ESM 301_BSES_Introduction to Ecosystem Management.pdf

Introduction to Ecosystem Management ESM 301 | Terrestrial Ecosystem & Management 01 Ecosystem-based Management WHAT IS AN ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT? Ecosystem-based Management What does ecosystem-based management mean? There are three important aspects to ecosystem-based management, all of...

Introduction to Ecosystem Management ESM 301 | Terrestrial Ecosystem & Management 01 Ecosystem-based Management WHAT IS AN ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT? Ecosystem-based Management What does ecosystem-based management mean? There are three important aspects to ecosystem-based management, all of which have to do with the human component of ecosystems. One focuses on the ultimate objectives of management actions, another concerns ecosystem boundaries in relation to other types of boundaries not yet discussed, and the third concerns management actions and to what they are directed. Ecosystem-based Management Ecosystems provide a full array of goods and services upon which people depend for their livelihood and well- being. Ecosystem-based management seeks to organize human use of ecosystems in order to strike a balance between benefiting from the natural resources available from an ecosystem’s components and processes, while maintaining an ecosystem’s ability to provide these at a sustainable level. Management schemes for national parks, conserving particular species, or areas of biomes have provided good examples of sound ecosystem-based approaches. Ecosystem-based Management However, it would be a mistake to assume that ecosystem-based management is, or should only be, applied in national parks or for preserving floral and faunal components in their wild state. There are many cases where agricultural, forestry, fisheries and coastal zone management schemes of development projects have been based on maximizing extraction of goods and services of ecosystems. Eventually the schemes failed when the systems were no longer able to function. Ecosystem-based management approaches could have been used to help foresee the impact of extractive practices and set limits which would allow ecosystem functions to be maintained. In brief, the purpose of ecosystem management is to use ecosystems, but not to lose them. The objective of ecosystem management projects then should be to ensure that their goods and services are available on a sustainable basis. Ecosystem-based Management (Boundaries) It was pointed out that by definition all ecosystems have boundaries. From the phrase “ecosystem-based management” it should be self- evident that the focus is on management actions within these boundaries. The window through which an ecosystem management practitioner should primarily view an area should be the ecosystem-based window. Ecosystem managers need to develop an inventory of the components comprising the system and their interrelationships. They need to develop an understanding, or ideally be able to make predictions, about how much an ecosystem can be perturbed without undue degradation or destruction. This knowledge will help form the basis of management decisions. At the same time, however, ecosystem management practitioners have to be aware of, and take into account, the fact that other important boundaries lie within or cross the boundaries of ecosystems. These include boundaries established as a reflection of socioeconomic and legal/administrative systems. Ecosystem-based Management (Boundaries) A typical example of this situation is a coastal floodplain. The natural demarcation that an ecosystem manager might choose could be the upper limit of the watershed that supplies the floodwaters. Within that area, however, many communities may use the system for different purposes such as water extraction for irrigation, grazing of cattle and horses, fishing, wildlife viewing, source of medicinal plants, or for religious or other cultural purposes. Some uses may be compatible with the constraints of the system, others may not. Conflicts often arise among such groups and cannot be solved through understanding the ecosystem alone. Ecosystem managers therefore need to understand how different societies interact with the systems within which they live. Ecosystem-based Management (Boundaries) The area of ecosystem to be managed may have overlapping sectoral jurisdictions or mandates held by different communities, counties, provinces, cantons or central governments. A ministry of fisheries may have a mandate to manage fisheries and land-use (e.g. ports) in adjacent coastal areas; a parks department may be responsible for managing human activities not only within a park’s formal boundary but also outside the boundary, especially where human actions affect the park; and irrigation might be controlled by a local authority, or regional or central government. The objectives of these sectors or government entities may conflict, or the areas over which they might be responsible may cut across the boundaries of the ecosystem to be managed. The various jurisdictions in an area will rarely coincide with the demarcations that serve as the boundaries for an ecosystem management project. In some cases, ecosystem management projects have failed because managers were unable to determine how to resolve these conflicts, or were unable to appreciate the existence of administrative boundaries. Focus of Management Action As stated earlier, ecosystems are natural systems, the boundaries of which are imposed by humans for scientific and management purposes. In general, perturbations of ecosystems are due to two causes. Some are brought about by natural phenomena such as storms that destroy a deltaic system, an ice age, hurricanes, or invasive plant or animal species. On the other hand, when humans began to develop strategies to manipulate their surroundings in order to multiply their access to the goods and services from natural systems, they became major causes of perturbation and degradation of natural systems. As a result, ecosystem-based management should focus on the role of people as an ecosystem component, and their interactions with other components of the system. Thus, human actions should be the focus of ecosystem management. Focus of Management