English Language Skills Course - Minia University

A COURSE ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS Complied by: The department of English Faculty of Arts Minia University  PART A Comprehension PASSAGES  1-Democracy Democracy rests on a tension between two different principles. There is, on the on...

A COURSE ON ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS Complied by: The department of English Faculty of Arts Minia University  PART A Comprehension PASSAGES  1-Democracy Democracy rests on a tension between two different principles. There is, on the one hand, the principle of equality before the law, or, more generally, of equality, and, on the other, what may be described as the leadership principle. The first gives priority to rules and the second to persons. No matter how skillfully we contrive our schemes; there is a point beyond which the one principle cannot be promoted without some sacrifice of the other. Alexis de Tocqueville, the great nineteenth century writer on democracy, maintained that the age of democracy, whose birth he was witnessing, would be the age of mediocrity: in saying this he was thinking primarily of a regime of equality governed by impersonal rules. Despite his strong attachment to democracy, he took great pains to point out what he believed to be its negative side: a dead level plane of achievement in practically every sphere of life. The age of democracy would, in his view, be an unheroic age; there would not be room in it for either heroes or hero- worshippers. But modern democracies have not been able to do without heroes: this too was foreseen, with much misgiving, by Tocqueville. Tocqueville viewed this with misgiving because he believed, rightly or wrongly, that unlike in aristocratic societies, there was no proper place in a democracy for heroes and, hence, when they arose, they would sooner or later turn into despots. Whether they require heroes or not, democracies certainly require leaders, and, in the contemporary age, breed them in great profusion; the problem is to know what to do with them. In a world preoccupied with scientific rationality, the advantages of a system based on an impersonal rule of law should be a recommendation with everybody. There is something orderly and predictable about such a system. When life is lived mainly in small, self-contained communities, men are able to take finer personal distinctions into account in dealing with their fellow men. They’re unable to do this in a large and amorphous society, and organized living would be impossible here without a system of impersonal rules. Above all, such a system guarantees a kind of equality to the extent that everybody, no matter in what station of life, is bound by the same explicit, often written, rules, and nobody is above them. But a system governed solely by impersonal rules can at best ensure order and stability; it cannot create any shining vision of a future in which mere formal equality will be replaced by real equality and fellowship. A world governed by impersonal rules cannot easily change itself, or when it does, the change is so gradual as to make the basic and fundamental feature of society appear unchanged. For any kind of basic or fundamental change, a push is needed from within, a kind of individual initiative which will create new rules, new terms and conditions of file. The issue of leadership thus acquired crucial significance in the context of change. If the modern age is preoccupied with scientific rationality, it is no less preoccupied with change. To accept what exists on its terms is traditional, not modern, and it may be all very well to appreciate tradition in music, dance and drama, but for society as a whole, the choice has already been made in favour of modernization and development. Moreover, in some countries, the gap between ideal and reality has become so great that the argument of development and change is now irresistible. In these countries no argument for development has greater appeal or urgency than the one which shows development to be the condition for the mitigation, it not the elimination, of inequality. There is something contradictory about the very presence of large inequalities in a society which professes to be democratic. It does not take people too long to realize that democracy by itself can guarantee only formal equality; beyond this, it can only whet people’s appetite for real or substantive equality. From this arises continued preoccupation with plans and schemes that will help to bridge the gap between the ideal of equality and the reality which is so contrary to it. When pre-existing rules give no clear directions of change, leadership comes into its own. Every democracy invests its leadership with a measure of charisma, and expects from it a corresponding measure of energy and vitality. Now, the greater the urge for change in a society, the stronger the appeal of a dynamic leadership in it. A dynamic leadership seeks to free itself from the constraints of existing rules; in a sense that is the test of its dynamism. In this process, it may take a turn at which it ceases to regard itself as being bound by these rules, placing itself above them. There is always a tension between ‘charisma’ and ‘discipline’ and in the case of a democratic leadership, puts forward revolutionary claims, the tension tends to be resolved at the expense of discipline. Characteristically, the legitimacy of such a leadership rests on its claim to be able to abolish or at least substantially reduce the existing inequalities in society. From the argument that formal equality or equality before the law is but a limited good, it is often one short step to the argument that it is a hindrance or an obstacle to the establishment of real or substantive equality. The conflict between a ‘progressive’ executive and a ‘conservative’ judiciary is but one aspect of this larger problem. This conflict naturally acquires added piquancy when the executive is elected and the judiciary appointed. 1.Dynamic leaders are needed in democracies because: (a)they have adopted the principles of ‘formal’ equality rather than ‘substantive’ equality. (b)‘formal’ equality whets people’s appetite for ‘substantive’ equality. (c)systems that rely on the impersonal rules of ‘formal’ equality lose their ability to make large changes. (d)of the conflict between a ‘progressive’ executive and a ‘conservative’ judiciary. 2.What possible factor would a dynamic leader consider a ‘hindrance’ in achieving the development goals of a nation? (a)Principle of equality before the law. (b)Judicial activism (c)A conservative judiciary. (d)Need for discipline. 3.Which of the following four statements can be inferred from the above passage? I. Scientific rationality is an essential feature of modernity. II.Scientific rationality results in the development of impersonal rules. III.Modernisation and development have been chosen over traditional music, dance and drama. IV.Democracies aspire to achieve substantive equality. (a)I, II, III but not III (b)I, IV but not II, III (c)I, II but not III, IV (d)I, II, III but not IV 4.Tocqueville believed that the age of democracy would be an un- heroic age because: (a)Democratic principles do not encourage heroes. (b)There is no urgency for development in democratic countries. (c)Heroes that emerged in democracies would become despots. (d)Aristocratic society has a greater ability to produce heroes. 5.A key argument the author is making is that: (a)in the context of extreme inequality, the issue of leadership has limited significance. (b)democracy is incapable of eradicating inequality. (c)formal equality facilitates development and change. (d)impersonal rules are good for avoiding instability but fall short of achieving real equality. 6.Which of the following four statements can be inferred from the above passage? I. There is conflict between the pursuit of equality and individuality. II.The disadvantages of impersonal rules can be overcome in small communities. III.Despite limitations, impersonal rules are essential in large systems. IV.Inspired leadership, rather than plans and schemes, is more effective in bridging inequality. (a)II, IV but not I, III (b)I, II but not III, IV (c)I, IV but not II, III (d)I, IV but not II, IV  2. The Dark Age In the modern scientific story, light was created not once but twice. The first time was in the Big Bang, when the universe began its existence as a glowing, expanding fireball, which cooled off into darkness after a few million years. The second time was hundreds of millions of years later, when the cold material condensed into dense nuggets under the influence of gravity, and ignited to become the first stars. Sir Martin Rees, Britain’s astronomer royal, named the longer interval between these two enlightenments, the cosmic “Dark Age”. The name describes not only the poorly lit conditions, but also the ignorance of astronomers about that period. Nobody knows exactly when the first stars formed, or how they organized themselves into galaxies—or even whether stars were the first luminous objects. They may have been preceded by quasars, which are mysterious, bright spots found at the centers of some galaxies. Now, two independent groups of astronomers, one led by Robert Becker of the University of California, Davis, and the other by George Djorgovski of the Caltech, claim to have peered far enough into space with their telescopes (and therefore backwards enough in time) to observe the closing days of the Dark Age. The main problem that plagued previous efforts to study the Dark Age was not the lack of suitable telescopes, but rather the lack of suitable things at which to point them. Because these events took place over 13 billion years ago, if astronomers are to have any hope of unraveling them, they must study objects that are at least 13 billion light years away. The best prospectuses are quasars, because they are so bright and compact that they can be seen across vast stretches of space. The energy source that powers a quasar is unknown, although it is suspected to be the intense gravity of a giant black hole. However, at the distances required for the study of Dark Age, even quasars are extremely rare and faint. Recently, some members of Dr. Becker’s team announced their discovery of the four most distant quasars known. All the new quasars are terribly faint, a challenge that both teams overcame by peering at them through one of the twin Keck telescopes in Hawaii. These are the world’s largest, and can therefore collect the most light. Dr. Becker’s team analysed the light from all four quasars. Three of them appeared to be similar to ordinary, less distant quasars. However, the fourth and most distant, unlike any other quasar ever seen, showed unmistakable signs of being shrouded in a fog of hydrogen gas. This gas is leftover material from the Big Bang that did not condense into stars or quasars. It acts like fog because new born stars and quasars emit mainly ultraviolet light, and hydrogen gas is opaque to ultraviolet light. Seeing this fog had been the goal of would-be Dark Age astronomers since 1965, when James Gunn and Bruce Peterson spelled out the technique for using quasars as backlighting beacons to observe the fog’s ultraviolet shadow. The fog prolonged the period of darkness until the heat from the first stars and quasars had the chance to ionize hydrogen (breaking it into its constituent parts, protons and electrons). Ionised hydrogen is transparent to ultraviolet radiation, so at that moment the fog lifted and the universe became the well-lit place it is today. For this reason, the end of the Dark Age is called the “Epoch of Re-ionisation”. Because the ultraviolet shadow is visible only in the most distant of the four quasars, Dr. Becker’s team concluded that the fog had dissipated completely by the time the universe was about 900 million years old, and one-seventh of its current size. 1.In the passage, the Dark Age refers to: (a)the period when the universe became cold after the Big Bang. (b)a period about which astronomers know very little. (c)the medieval period when cultural activity seemed to have come to an end.