morals usually is consistent, although can change if an individual’s beliefs change. Ethics are governed by professional and legal guidelines within a particular time and place. Morality transcends cultural norms.  Conflicts between Ethics and Morality One professional example of ethics conflicting with morals is the work of a defense attorney. A lawyer’s morals may tell her that murder is reprehensible and that murderers should be punished, but her ethics as a professional lawyer, requires her to defend her client to the best of her abilities, even if she knows that the client is guilty. Another example can be found in the medical field. In most parts of the world, a doctor may not euthanize a patient, even at the patient's request, as per ethical standards for health professionals. However, the same doctor may personally believe in a patient's right to die, as per the doctor's own morality.  Importance of Ethics (with Morality) in One’s Daily Life Ethics (with Morality) asks us to consider whether our actions are right or wrong. It also asks us how those character traits that help humans flourish (such as integrity, honesty, faithfulness, and compassion) play out in everyday living.