Action If human interactions within the ecosystems are the target, what kind of actions do ecosystem managers undertake? Examples of such actions (see below) are provided by Maltby et al. (1999): adjusting the chemical conditions by controlling pollution or altering the input of nutrients and contaminants to the atmosphere, waters, soils or more directly to vegetation; regulating the physical parameters, for example by making controlled releases of water from a dam or entry of saltwater into coastal impoundments; altering biological interrelationships, for example by controlling grazing and predation, or preventing the colonization of grassland or heathland by bushes and trees, or intervening in vegetation development or dynamics by burning or cutting; controlling human use of biological productivity, for example by limiting the use of fertilizers and pesticides, or regulating fish net sizes; and intervening in cultural, social and economic processes, for example by compensating farmers for reducing the intensity of their operations in the interests of conservation. 02 Principles of Ecosystem-based Management Ecosystem-based Management: Principles The notion of "sustainable development" was promulgated in the 1970s with the formulation of the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1980). Further consideration followed in the 1980s and early 1990s during debates which led to the formulation of Our Common Future (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987), Caring for the Earth (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991) and Agenda 21, adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1992). Subsequently, sustainable development has been embodied in the policies of many international organizations and national governments. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 1. MAINTAINING ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS AND INTEGRITY Ecosystem structure relates to the components of the system, while ecosystem functions are the physical, chemical and biological processes that take place between these components within its defined boundaries. A central premise of ecosystem management is that the structure and functional integrity of the system should be maintained, while at the same time allowing for the use of the goods and services provided by the system. The nature of human disturbance to an ecosystem will determine the extent to which ecosystem integrity is lost. Ecosystem managers must promote the beneficial use of the system without contributing to its degradation – use it, but don’t lose it. Attention should focus on the nature of the impacts, the ecological functions affected, and the scale of the impacts in both space and time. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 2. RECOGNIZING ECOSYSTEM BOUNDARIES AND TRANSBOUNDARY ISSUES Ecosystems are assemblages of plant, animal and non-living components "that interact within a recognizable self-contained entity", that is, within an ecosystem’s boundary. The primary focus for actions should be on the human actions affecting the components and processes within the boundaries that define the ecosystem. Notwithstanding the adoption of this ecosystem focus, two other factors should be taken into account, otherwise the approach will fail. One concerns legal and administrative boundaries that cross ecosystem boundaries; the second concerns phenomena arising outside ecosystem boundaries that influence what happens inside. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 2. RECOGNIZING ECOSYSTEM BOUNDARIES AND TRANSBOUNDARY ISSUES One approach for dealing with transboundary issues is through bioregional planning as promulgated by the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA). Through this approach boundaries are adopted at the landscape scale. Within a bioregion there are three basic elements: ○ core wild areas that contain wild, undomesticated plant and animal communities, and the habitat or site requirements needed for their long-term survival; ○ buffer zones adjacent to the core areas where human communities manage land and resources in such a way as to minimize negative impacts on core areas; and ○ corridors that link core areas and buffer zones in a way that allows for plant and animal migrations and provides possibilities for changes, e.g. those brought about by changes in climate. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 3. MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY Ecosystems consist of plants, animals (including humans) and non-living components (air, water, minerals) and the processes that link them. The frequency of occurrence of different species within an ecosystem defines its species diversity. Loss of ecosystems, their species components and the processes that link them can lead to the loss of the goods and services that ecosystems provide. A decline in diversity can lead to the loss of valuable biological resources – for example when forest conversion causes the disappearance of medicinal plants or food sources used by forest-dwelling communities. A basic principle of ecosystem management is therefore to maintain biodiversity. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 3. MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY People may be an integral part of ecosystems but, in general, many find it difficult to identify with concepts of ecosystem processes. In some cases this can be used to the advantage of an ecosystem management project. By identifying a flagship species that can serve as a symbol for an ecosystem management project, it can serve as the focus for environmental education programs and building public support. Some species are also used as a focus because they are indicators of the health of the ecosystem. Migratory birds, for example, depend upon a series of feeding and nesting areas strategically located along flyways. If one link in the ecosystem chain is damaged, e.g. the loss of a specific wetland where migrating birds spend part of the year, their numbers will decrease. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 3. MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY Endemic species have a certain intrinsic value because of their uniqueness. Under the Convention on Biological Diversity, countries have a particular responsibility to safeguard such species and the ecosystems that support them. The concept is that because endemic species are unique to an area, interest in their survival transcends national interests. In addition, they can be a useful indicator of the health and functional integrity of their ecosystems. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 4. RECOGNIZING THE INEVITABILITY OF CHANGE Ecosystems are dynamic: they undergo constant change. They do not exist forever in a static equilibrium, or a pristine state. Changes result from the normal shifts in the life stages and abundance of components that make up the system and their interactions with each other; from disturbances from outside the system; and human actions. Such changes are inevitable. Ecosystem managers must recognize the inevitability of change and plan accordingly. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 5. RECOGNIZING PEOPLE AS PART OF THE ECOSYSTEM People, like other species, are dependent for their survival on the basic goods and services that ecosystems provide: air, water, food and shelter. However, human societies distinguish themselves from other species in their ability – and their quest – to exploit systems far beyond obtaining these basic requirements for survival and, in doing so, have had far-reaching effects. Aside from survival, the goods and services of ecosystems support the acquisition of wealth, development of culture, infrastructure for travel and communication, and many other elements that contribute to the establishment and maintenance of societies. The notion that humans are somehow apart from ecosystems and control them from outside (e.g. we tame nature) is not a viable paradigm. People are an integral part of most ecosystems. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 5. RECOGNIZING PEOPLE AS PART OF THE ECOSYSTEM As people make the social and political choices about exploiting ecosystems, these same people should be involved in ecosystem management projects. Ecosystem-based management projects can assist in making political and societal decisions by providing the framework for collecting and analyzing information, and formulating alternative options. Aside from these positive reasons, people are often the greatest threat to ecosystem functions and integrity and without their cooperation ecosystem management efforts will run a high risk of failure. Stakeholders are those people who use, affect, or otherwise have an interest in the ecosystem. An analysis of their needs, values and perspectives is fundamental to ecosystem management. The satisfaction of human needs is as critical to the success of conservation initiatives as it is to development. Stakeholders, in particular local communities, will usually have more interest in safeguarding the ecosystems they exploit if their rights to access and exploitation are recognized. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 6. RECOGNIZING THE NEED FOR MULTI-SECTOR COLLABORATION Ecosystem management is a holistic process. It requires the input of many different disciplines, sectors and stakeholder interests. This is necessary to build up and analyze information, on the basis of which collaborative decisions can be made about using the goods and services provided by the system. Therefore, it is vital that the various sectoral interests and other stakeholders recognize the need for multi- sector collaboration. As a result, ecosystem managers must promote collaboration of the different sectors. One of the best ways to promote collaboration is to create networks and partnerships that link sectoral interests and stakeholders together. Networks may be national or international. They often provide the basis for partnerships for joint action, since potential partners can be identified through the network. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 6. RECOGNIZING THE NEED FOR MULTI-SECTOR COLLABORATION Multi-sectoral networks and partnerships are useful for: ○ reviewing policies of different sectors to identify areas of conflict and compatibility; ○ sharing information about methods, activities and results; ○ finding out where data may be stored and how these should be processed in a way that ensures maximum usefulness for a range of agencies; ○ sharing ideas for project actions based on other organizations’ experiences; ○ coordination and integration of information-gathering activities; ○ avoiding duplication and achieving synergy of action; ○ spreading the workload and responsibility for management; and ○ identifying sites and habitats that are critical to the provision of ecosystem services and that require special forms of management and co-operation. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 7. MAKING ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT A MAINSTREAM DEVELOPMENT APPROACH Ecosystem management requires a broader point of view than conventional natural resource management. While it is concerned with exploiting the goods and services provided by the ecosystem, it focuses on doing so while maintaining the integrity of the system, in other words, on sustainability. As the ecosystem management approach is one of the tools for achieving sustainability, ecosystem-based management should be mainstreamed into sustainable development programs or projects. At the national level, many governments are adopting National Development Plans, National Environmental Action Plans, Biodiversity Action Plans and Conservation Strategies in which achieving sustainability is an overall aim. Ecosystem-based Management: Principles Ecosystem-based Management: Principles 7. MAKING ECOSYSTEM-BASED MANAGEMENT A MAINSTREAM DEVELOPMENT APPROACH Formulation of such national actions plans and strategies are steps towards integrating ecosystem management into overall policies, but ecosystem-based management principles should also: ○ be incorporated into all strategies for sustainable development, whether they relate to nations, regions, or local areas; ○ be used when preparing or updating economic and social development policies for a country, region, or community; and, ○ be incorporated in sectoral policies and programs at the national, regional or local levels. An ecosystem management initiative that does not take into account the national or sectoral policies already in existence risks becoming isolated, and/or being seen as irrelevant. The result will no doubt be ineffective. 