(d)the time that the universe took to heat up after the Big Bang. 2.Astronomers find it difficult to study the Dark Age because: (a)suitable telescopes are few. (b)the associated events took place aeons ago. (c)the energy source that powers a quasar is unknown. (d)their best chance is to study quasars, which are faint objects to begin with. 3.The four most distant quasars discovered recently: (a)could only be seen with the help of large telescopes. (b)appear to be similar to other, ordinary quasars. (c)appear to be shrouded in a fog of hydrogen gas. (d)have been sought to be discovered by Dark Age astronomers since 1965. 4.The fog of hydrogen gas seen through the telescopes: (a)is transparent to hydrogen radiation from stars and quasars in all states. (b)was lifted after heat from stars and quasars ionised it. (c)is material which eventually becomes stars and quasars. (d)is broken into constituent elements when stars and quasars are formed.  3. World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) was created in the early1990s as a component of the Uruguay Round negotiation. However; it could have been negotiated as part of the Tokyo Round of the 1970s, since that negotiation was an attempt at a ‘constitutional reform’ of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Or it could have been put off to the future, as the US government wanted. What factors led to the creation of the WTO in the early 1990s? One factor was the pattern of multilateral bargaining that developed late in the Uruguay Round. Like all complex international agreements, the WTO was a product of a series of trade-offs between the principal actors and groups. For the United States, which did not want a new organization, the dispute settlement part of the WTO package achieved its longstanding goal of a more effective and more legal dispute settlement system. For the Europeans, who by the 1990s had come to view GATT dispute settlement less in political terms and more as a regime of legal obligations, the WTO package was acceptable as a means to discipline the resort to unilateral measures by the United States. Countries like Canada and other middle and smaller trading partners were attracted by the expansion of a rules-based system and by the symbolic value of a trade organization, both of which inherently support the weak against the strong. The developing countries were attracted due to the provisions banning unilateral measures. Finally, and perhaps most important, many countries at the Uruguay Round came to put a higher priority on the export gains than on the import losses that the negotiation would produce, and they came to associate the WTO and a rules-based system with those gains. This reasoning—replicated in many countries—was contained in U.S. Ambassador Kantor’s defence of the WTO, and it amounted to a recognition that international trade and its benefits cannot be enjoyed unless trading nations accept the discipline of a negotiated rules-based environment. A second factor in the creation of the WTO was pressure from lawyers and the legal process. The dispute settlement system of the WTO was seen as a victory of legalists over pragmatists but the matter went deeper than that. The GATT and the WTO, are contract organizations based on rules, and it is inevitable that an organization created to further rules will in turn be influenced by the legal process. Robert Hudec has written of the ‘momentum of legal development’, but what is this precisely? Legal development can be defined as promotion of the technical legal values of consistency, clarity (or, certainty) and effectiveness; these are values that those responsible for administering any legal system will seek to maximize. As it played out in the WTO, consistency meant integrating under one roof, the whole lot of separate agreements signed under GATT auspices; clarity meant removing ambiguities about the powers of contracting parties to make certain decisions or to undertake waivers; and effectiveness meant eliminating exceptions arising out of grandfather rights and resolving defects in dispute settlement procedures and institutional provisions. Concern for these values is inherent in any rules-based system of co-operation, since without these values, rules would be meaningless in the first place. Rules, therefore, create their own incentive for fulfillment. The momentum of legal development has occurred in other institutions besides the GATT, most notably in the European Union (E.U). Over the past two decades, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) has consistently rendered decisions that have expanded incrementally the EU’s internal market, in which the doctrine of ‘mutual recognition’ handed down in the case Cassis de Dijon in 1979 was a key turning point. The Court is now widely recognized as a major player in European integration, even though arguably, such a strong role was not originally envisaged in the Treaty of Rome, which initiated the current European Union. One means the Court used to expand integration was the ‘teleological method of interpretation’, whereby the actions of member states were evaluated against ‘the accomplishment of the most elementary community goals set forth in the Preamble to the [Rome] treaty’. The teleological method represents an effort to keep current policies consistent with stated goals, and it is analogous to the effort in GATT to keep contracting party trade practices consistent with stated rules. In both cases, legal concerns and procedures are an independent force for further co-operation. In large part, the WTO was an exercise in consolidation. In the context of a trade negotiation that created a near-revolutionary expansion of international trade rules, the formation of the WTO was a deeply conservative act needed to ensure that the benefits of the new rules would not be lost. The WTO was all about institutional structure and dispute settlement; these are the concerns of conservatives and not revolutionaries, which is why lawyers and legalists took the lead on these issues. The WTO codified the GATT institutional practice that had developed by custom over three decades, and it incorporated a new dispute settlement system that was necessary to keep both old and new rules from becoming a sham. Both the international structure and the dispute settlement system were necessary to preserve and enhance the integrity of the multilateral trade regime that had been built incrementally from the 1940s to the 1990s. 1.What could be the closest reason why WTO was not formed in the 1970s? (a)The US government did not like it. (b)Important players did not find it in their best interest to do so. (c)Lawyers did not work for the dispute settlement system. (d)The Tokyo Round negotiation was an attempt at constitutional reform. 2.The most likely reason for the acceptance of the WTO package by nations was that (a)it had the means to prevent the US from taking unilateral measures. (b)they recognized the need for a rule-based environment to protect the benefits of increased trade. (c)it settles disputes more legally and more effectively. (d)its rule-based system leads to export gains. 3.According to the passage, WTO promoted the technical legal values partly through: (a)integrating under one roof, the agreements signed under GATT. (b)rules that create their own incentive for fulfillment. (c)grandfather-rights, exceptions and defects in dispute settlement procedures. (d)ambiguities about the powers of contracting parties to make certain decisions. 4.In the method of interpretation of the European Court of Justice: (a)current policies need to be consistent with stated goals. (b)contracting party trade practices needed to be consistent with stated rules. (c)enunciation of the most elementary community goals needed to be emphasized. (d)actions of member states needed to be evaluated against the stated community goals. 5.In the statement “…. It amounted to a recognition that international trade and its benefits cannot be enjoyed unless trading nations accept the discipline of a negotiated rules-based environment.”, ‘it’ refers to: (a)Ambassador Cantor’s defence of the WTO. (b)The higher priority on export gains placed by many countries at the Uruguay Round. (c)The export gains many countries came to associate with a rule- based system. (d)The provision of a rule-based system by the WTO. 6.The importance of Cassis de Dijon is that it (a)gave a new impetus to the momentum of legal development at the European Court of Justice. (b)resulted in a decision that expanded incrementally, the EU’s internal market. (c)strengthened the role of the court beyond what was envisaged in the Treaty of Rome. (d)led to a doctrine that was a key turning point in European integration. 4. Phonological skills Studies of the factors governing reading development in young children have achieved remarkable degree of consensus over the past two decades. This consensus concerns the casual role of phonological skills in young children’s reading progress. Children, who have good phonological skills, or good “phonological awareness”, become good readers and good spellers. Children with poor phonological skills progress more poorly. In particular, those who have a specific phonological deficit are likely to be classified as dyslexic by the time that they are 9 or 10 years old. Phonological skills in young children can be measured at a number of different levels. The term phonological awareness is a global one, and refers to a deficit in recognizing smaller units of sound within spoken words. Development work has shown that this deficit can be at the level of syllables, of onsets and rimes, or of phonemes. For example, a 4-year old child might have difficulty in recognizing that a word like valentine has three syllables, suggesting a lack of syllabic awareness. A 5-years old might have difficulty in recognizing that the odd word out in the set of words fan, cat, hat, mat is fan. This task requires an awareness of the sub-syllabic units of the onset and the rime. The onset corresponds to any initial consonants in a syllable, and the rime corresponds to the vowel and to any following consonants. Rimes correspond to rhyme in single-syllable words, and so the rime in fan differs from the rime in cat, hat and mat. In longer words, rime and rhyme may differ. The onsets in val: en: tine are/v/and/t/, and the rimes correspond to the spelling patterns ‘al’, ‘en’, and ‘ine’. A 6-year-old might have difficulty in recognizing that plea and pray begin with the same initial sound. This is a phonemic judgment. Although the initial phoneme /P/ is shared between the two words, in plea it is part of the onset ‘pl’, and in pray it is part of the onset ‘pr’. Until children can segment the onset (or the rime), such phonemic judgments are difficult for them to make. In fact, a recent survey of different developmental studies has shown that the different levels of phonological awareness appear to emerge sequentially. The awareness of syllables, onsets, and rimes appears to emerge at around the ages of 3 and 4, long before most children go to school. The awareness of phonemes, on the other hand, usually emerges at around the age of 5 or 6, when children have been taught to read for about a year. An awareness of onsets and rimes thus appears to be a precursor of reading, whereas an awareness of phonemes at every serial position in a word, only appears to develop as reading is taught. The onset-rime and phonemic levels of phonological structure, however, are not distinct. Many onsets in English are single phonemes, and so are some rimes (e.g., sea, go, zoo). The early availability of onsets and rimes is supported by studies that have compared the development of phonological awareness of onsets, rimes, and phonemes in the same subjects using the same phonological awareness tasks. For example, a study by Treiman and Zudowski used a same/different judgment task based on the beginning or the end sounds of words. In the beginning sound task, the words either began with the same onset, as in plea and plank, or shared only the initial phoneme, as in plea and pray. In the end sound task, the words either shared the entire rime, as in spit and wit, or shared only the final phoneme, as in rat and wit. Treiman and Zudowski showed that 4-and 5-year old children found the onset-rime version of the same/different task significantly easier than the version based on phonemes. Only the 6-year old, who had been learning to read for about a year, were able to perform both versions of the tasks with equal levels of success. 1.From the following statements, pick out the true statement according to the passage: (a)A mono-syllabic word can have only one onset. (b)A mono-syllabic word can have only one rhyme but more than one rime. (c)A mono-syllabic word can have only one phoneme. (d)All of the above. 2.Which one of the following is likely to emerge last in the cognitive development of a child? 1.Rhyme 2.Rime 3.Onset 4.Phoneme. 3.A phonological deficit in which of the following is likely to be classified as dyslexia? (a)Phonemic judgment (b)Onset judgment. (c)Rime judgment (d)Any one or more of the above. 4.The Treiman and Zudowski experiment found evidence to support the following: (a)at age 6, reading instruction helps children perform both, the same-different judgment task. (b)the development of onset-rime awareness precedes the development of an awareness of phonemes. (c)at age 4–5, children find the onset-rime version of the same/different task significantly easier. (d)the development of onset-time awareness is a necessary and sufficient condition for the development of an awareness of phonemes.  5. Art Have you ever come across a painting, by Picasso, Mondrain, Miro, or any other modern abstract painter of this century, and found yourself engulfed in a brightly coloured canvas, which your senses cannot interpret? Many people would tend to denounce abstractionism as senseless trash. These people are disoriented by Miro’s bright, fanciful creatures and two-dimensional canvases. They click their tongues and shake their heads at Mondrain’s grid works, declaring the poor guy played too many scrabble games. They silently shake their heads in sympathy for Picasso; whose gruesome, distorted figures must be a reflection of his mental health. Then, standing in front of a work by Charlie Russell, the famous Western artist, they’ll declare it a work of God. People feel more comfortable with something they can relate to and understand immediately without too much thought. This is the case with the work of Charlie Russell. Being able to recognize the elements in his paintings—trees, horses and cowboys—gives people a safety line to their world of “reality”. There are some who would disagree when I say abstract art requires more creativity and artistic talent to produce a good piece than does representational art, but there are many weaknesses in their arguments. People who look down on abstract art have several major arguments to support their beliefs. They feel that artists turn abstract because they are not capable of the technical drafting skills that appear in a Russell; therefore, such artists create an art form that anyone is capable of and that is less time consuming, and then parade it as artistic progress. Secondly, they feel that the purpose of art is to create something of beauty in an orderly, logical composition. Russell’s compositions are balanced and rational; everything sits calmly on the canvas, leaving the viewer satisfied that he has seen all there is to see. The modern abstractionists, on the other hand, seem to compose their pieces irrationally. For example, upon seeing Picasso’s Guernica, a friend of mine asked me. “What’s the point?” Finally, many people feel that art should portray the ideal and real. The exactness of detail in Charlie Russell’s work is an example of this. He has been called a great historian because his pieces depict the life style, dress, and events of the times. His subject matter is derived from his own experiences on the trail, reproduced to the smallest detail. I agree in part with many of these arguments, and at one time, even endorsed them. But now, I believe differently. Firstly, I object to the argument that abstract artists are not capable of drafting. Many abstract artists, such as Picasso, are excellent draftsmen. As his work matured, Picasso became more abstract in order to increase the expressive quality of his work. Guernica was meant as a protest against the bombing of that city by the Germans. To express the terror and suffering of the victims more vividly, he distorted the figures and presented them in a black and white journalistic manner. If he had used representational images and colour, much of the emotional content would have been lost and the piece would not have caused the demand for justice that it did. Secondly, I do not think that a piece must be logical and aesthetically pleasing to be art. The message it conveys to its viewers is more important. It should reflect the ideals and issues of its time and be true to itself, not just a flowery, glossy surface. For example, through his work, Mondrain was trying to present a system of simplicity, logic and rational order. As a result, his pieces did end up looking like a scrabble board. Miro created powerful, surrealistic images from his dreams and subconscious. These artists were trying to evoke a response from society through an expressionistic manner. Finally, abstract artists and representational artists maintain different ideas about ‘reality’. To the abstract artist, reality is what he feels about what his eyes see. This is the reality he interprets on canvas. This can be illustrated by Mondrain’s Trees series. You can actually see the progression from the early recognizable, though abstracted, Trees, to his final solution, the grid system. A cycle of abstract and representational art began with the first scratching of prehistoric man. From the abstractions of ancient Egypt to representational, classical Rome, returning to abstractionism in early Christian art and so up to the present day, the cycle has been going on. But this day and age may witness its death through the camera. With film, there is no need to produce finely detailed, historical records manually; the camera does this for us more efficiently. May be, representational art would cease to exist. With abstractionism as the victor of the first battle, may be a different kind of cycle will be touched off. Possibly, some time in the distant future, thousands of years from now, art itself will be physically non-existent. Some artists today believe that once they have planned and constructed a piece in their mind, there is no sense in finishing it with their hands; it has already been done and can never be duplicated. 1.The author argues that many people look down upon abstract art because they feel that: (a)Modern abstract art does not portray what is ideal and real. (b)Abstract artists are unskilled in matters of technical drafting. (c)Abstractionists compose irrationally. (d)All of the above. 2.The author believes that people feel comfortable with representational art because: (a)they are not engulfed in brightly colored canvases. (b)they do not have to click their tongues and shake their heads in sympathy. (c)they understand the art without having to put too much strain on their minds. (d)Paintings like Guernica do not have a point. 3.In the author’s opinion, Picasso’s Guernica created a strong demand for justice since (a)it was a protest against the German bombing of Guernica. (b)Picasso managed to express the emotional content well with his abstract depiction. (c)it depicts the terror and suffering of the victims in a distorted manner. (d)it was a mature work of Picasso’s, painted when the artist’s drafting skills were excellent. 4.The author acknowledges that Mondrain’s pieces may have ended up looking like a scrabble board because: (a)many people declared the poor guy played too many scrabble games. (b)Mondrain believed in the ‘grid-work’ approach to abstractionist painting. (c)Mondrain was trying to convey the message of simplicity and rational order. (d)Mondrain learned from his Trees series to evolve a grid system. 5.The main difference between the abstract artist and the representational artist in matters of the ‘ideal’ and the ‘real’ according to the author is: (a)how each chooses to deal with ‘reality’ on his or her canvas. (b)the superiority of interpretation of reality over reproduction of reality. (c)the different values attached by each to being a historian. (d)the varying levels of drafting skills and logical thinking abilities 6. Nation state Since World War II, the nation-state has been regarded with approval by every political system and every ideology. In the name of modernization in the West, of socialism in the Eastern bloc, and of development in the Third World, it was expected to guarantee the happiness of individuals as citizens and of peoples as societies. However, the state today appears to have broken down in many parts of the world. It has failed to guarantee either security or social justice, and has been unable to prevent either international wars or civil wars. Disturbed by the claims of communities within it, the nation-state tries to repress their demands and to proclaim itself as the only guarantor of security of all. In the name of national unity, territorial integrity, equality of all its citizens and non-partisan secularism, the state can use its powerful resources to reject the demands of the communities; it may even go so far as genocide to ensure that order prevails. As one observes the awakening of communities in different parts of the world, one cannot ignore the context in which identity issues arise. It is no longer a context of sealed frontiers and isolated regions, but is one of integrated global systems. In a reaction to this trend towards globalisation, individuals and communities everywhere are voicing their desire to exist, to use their power of creation and to play an active part in national and international life. There are two ways in which the current upsurge in demands for the recognition of identities can be looked at. On the positive side, the efforts by certain population groups to assert their identity can be regarded as “liberation movements”, challenging oppression and injustice. What these groups are doing—proclaiming that they are different, rediscovering the roots of their culture or strengthening group solidarity—may accordingly be seen as legitimate attempts to escape from their state of subjugation and enjoy a certain measure of dignity. On the downside, however, militant action for recognition tends to make such groups more deeply entrenched in their attitude and to make their cultural compartments even more watertight. The assertion of identity then starts turning into self-absorption and isolation, and is liable to slide into intolerance of others and towards ideas of “ethnic cleansing”, xenophobia and violence. Whereas continuous variations among peoples prevent drawing of clear dividing lines between the groups, those militating for recognition of their group’s identity arbitrarily choose a limited number of criteria such as religion, language, skin colour; and place or origin so that their members recognise themselves primarily in terms of the labels attached to the group