03 Ecosystem-based Management: Partners Ecosystem-based Management: Partners Ecosystem degradation is usually caused by a variety of social and economic forces, for instance, population pressure, urbanization, over-exploitation of natural resources, and developments that change hydrological and other ecosystem characteristics. The ecosystem management approach tries to address these by influencing the ways in which local people (and others) use the natural resources and benefit from the ecosystem functions. Local communities are most often the immediate beneficiaries of successful ecosystem management. Experience in sustainable development and ecosystem management projects has shown that if local communities are not involved, they lose interest. If they are not involved in formulating ecosystem management projects, they may assume that activities are being imposed upon them from elsewhere and will not want to be involved during any future implementation. Ecosystem-based Management: Partners Successful ecosystem management usually depends upon the creation of partnerships between the different users and beneficiaries. Partnerships can be established between different sectors, between sectors and stakeholders, sectors and NGOs, or through other combinations. Networks and partnerships established between government agencies, NGOs, international organizations and funding agencies are one of the most effective means of accumulating a broad information base that can assist in making management decisions. Ecosystem-based Management: Partners DEVELOPING ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT PARTNERSHIPS Developing partnerships with local communities and other stakeholders should be one of the aims of ecosystem management activities. An analysis of the case studies summarized in this Guide shows that while working with communities can be a long process, when the approach succeeds it often generates a demand for further community involvement. ○ Information provided by local communities should be a key element in management planning. ○ Ecosystem management through community involvement must be the main concern for project planners and managers. ○ The relationships between a community and its environment can be complex and need to be understood in order to succeed in ecosystem-based management. ○ The use of local languages is essential for effective communication about natural resources and indigenous uses, and for collaboration in developing management initiatives. ○ Building trust with local stakeholders depends on establishing good communications and mechanisms for providing feedback concerning progress. Ecosystem-based Management: Partners ENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT Wherever there is multiple use of natural resources, there is potential for competition and conflict between the different users. Typical examples are: a conflict over the consumptive use of forests to produce timber or fuel wood, versus non- consumptive use for tourism; or the use of a wetland for purification of wastewater instead of maintaining its use as a fish spawning area. The potential for conflict will probably increase with growing population because more users will be trying to use the same, usually diminishing, resource. This is particularly true where more than one community is exploiting the same resource in order to survive. An aim of ecosystem-based management is to ensure that a number of different uses can be made of a system, simultaneously, while minimizing conflict, or loss of values. Ecosystem-based Management: Partners ENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT In reality, conflicts over natural resource use are rarely completely resolved, but specific agreements may be reached over the scale, location or zones, and the timeframes governing resource uses. The main aim in conflict resolution should be to attain a balance between different uses, while ensuring that overall exploitation is kept within the capacity of the system (also the aim of sustainable development). While the overall aim may seem fairly clear, a certain amount of flexibility needs to be built into the process. For example: ○ environmental conflict management has to be consultative and always requires a diplomatic approach; and ○ agreements may have to be renegotiated on a regular basis depending upon changing conditions or when new uses are introduced, including: ▪ when monitoring indicates that existing levels of use are too high, the limits may be reduced; or conversely ▪ when monitoring indicates levels of use can be increased without adverse effects, the agreed limits may be revised upwards; or ▪ a decision is made to exploit a new resource. Ecosystem-based Management: Partners COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT Collaborative management is a partnership in which government agencies, local communities and resource users, NGOs and other stakeholders agree on the responsibility, authority, rights and duties they each have for the management of a specific area or set of resources. Other terms which have been used for the same process are co-, joint, participatory and multi-stakeholder management. Although partnerships are based on formal agreements they must ultimately be built upon trust between the communities, groups and institutions involved. Good communication plays a critical role for efficient and mutually beneficial partnerships. Ecosystem-based Management: Partners COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT Ecosystem-based Management: Partners COLLABORATIVE MANAGEMENT Whatever the balance between the different roles of community groups, government agencies and NGOs, collaborative management agreements represent a formalization of local community involvement. In order to work effectively, collaborative management has to be strengthened by building the capacity of local institutions and groups to take management decisions on sustainable use and to implement them based upon sound technical and social advice.  Thanks! 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