whose existence is being asserted. This distinction between the group in question and other groups is established by simplifying the feature selected. Simplification also works by transforming groups into essences, abstractions endowed with the capacity to remain unchanged through time. In some cases, people actually act as though the group has remained unchanged and talk, for example, about the history of nations and communities as if these entities survived for centuries without changing, with the same ways of acting and thinking, the same desires, anxieties, and aspirations. Paradoxically, precisely because identity represents a simplifying fiction, creating uniform groups out of disparate people, that identity performs a cognitive function. It enables us to put names to ourselves and others, form some idea of who we are and who others are, and ascertain the place we occupy along with the others in the world and society. The current upsurge to assert the identity of groups can thus be partly explained by the cognitive function performed by identity. However, that said, people would not go along as they do, often in large numbers, with the propositions put to them, in spite of the sacrifices they entail, if there was not a very strong feeling of need for identity, a need to take stock of things and know who we are where we come from and where we are going. Identity is thus a necessity in a constantly changing world, but it can also be a potent source of violence and disruption. How can these two contradictory aspects of identity be reconciled? First, we must bear the arbitrary nature of identity categories in mind, not with a view to eliminating all forms of identification—which would be unrealistic since identity is a cognitive necessity—but simply to remind ourselves that each of us has several identities at the same time. Second, since tears of nostalgia are being shed over the past, we recognize that culture is constantly being recreated by cobbling together fresh and original elements and counter-cultures. There are in our own country, a large number of syncretic cults wherein modern elements are blended with traditional values or people of different communities venerate saints or divinities of particular faiths. Such cults and movements are characterized by a continual inflow and outflow of members which prevent them from taking on a self-perpetuating existence of their own and hold out hope for the future, indeed perhaps for the only possible future. Finally, the nation-state must respond to the identity urges of its constituent communities and to their legitimate quest for security and social justice. It must do so by inventing what the French philosopher and sociologist, Raymond Aron, called peace through law. That would guarantee justice both to the state as a whole and its parts, and respect the claims of both reason and emotions. The problem is one of reconciling nationalist demands with the exercise of democracy. 1.According to the author, happiness of individuals was expected to be guaranteed in the name of: (a)Development in the Third World. (b)Socialism in the Third World. (c)Development in the West. (d)Modernisation in the Eastern Bloc. 2.Demands for recognition of identities can be viewed: (a)positively and negatively. (b)as liberation movements and militant action. (c)as efforts to rediscover cultural roots which can slide towards intolerance of others. (d)All of the above. 3.Going by the author’s exposition of the nature of identity, which of the following statements is untrue? (a)Identity represents creating uniform groups out of disparate people. (b)Identity is a necessity in the changing world. (c)Identity is a cognitive necessity. (d)None of the above. 4.According to the author, the nation-state (a)has fulfilled its potential. (b)is willing to do anything to preserve order. (c)generates security for all its citizens. (d)has been a major force in preventing civil and international wars. 5.Which of the following views of the nation-state cannot be attributed to the author? (a)It has not guaranteed peace and security. (b)It may go as far as genocide for self-preservation. (c)It represents the demands of communities within it. (d)It is unable to prevent international wars. 7. Magnetic chips In a modern computer, electronic and magnetic storage technologies play complementary roles. Electronic memory chips are fast but volatile (their contents are lost when the computer is unplugged). Magnetic tapes and hard disks are slower; but have the advantage that they are non-volatile, so that they can be used to store software and documents even when the power is off. In laboratories around the world, however; researchers are hoping to achieve the best of both worlds. They are trying to build magnetic memory chips that could be used in place of today’s electronic ones. These magnetic memories would be non-volatile; but they would also be faster, would consume less power, and would be able to stand up to hazardous environments more easily. Such chips would have obvious applications in storage cards for digital cameras and music-players; they would enable handheld and laptop computers to boot up more quickly and to operate for longer; they would allow desktop computers to run faster; they would doubtless have military and space-faring advantages too. But although the theory behind them looks solid, there are tricky practical problems that need to be overcome. Two different approaches, based on different magnetic phenomena are being pursued. The first, being investigated by Gary Prinz and his colleagues at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) in Washington, D.C., exploits the fact that the electrical resistance of some materials changes in the presence of a magnetic field—a phenomenon known as magneto-resistance. For some multi- layered materials this effect is particularly powerful and is, accordingly, called “giant” magneto-resistance (GMR). Since 1997, the exploitation of GMR has made cheap multi-gigabyte hard disks commonplace. The magnetic orientations of the magnetized spots on the surface of a spinning disk are detected by measuring the changes they induce in the resistance of a tiny sensor. This technique is so sensitive that it means the spots can be made smaller and packed closer together than was previously possible, thus increasing the capacity and reducing the size and cost of a disk drive. Dr. Prinz and his colleagues are now exploiting the same phenomenon on the surface of memory chips, rather than spinning disks. In a conventional memory chip, each binary digit (bit) of data is represented using a capacitor—reservoir of electrical charge that is either empty or full—to represent a zero or a one. In the NRL’s magnetic design, by contrast, each bit is stored in a magnetic element in the form of a vertical pillar of magnetized material, either clockwise or anticlockwise to represent zero or one. Another set of wires allows current to pass through any particular element. By measuring an element’s resistance you can determine its magnetic orientation, and hence, whether it is storing a zero or a one. Since the elements retain their magnetic orientation even when the power is off, the result is nonvolatile memory. Unlike the elements of an electronic memory, a magnetic memory’s elements are not easily disrupted by radiation. And compared with electronic memories, whose capacitors need constant topping up, magnetic memories are simpler and consume less power. The NRL researchers plan to commercialise their device through a company called Non- Volatile Electronics, which recently began work on the necessary processing and fabrication techniques. But it will be some years before the first chips toll off the production line. Most attention in the field is focused on an alternative approach based on magnetic tunnel-junctions (MTJs), which are being investigated by researchers at chipmakers such as IBM, Motorola, Siemens and Hewlett-Packard. IBM’s research team, led by Stuart Parkin, has already created a 500-element working prototype that operates at 20 times the speed of conventional memory chips and consumes 1% of the power: Each element consists of a sandwich of two layers of magnetable material separated by a barrier of aluminum oxide just four or five atoms thick. The polarization of lower magnetable layer is fixed in one direction, but that of the upper layer can be set (again by passing a current through a matrix of control wires) either to the left or to the right, to store a zero or a one. The polarizations of the two layers are then in either the same or opposite directions. Although the aluminium-oxide barrier is an electrical insulator, it is so thin that electrons are able to jump across it via a quantum- mechanical effect called tunneling. It turns out that such tunneling is easier when the two magnetic layers are polarized in the same direction than when they are polarized in opposite directions, so, by measuring the current that flows through the sandwich, it is possible to determine the alignment of the topmost layer; and hence, whether it is storing a zero or a one. To build a full-scale memory chip based on MTJs is, however, no easy matter. According to Paulo Freitas, an expert on chip manufacturing at the Technical University of Lisbon, magnetic memory elements will have to become far smaller and more reliable than current prototypes if they are to compete with electronic memory. At the same time, they will have to be sensitive enough to respond when the appropriate wires in the control matrix are switched on, but not so sensitive that they respond when a neighboring element is changed. Despite these difficulties, the general consensus is that MTJs are the more promising ideas. Dr. Parkin says his group evaluated the GMR approach and decided not to pursue it, despite the fact that IBM pioneered GMR in hard disks. Dr. Prinz, however, contends that his plan will eventually offer higher storage densities and lower production costs. Not content with shaking up the multi-billion-dollar market for computer memory, some researchers have even more ambitious plans for magnetic computing. In a paper published last month in science, Russell Cowburn and Mark Welland of Cambridge University outlined research that could form the basis of a magnetic microprocessor—a chip capable of manipulating (rather than merely storing) information magnetically. In place of conducting wires, a magnetic processor would have rows of magnetic dots, each of which could be polarized in one of two directions. Individual bits of information would travel down the rows as magnetic pulses, changing the orientation of the dots as they went. Dr. Cowhurn and Dr. Welland have demonstrated how a logic gate (the basic element of a microprocessor) could work in such a scheme. In their experiment, they fed a signal in at one end of the chain of dots and used a second signal to control whether it propagated along the chain. It is, admittedly, a long way from a single logic gate to a full microprocessor, but this was true also when the transistor was first invented. Dr. Cowburn, who is now searching for backers to help commercialise the technology, says he believes it will be at least ten years before the first magnetic microprocessor is constructed. But other researchers in the field agree that such a chip is the next logical step. Dr. Prinz says that once magnetic memory is sorted out “the target is to go after the logic circuits.” Whether all magnetic computers will ever be able to compete with other contenders that are jostling to knock electronics off its perch—such as optical, biological and quantum computing— remains to be seen. Dr. Cowburn suggests that the future lies with hybrid machines that use different technologies. But computing with magnetism evidently has an attraction all its own. 1.In developing magnetic memory chips to replace the electronic ones, two alternative research paths are being pursued. These are approaches based on: (a)Volatile and non-volatile memories. (b)Magneto-resistance and magnetic tunnel junctions. (c)Radiation-disruption and radiation-neutral effects. (d)Orientation of magnetised spots on the surface of a spinning disk and alignment of magnetic dots on the surface of a conventional memory chip. 2.A binary digit or bit is represented in the magneto-resistance based magnetic chip using (a)a layer of aluminium oxide. (b)a capacitor. (c)a vertical pillar of magnetised material. (d)a matrix of wires. 3.In the magnetic tunnel-junctions (MTJs), tunneling is easier when: (a)two magnetic layers are polarised in the same direction. (b)two magnetic layers are polorised in the opposite directions. (c)two aluminium-oxide barriers are polarized in the same direction. (d)two aluminium-oxide barriers are polarized in opposite directions. 4.A major barrier on the way to build a full-scale memory chip based on MTJs is: (a)The low sensitivity of the magnetic memory elements. (b)The thickness of aluminium oxide barriers. (c)The need to develop more reliable and far smaller magnetic memory chips. (d)All of the above. 5.In the MTJs approach, it is possible to identify whether the topmost layer of the magnetised memory elements is storing a zero or one by: (a)Measuring an element’s resistance and thus determining its magnetic orientation. (b)Measuring the degree of disruption caused by radiation in the elements of the magnetic memory. (c)Magnetising the elements either clockwise or anti-clockwise. (d)Measuring the current that flows through the sandwich. 6.A line of research which is trying to build a magnetic chip that can both store and manipulate information, is being pursued by: (a)Paul Freitas. (b)Stuart Parkin. (c)Gary Prinz. (d)None of the above. 7.Experimental research currently underway, using rows of magnetic dots, each of which could be polarized in one of the two directions, has led to the demonstration of: (a)Working of a microprocessor. (b)Working of a logic gate. (c)Working of a magneto-resistance based chip. (d)Working of a magneto tunneling-junction (MTJs) based chip. 8.From the passage, which of the following cannot be inferred? (a)Electronic memory chips are faster and non-volatile. (b)Electronic and magnetic storage technologies play a complementary role. (c)MTJs are the more promising idea, compared to the magneto- resistance approach. (d)Non-volatile Electronics is the company set up to commercialise the GMR chips. 8. Emile Durkheim Emile Durkheim, the first person to be formally recognized as a sociologist and the most scientific of the pioneers, conducted a study that stands as a research model for sociologists today. His investigation of suicide was, in fact, the first sociological study to use statistics. In ‘Suicide’ (1964, originally published in 1897) Durkheim documented his contention that some aspects of human behaviour—even something as allegedly individualistic as suicide—can be explained without reference to individuals. Like all of Durkheim’s work, suicide must be viewed within the context of his concern for social integration. Durkheim wanted to see if suicide rates within a social entity (for example a group, organization, or society) are related to the degree to which individuals are socially involved (integrated and regulated). Durkheim described three types of suicide; egoistic, anomic, and altruistic. Egoistic suicide is promoted when individuals do not have sufficient social ties. Since single (never married) adults, for example, are not heavily involved with family life, they are more likely to commit suicide than are married adults. Altruistic suicide on the other hand, is more likely to occur when social integration is too strong. The ritual suicide of Hindu widows on their husband’s funeral pyres is one example. Military personnel, trained to lay down their lives for their country, provide another illustration. Durkheim’s third type of suicide—anomic suicide—increases when the social regulation of individuals is disrupted. For example, suicide rates increase during economic depressions. People who suddenly find themselves without a job or without hope of finding one are more prone to kill themselves. Suicides may also increase during periods of prosperity. People may loosen their social ties by taking new jobs, moving to new communities, or finding new mates. Using data from the government population reports of several countries (much of it from the French Government Statistical Office), Durkheim found strong support for his line of reasoning. Suicide rates were higher among single than married people, among military personnel than civilians, among divorced than married people, and among people involved in nationwide economic crises. It is important to realize that Durkheim’s primary interest was not in the empirical (observable) indicators he used such as suicide rates among military personnel, married people and so forth. Rather, Durkheim used the following indicators to support several of his contentions: (1) social behaviour can be explained by social rather than psychological factors: (2) suicide is affected by the degree of integration and regulation within social entities; and (3) since society can be studied scientifically, sociology is worthy of recognition in the academic world. Durkheim was successful on all three counts. 1.In his study of suicide, Durkheim’s main purpose was: (a)to document that suicide can be explained without reference to the individual. (b)to provide an explanation of the variation in the rate of suicide across societies. (c)to categorise various types of suicides. (d)to document that social behaviour can be explained by social rather than psychological factors. 2.According to Durkheim, suicide rates within a social entity can be explained in terms of: (a)absence of social ties. (b)disruption of social regulation. (c)nature of social integration. (d)all of the above. 3.Since single adults are not heavily involved with family life they are more likely to commit suicide, which Durkheim categorized as: (a)anomic suicide. (b)altruistic suicide. (c)egoistic suicide. (d)(b) and (c). 4.Higher suicide rates during rapid progress in a society is a manifestation of: (a)altruistic suicide. (b)anomic suicide. (c)egoistic suicide. (d)None of the above. 5.Ritual suicide of Hindu widows on their husband’s funeral pyres was: (a)a manifestation of strong social integration. (b)an example of brutality against women. (c)an example of anomic suicide. (d)an example of egoistic suicide. 6Increase in the suicide rate during economic depression is an example of (a)altruistic suicide. (b)anomic suicide. (c)egoistic suicide. (d)both (a) and (c). 7.According to Durkheim, altruistic suicide is more likely among: (a)military personnel than among civilians. (b)single people than among married people. (c)divorcees than among married people. (d)people involved in nationwide economic crises. 8.To support his contentions, Durkheim relied on the following indicators: (a)Social behaviour is explicable predominantly through social factors. (b)Suicide is contingent upon the degree of regulation and interaction. (c)Recognising sociology to acknowledge that society is susceptible to scientific investigation. (d)All of the above. 9.Basing himself on his own indicators, Durkheim was: (a)Right on some counts, not others. (b)Vindicated on all counts. (c)Wrong but did not realize that he was right. (d)Substantially correct but formally wrong. 9. Words Every lover of words knows that these little symbolic units of meaning can be as contradictory as subatomic particles sometimes are. This may well be nature’s quixotic way of laughing at our desperate need to explain everything. It gives us a full stop, but watches helplessly, as we expand it into three dots and continue to search. Although the measurement of the velocity of sub-atomic particles precludes the measurement of their position and vice versa, it hasn’t stopped nuclear physicists from trying from searching, from attempting to pin down, to explain. And it is important. In a book on quantum physics called ‘In search of Schrodinger’s Cat’, John Gribbin says something very fascinating. If a mythical god with a magical pair of infinitesimally small pliers started the task of removing one atom from a molecule of hydrogen (if I remember correctly) every second from the time of the Big Bang… today, it would take another million years for him or her to complete the task. Phew! But it is still important to try. Why? If everything is so small and the now proved quantum world is essentially indefinable, why do we go on trying to define? Because we must. It is as important to be rigorous and empirical as to accept the indefinable. Lest we forget, it is through absorption in the act of definition that we first encountered the indefinable. And it is still found there more easily than anywhere else. But for the effort to define, how would we find the indefinable? But for the setting of limits, would the notion of the limitless have ever arisen? Didn’t William Blake once remind us that we never know what is enough; unless we have known what is more than enough. So, when we analyse words, they are paradoxical, as anything self-referential is. Whether it is the language of mathematics or the language of words, self reference engenders paradox. But one wonders why this is a cause of concern for some people, who would prefer no shades of grey. Paradox is delightful. It is a rich and fertile ground that nourishes and nurtures what we want to communicate, which often has a nasty habit of falling in between any two given words available to describe it. Words are very close to what Planck called “quanta” though they are not literally packets of meaning; they are the paradoxical verbal equivalent, receptacles of meaning. Little drawers if you like, into which we can insert fresh meanings that expand, limit or even contradict the accepted meaning of the word or phrase. When we say, I’ll believe you! For instance, we mean the exact opposite. As, indeed, when we say something is ‘bad’ in Black American language, because it means, good. The original meaning of the word is like a reference point on a matrix. Good, if we use its definition as a working hypothesis. But very dangerous, if we take it as a full and final, irrevocable statement of what it sets out to describe. Why, one may ask, give the word a meaning at all, if accepting it is suspect? And why embark on the act of definition at all if the result of the definition is insignificant? Like many wonderful and rewarding things in this mysterious world, it is not either/or but and/plus. It is like asking why we learnt to crawl, if all we are going to do is unlearning it to walk? And further, when on occasion, we are required to crawl in later life, are we regressing? Learning is a process, not a thing. If we must look at it as a thing, we must look at it as lying-sitting-standing-crawling-walking- running. To define words, and define them exactly, is very important at the outset. When one is learning a language and even through the process of getting familiar with it, definitions and boundaries are crucial, just as following a broad road to a place is critical before we know our way there. Once we do, the rules aren’t important; once we have found a dozen shorter or pleasanter ways to the place, the highway may be of little use to us. Like a protective cage around a little sapling, definitions protect us in our fledgling days, from the predators of license and ambiguity. And they are important. In its place, everything is important. Once we have a certain command of the language, however, rules are meant to be broken. Particularly, if we are riding the crazy roller coaster of the English language. It is then what we thought was a packet turns out to be a receptacle. In the clearer light of day, when there is less confusion and obscurity, what appeared to be a serpent in the dusty light, is now quite clearly a rope. In Alice in Wonderland, Humpty-Dumpty says it quite brilliantly: “I don’t know what you mean by ‘glory’”, Alice said. Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously. “Of course you don’t—till I tell you. I meant there’s a nice knock- down argument for you!” “But ‘glory’ doesn’t mean a nice knock-down argument” Alice objected. “When I use a word”, Humpty Dumpty said, in a rather sorrowful tone, “it means just what I choose it to mean—neither more not less.” “The question is”, said Alice, “whether you can make words mean so many different things.” “The question is”, said Humpty Dumpty, “Which is to be the master—that’s all.” Be that as it may, a word in your ear before the words stop. Can you ever have a nice knock-down argument? 1.According to the passage: (a)Anything delightful is paradoxical. (b)Anything self-referential is paradoxical. (c)Anything in shades of grey is paradoxical. (d)Anything in a rich and fertile ground is paradoxical. 2.From the passage, it can be inferred that: (a)To understand a system, we should investigate within its boundaries. (b)To understand a system, we should investigate beyond its boundaries. (c)To understand a system, we should be rigorous and empirical. (d)To understand a system, we should investigate both within and beyond its boundaries. 3.According to Humpty Dumpty: (a)Alice does not know what ‘glory’ means. (b)He is Alice’s master. (c)He imparts to a word the meaning he intends. (d)His words are ambiguous. 4.According to the passage: (a)When some people say ‘bad’, they mean the opposite. (b)God will complete the removal of all atoms from the hydrogen molecule in a million years. (c)One can simultaneously measure both the velocity and position of sub-atomic particles. (d)Planck called words ‘quanta’. 10. Malnutrition Throughout human, history the leading causes of death have been infection and trauma. Modern medicine has scored significant victories against both, and the major causes of ill health and death are now the chronic degenerative diseases, such as coronary artery disease, arthritis, osteoporosis, Alzheimer’s, macular degeneration, cataract and cancer. These have a long latency period before symptoms appear and a diagnosis is made. It follows that the majority of apparently healthy people are pre-ill. But are these conditions inevitably degenerative? A truly preventive medicine that focused on the pre-ill, analyzing the metabolic errors which lead to clinical illness, might be able to correct them before the first symptom. Genetic risk factors are known for all the chronic degenerative diseases, and are important to the individuals who possess them. At the population level, however, migration studies confirm that these illnesses are linked for the most part, to lifestyle factors—exercise, smoking and nutrition. Nutrition is the easiest of these to change, and the most versatile tool for affecting the metabolic changes needed to tilt the balance away from disease. Many national surveys reveal that malnutrition is common in developed countries. This is not the calorie and/or micronutrient deficiency associated with developing nations (Type A malnutrition); but multiple micronutrient depletion, usually combined with calorific balance or excess (Type B malnutrition). The incidence and severity of Type B malnutrition will be shown to be worse if newer micronutrient groups such as the essential fatty acids, xanthophylls and flavonoids are included in the surveys. Commonly ingested levels of these micronutrients seem to be far too low in many developed countries. There is now considerable evidence that Type B malnutrition is a major cause of chronic degenerative diseases. If this is the case, then it is logical to treat such diseases not with drugs but with multiple micronutrient repletion, or ‘pharmaco-nutrition’. This can take the form of pills and ‘capsules-nutraceuticals’, or food formats known as ‘functional foods’. This approach has been neglected hitherto because it is relatively unprofitable for drug’ companies—the products are hard to patent—and it is a strategy which does not sit easily with modern medical interventionism. Over the last 100 years, the drug industry has invested huge sums in developing a range of subtle and powerful drugs to treat the many diseases we are subject to. Medical training is couched in pharmaceutical terms and this approach has provided us with an exceptional range of therapeutic tools in the treatment of disease and in acute medical emergencies. However, the pharmaceutical model has also created an unhealthy dependency culture, in which relatively few of us accept responsibility for maintaining our own health. Instead, we have handed over this responsibility to health professionals who know very little about health maintenance, or disease prevention. One problem for supporters of this argument is lack of the right kind of hard evidence. We have a wealth of epidemiological data linking dietary factors to health profiles/disease risks and a great deal of information on mechanism: how food factors interact with our biochemistry. But almost all intervention studies with micronutrients, with the notable exception of the omega 3 fatty acids, have so far produced conflicting or negative results. In other words, our science appears to have no predictive value. Does this invalidate the science? Or are we simply asking the wrong questions? Based on pharmaceutical thinking, most intervention studies have attempted to measure the impact of a single micronutrient on the incidence of disease. The classical approach says that if you give a compound formula to test, subjects and obtain positive results, you cannot know which ingredient is exerting the benefit, so you must test each ingredient individually. But in the field of nutrition, this does not work. Each intervention on its own will hardly make enough difference to be measured. The best therapeutic response must therefore combine micronutrients to normalize our internal physiology. So, do we need to analyse each individual’s nutritional status and then tailor a formula specifically for him or her? While we do not have the resources to analyse millions of individual cases, there is no need to do so. The vast majority of people are consuming suboptimal amounts of most micronutrients, and most of the micronutrients concerned are very safe. Accordingly, a comprehensive and universal program of micronutrient support is probably the most cost- effective and safest way of improving the general health of the nation. 1.Type-B malnutrition is a serious concern in developed countries because (a)developing countries mainly suffer from Type-A malnutrition. (b)it is a major contributor to illness and death. (c)pharmaceutical companies are not producing drugs to treat this condition. (d)national surveys on malnutrition do not include newer micronutrient groups. 2.Why are a large number of apparently healthy people deemed pre-ill? (a)They may have chronic degenerative diseases. (b)They do not know their own genetic risk factors which predispose them to diseases. (c)They suffer from Type-B malnutrition. (d)There is a lengthy latency period associated with chronically degenerative diseases. 3.The author recommends micronutrient-repletion for large-scale treatment of chronic degenerative diseases because (a)it is relatively easy to manage. (b)micronutrient deficiency is the cause of these diseases. (c)it can overcome genetic risk factors. (d)it can compensate for other lifestyle factors. 4.Tailoring micronutrient-based treatment plans to suit individual deficiency profiles is not necessary because (a)it very likely to give inconsistent or negative results. (b)it is a classic pharmaceutical approach not suited to micronutrients. (c)most people are consuming suboptimal amounts of safe-to- consume micronutrients. (d)it is not cost effective to do so. 11. Abortion There are a seemingly endless variety of laws, restrictions, customs and traditions that affect the practice of abortion around the world. Globally, abortion is probably the single most controversial issue in the whole area of women’s rights and family matters. It is an issue that inflames women’s right groups, religious institutions, and the self-proclaimed “guardians” of public morality. The growing worldwide belief is that the right to control one’s fertility is a basic human right. This has resulted in a worldwide trend towards liberalization of abortion laws. Forty percent of the world’s population live in countries where induced abortion is permitted on request. An additional 25 percent live in countries where it is allowed if the women’s life would be endangered if she went to full term with her pregnancy. The estimate is that between 26 and 31 million legal abortions were performed in 1987. However, there were also between 10 and 22 million illegal abortions performed in that year. Feminists have viewed the patriarchal control of women’s bodies as one of the prime issues facing the contemporary women’s movement. They observe that the definition and control of women’s reproductive freedom have always been the province of men. Patriarchal religion, as manifest in Islamic fundamentalism, traditionalist Hindu practice, orthodox Judaism, and Roman Catholicism, has been an important historical contributory factor for this and continues to be an important presence in contemporary societies. In recent times, governments, usually controlled by men, have “given” women the right to contraceptive use and abortion access when their countries were perceived to have an overpopulation problem. When these countries are perceived to be underpopulated, that right has been absent. Until the nineteenth century, a woman’s rights to an abortion followed English common law; it could only be legally challenged if there was a “quickening”, when the first movements of the foetus could be felt. In 1800, drugs to induce abortions were widely advertised in local newspapers. By 1900, abortion was banned in every state except to save the life of the mother. The change was strongly influenced by the medical profession, which focussed its campaign ostensibly on health and safety issues for pregnant women and the sanctity of life. Its position was also a means of control of non licensed medical practitioners such as midwives and women healers who practiced abortion. The anti-abortion campaign was also influenced by political considerations. The large influx of eastern and southern European immigrants with their large families was seen as a threat to the population balance of the future United States. Middle and upper class Protestants were advocates of abortion as a form of birth control. By supporting abortion prohibitions, the hope was that these Americans would have more children and thus, prevent the tide of immigrant babies from overwhelming the demographic characteristics of Protestant America. The anti-abortion legislative position remained in effect in the United States through the first sixty-five years of the twentieth century. In the early 1960s, even when it was widely known that the drug thalidomide taken during pregnancy to alleviate anxiety was shown to contribute to the formation of deformed “flipper- like” hands or legs of children, abortion was illegal in the United States. A second health tragedy was the severe outbreak of rubella during the same time period, which also resulted in major birth defects. These tragedies combined with a change of attitude towards a woman’s right to privacy lead a number of states to pass abortion-permitting legislation. On one side of the controversy are those who call themselves “pro-life”. They view the foetus as a human life rather than as an unformed complex of cells; therefore, they hold to the belief that abortion is essentially murder of an unborn child. These groups cite both legal and religious reasons for their opposition to abortion. Pro-lifers point to the rise in legalized abortion figures and see this as morally intolerable. On the other side of the issue are those who call themselves “pro-choice”. They believe that women, not legislators or judges, should have the right to decide whether and under what circumstances they will bear children. Pro-choicers are of the opinion that laws will not prevent women from having abortions and cite the horror stories of the past when many women died at the hands of “backroom” abortionists and in desperate attempts to self-abort. They also observe that legalized abortion is especially important for rape victims and incest victims who became pregnant. They stress physical and mental health reasons why women should not have unwanted children. To get a better understanding of the current abortion controversy, let us examine a very important work by Kristin Luker, titled Abortion and The Politics of Motherhood. Luker argues that female pro-choice and pro-life activists hold different world views regarding gender, sex, and the meaning of parenthood. Moral positions on abortions are seen to be tied intimately to views on sexual behaviour, the care of children, family life, technology, and the importance of the individual. Luker identifies “pro-choice” women as educated, affluent, and liberal. Their contrasting counterparts, “pro-life” women, support traditional concepts of women as wives and mothers. It would be instructive to sketch out the differences in the world views of these two sets of women. Luker examines California, with its liberalized abortion law, as a case history. Public documents and newspaper accounts over a twenty-year period were analyzed and over 200 interviews were held with both pro-life and pro-choice activists. Luker found that pro-life and pro-choice activists have intrinsically different views with respect to gender. Pro-life women have a notion of public and private life. The proper place for men is in the public sphere of work; for women, it is the private sphere of the home. Men benefit through the nurturance of women; women benefit through the protection of men. Children are seen to be the ultimate beneficiaries of this arrangement by having the mother as a full-time loving parent and by having clear role models. Pro-choice advocates reject the view of separate spheres. They object to the notion of the home being the “women’s sphere”. Women’s reproductive and family roles are seen as potential barriers to full equality. Motherhood is seen as a voluntary, not a mandatory or “natural” role. In summarizing her findings, Luker believes that women become activists in either of the two movements as the end result of lives that center around different conceptualizations of motherhood. Their beliefs and values are rooted to the concrete circumstances of their lives, their educations, incomes, occupations, and the different marital and family choices that they have made. They represent two different world views of women’s roles in contemporary society and as such, the abortion issue represents the battleground for the justification of their respective views. 1.According to your understanding of the author’s arguments, which countries are more likely to allow abortion? (a)India and China. (b)Australia and Mongolia. (c)Cannot be inferred from the passage. (d)Both (a) and (b). 2.Which amongst these was not a reason for banning of abortions by 1900? (a)Medical professionals stressing the health and safety of women. (b)Influx of eastern and southern European immigrants. (c)Control of unlicensed medical practitioners. (d)A tradition of matriarchal control. 3.A pro-life woman would advocate abortion if: (a)the mother of an unborn child is suicidal. (b)bearing a child conflicts with a woman’s career prospects. (b)the mother becomes pregnant accidentally. (c)none of the above. 4.Pro-choice women object to the notion of the home being the “women’s sphere” because they believe: (a)that the home is a “joint sphere” shared between men and women. (b)that reproduction is a matter of choice for women. (c)that men and women are equal. (d)both (b) and (c). 5.Two health tragedies affecting U.S. society in the 1960s led to: (a)a change in attitude to women’s right to privacy. (b)retaining the anti-abortion laws with some exceptions. (c)scrapping of anti-abortion laws. (d)strengthening of the pro-life lobby. 6.Historically, the pro-choice movement has got support from, among others,: (a)major patriarchal religions. (b)countries with low population density. (c)medical profession. (d)none of the above. 12. Philosophy The conceptions of life and the world which we call ‘philosophical’ are a product of two factors: one, inherited religious and ethical conceptions; the other, the sort of investigation which may be called ‘scientific’, using this word in its broadest sense. Individual philosophers have differed widely in regard to the proportions in which these two factors entered into their systems, but it is the presence of both, in some degree, that characterizes philosophy. ‘Philosophy’ is a word which has been used in many ways, some wider, some narrower. I propose to use it in a very wide sense, which I will now try to explain. Philosophy, as I shall understand the word, is something intermediate between theology and science. Like theology, it consists of speculations on matters as to which definite knowledge has, so far, been unascertainable; but like science, it appeals to human reason rather than to authority, whether that of tradition or that of revelation. All definite knowledge—so I should contend—belongs to science; all dogma as to what surpasses definite knowledge belongs to theology. But between theology and science, there is a ‘No Man’s Land’, exposed to attack from both sides; this ‘No Man’s Land’ is philosophy. Almost all the questions of most interest to speculative minds are such as science cannot answer, and the confident answers of theologians no longer seem so convincing as they did in former centuries. Is the world divided into mind and matter, and if so, what is mind and what is matter? Is mind subject to matter, or is it possessed of independent powers? Has the universe any unity or purpose? Is it evolving towards some goal? Are there really laws of nature, or do we believe in them only because of our innate love of order? Is man what he seems to the astronomer, a tiny lump of carbon and water impotently crawling on a small and unimportant planet? Or is he what he appears to Hamlet? Is he perhaps both at once? Is there a way of living that is noble and another that is base, or are all ways of living merely futile? If there is a way of living that is noble, in what does it consist, and how shall we achieve it? Must the good be eternal in order to deserve to be valued, or is it worth seeking even if the universe is inexorably moving towards death? Is there such a thing as wisdom, or is what seems such merely the ultimate refinement of folly? To such questions; no answer can be found in the laboratory. Theologies have professed to give answers, all too definite; but their definiteness causes modern minds to view them with suspicion. The studying of these questions, if not the answering of them, is the business of philosophy. Why, then, you may ask, waste time on such insoluble problems? To this, one may answer as a historian, or an individual facing the terror of cosmic loneliness. The answer of the historian, in so far as I am capable of giving it, will appear in the course of this work. Ever since men became capable of free speculation, their actions in innumerable important respects, have depended upon their theories as to the world and human life, as to what is good and what is evil. This is as true in the present day as at any former time. To understand an age or a nation, we must understand its philosophy, and to understand its philosophy, we must ourselves be in some degree philosophers. There is here a reciprocal causation: the circumstances of men’s lives do much to determine their philosophy, but, conversely, their philosophy does much to determine their circumstances. There is also, however, a more personal answer. Science tells us what we can know, but what we can know is little, and if we forget how much we cannot know, we may become insensitive to many things of very great importance. Theology, on the other hand, induces a dogmatic belief that we have knowledge, where in fact, we have ignorance, and by doing, so generates a kind of impertinent insolence towards the universe. Uncertainty, in the presence of vivid hopes and fears, is painful, but must be endured if we wish to live without the support of comforting fairy tales. It is not good either to forget the questions that philosophy asks, or to persuade ourselves that we have found indubitable answers to them. To teach how to live without certainty, and yet without being paralyzed by hesitation, is perhaps the chief thing that philosophy, in our age, can still do for those who study it. 1.The purpose of philosophy is to: (a)reduce uncertainty and chaos. (b)help us to cope with uncertainty and ambiguity. (c)help us to find explanations for uncertainty. (d)reduce the terror of cosmic loneliness. 2.Based on this passage, what can be concluded about the relation between philosophy and science? (a)The two are antagonistic. (b)The two are complementary. (c)There is no relation between the two. (d)Philosophy derives from science. 3.From reading the passage, what can be concluded about the profession of the author? He is most likely to be a: (a)historian. (b)philosopher. (c)scientist. (d)theologian. 4.According to the author, which of the following statements about the nature of the universe must be definitely true? (a)The universe has unity. (b)The universe has a purpose. (c)The universe is evolving towards a goal. (d)None of the above. 13. Genetic modification (GM) The controversy over genetically modified food continues unabated in the West. Genetic modification (GM) is the science by which the genetic material of a plant is altered, perhaps to make it more resistant to pests or killer weeds, or to enhance its nutritional value. Many food biotechnologists claim that GM will be a major contribution of science to mankind in the 21st century. On the other hand, large numbers of opponents, mainly in Europe claim that the benefits of GM are a myth propagated by multinational corporations to increase their profits, that they pose a health hazard, and have therefore, called for governments to ban the sale of genetically-modified food. The anti-GM campaign has been quite effective in Europe, with several European Union member countries imposing a virtual ban for five years over genetically modified food imports. Since the genetically-modified food industry is particularly strong in the United States of America, the controversy also constitutes another chapter in the US-Europe skirmishes which have become particularly acerbic after the US invasion of Iraq. To a large extent, the GM controversy has been ignored in the Indian media, although Indian biotechnologists have been quite active in GM research. Several groups of Indian biotechnologists have been working on various issues connected with crops grown in India. One concrete achievement, which has recently figured in the news is that of a team led by the former vice-chancellor of Jawaharlal Nehru University, Asis Datta––it has successfully added an extra gene to potatoes to enhance the protein content of the tuber by at least 30 percent. Not surprisingly, the new potato has been called the protato. The protato is now in its third year of field trials. It is quite likely that the GM controversy will soon hit the headlines in India since a spokesperson of the Indian Central government has recently announced that the government may use the protato in its midday meal programme for schools as early as next year. Why should ‘scientific progress”, with huge potential benefits to the poor and malnourished, be so controversial’? The anti-GM lobby contends that pernicious propaganda has vastly exaggerated the benefits of GM and completely evaded the costs which will have to be incurred if the genetically-modified food industry is allowed to grow unchecked. In particular, they allude to different types of costs. This group contends that the most important potential cost is that the widespread distribution and growth of genetically modified food will enable the corporate world (alias the multinational corporations—MNCs) completely capture the food chain. A “small” group of biotech companies will patent the transferred genes as well as the technology associated with them. They will then buy up the competing seed merchants and seed-breeding centres, thereby controlling the production of food at every possible level. Independent farmers, big and small, will be completely wiped out of the food industry. At best, they will be reduced to the status of being subcontractors. This line of argument goes on to claim that the control of the food chain will be disastrous for the poor since the MNCs , guided by the profit motive, will only focus on the high-value food items demanded by the affluent in the long run, the production of basic staples which constitute the food basket of the poor will taper. However, this vastly overestimates the power of the MNCs. Even if the research promoted by them does focus on the high-value food items, much of biotechnology research is also funded by governments in both developing and developed countries. Indeed, the protato is a by-product of this type of research. If the protato passes the field trials, there is no reason to believe that it cannot be marketed in the global potato market. And this type of success story can be repeated with other basic food items. The second type of cost associated with the genetically-modified food industry is environmental damage. The most common type of “genetic engineering” involves gene modification in plants designed to make them resistant to applications of weed-killers. This then enables farmers to use massive dosages of weed-killers so as to destroy or wipe out all competing varieties of plants in their fields. However, some weeds through genetically-modified pollen contamination, may acquire resistance to a variety of weed-killers. The only way to destroy these weeds is through the use of ever-stronger herbicides which are poisonous and linger on in the environment. 1.Using the clues in the passage, which of the following countries would you expect to be in the forefront of the anti-GM campaign? (a)USA and Spain (b)India and Iraq (c)Germany and France (d)Australia and New Zealand. 2.The author doubts the anti-GM lobby’s contention that MNC control of the food chain will be disastrous for the poor because (a)MNCs will focus on high-value food items. (b)MNCs are driven by the motive of profit maximization. (c)MNCs are not the only group of actors in genetically-modified food research. (d)economic development will help the poor buy MNC-produced food. 3.Which of the following about the Indian media’s coverage of scientific research does the passage seem to suggest? (a)Indian media generally covers a subject of scientific importance when its mass application is likely. (b)Indian media’s coverage of scientific research is generally dependent on MNCs’ interests. (c)Indian media, in partnership with the government, is actively involved in publicizing the results of scientific research. (d)Indian media only highlights scientific research which is funded by the government. 4.Genetic modification makes plants more resistant to killer weeds. However, this can lead to environ-menta1 damage by (a)wiping out competing varieties of plants which now fall prey to killer-weeds. (b)forcing application of stronger herbicides to kill weeds which have become resistant to weak herbicides. (c)forcing application of stronger herbicides to keep the competing plants weed-free. (d)not allowing growth of any weeds, thus reducing soil fertility. 5.According to the passage, biotechnology research: (a)Is of utility only for high value food items. (b)Is funded only by multinational corporations. (c)allows multinational corporations to control the food basket of the poor. (d)Addresses the concerns of rich and poor countries. 14. Modern science Modern science, exclusive of geometry, is a comparatively recent creation and can be said to have originated with Galileo and Newton. Galileo was the first scientist to recognize clearly that the only way to further our understanding of the physical world was to resort to experiment. However obvious Galileo’s contention may appear in the light of our present knowledge, it remains a fact that the Greeks, in spite of their proficiency in geometry, never seem to have realized the importance of experiment. To a certain extent, this may be attributed to the crudeness of their instruments of measurement. Still, an excuse of this sort can scarcely be put forward when the elementary nature of Galileo’s experiments and observations is recalled. Watching a lamp oscillate in the cathedral of Pisa, dropping bodies from the leaning tower of Pisa, rolling balls down inclined planes, noticing the magnifying effect of water in a spherical glass vase, such was the nature of Galileo’s experiments and observations. As can be seen, they might just as well have been performed by the Greeks. At any rate, it was thanks to such experiments that Galileo discovered the fundamental law of dynamics, according to which the acceleration imparted to a body is proportional to the force acting upon it. The next advance was due to Newton, the greatest scientist of all time if account be taken of his joint contributions to mathematics and physics. As a physicist, he was of course an ardent adherent of the empirical method, but his greatest title to fame lies in another direction. Prior to Newton, mathematics, chiefly in the form of geometry, had been studied as a fine art without any view to its physical applications, other than in very trivial cases. But with Newton, all the resources of mathematics were turned to advantage in the solution of physical problems. Thenceforth, mathematics appeared as an instrument of discovery, the most powerful one known to man, multiplying the power of thought just as in the mechanical domain, the lever multiplied our physical action. It is this application of mathematics to the solution of physical problems, this combination of two separate fields of investigation, which constitutes the essential characteristic of the Newtonian method. Thus, problems of physics were metamorphosed into problems of mathematics. But in Newton’s day, the mathematical instrument was still in a very backward state of development. In this field again, Newton showed the mark of genius by inventing the integral calculus. As a result of this remarkable discovery, problems, which would have baffled Archimedes, were solved with ease. We know that in Newton’s hands, this new departure in scientific method led to the discovery of the law of gravitation. But here again the real significance of Newton’s achievement lay not so much in the exact quantitative formulation of the law of attraction, as in his having established the presence of law and order at least in one important realm of nature, namely, in the motions of heavenly bodies. Nature thus exhibited rationality and was not mere blind chaos and uncertainty. To be sure, Newton’s investigations had been concerned with but a small group of natural phenomena, but it appeared unlikely that this mathematical law and order should turn out to be restricted to certain special phenomena; and the feeling was general that all the physical processes of nature would prove to be unfolding themselves according to rigorous mathematical laws. When Einstein, in 1905, published his celebrated paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies, he remarked that the difficulties, which surrounded the equations of electrodynamics, together with the negative experiments of Michelson and others, would be obviated if we extended the validity of the Newtonian principle of relativity to the Galilean motion, which applied solely to mechanical phenomena, so as to include all manner of phenomena: electrodynamics, optical, etc. When extended in this way, the Newtonian principle of relativity became Einstein’s special principle of relativity. Its significance lay in its assertion that absolute Galilean motion or absolute velocity must ever escape all experimental detection. Henceforth, absolute velocity should be conceived of as physically meaningless, not only in the particular realm of mechanics, as in Newton’s day but in the entire realm of physical phenomena. Einstein’s special principle, by adding increased emphasis to this relativity of velocity, making absolute velocity metaphysically meaningless, created a still more profound distinction between velocity and accelerated or rotational motion. This latter type of motion remained absolute and real as before. It is most important to understand this point and to realize that Einstein’s special principle is merely an extension of the validity of the classical Newtonian principle to all classes of phenomena. 1.According to the author, why did the Greeks NOT conduct experiments to understand the physical world? (a)Apparently, they did not think it necessary to experiment. (b)They focused exclusively on geometry. (c)Their instruments of measurement were very crude. (d)The Greeks considered the application of geometry to the physical world more important. 2.Newton may be considered one of the greatest scientists of all time because he (a)discovered the law of gravitation. (b)married physics with mathematics. (c)invented integral calculus. (d)started the use of the empirical method in science. 3.The statement “nature thus exhibited rationality and was not mere blind chaos and uncertainty” suggests that (a)problems that had baffled scientists like Archimedes were not really problems. (b)only a small group of natural phenomena was chaotic. (c)physical phenomena conformed to mathematical laws. (d)natural phenomena were evolving towards a less chaotic future. 4.The significant implication of Einstein’s special principle of relativity is that (a)absolute velocity was meaningless in the realm of all physical phenomena. (b)Newton’s principle of relativity needs to be modified. (c)there are limits to which experimentation can be used to understand some physical phenomena. (d)it is meaningless to try to understand the distinction between velocity and accelerated or rotational motion. 5.Which of the following statements about modern science best captures the theme of the passage? (a)Modern science rests firmly on the platform built by the Greeks. (b)We need to go back to the method of enquiry used by the Greeks to better understand the laws of dynamics. (c)Disciplines like Mathematics and Physics function best when integrated into one. (d)New knowledge about natural phenomena builds on existing knowledge. 15. Organizations Organizations are made of people. Without people, there can be no organization. Where people are involved, some learning always takes place. The learning may be good or bad, but it happens all the same. In other words, organizations can and do learn, since their people can and do learn. This ability of organizations takes the shape of strategic and competitive advantage, when you begin to consider that we compete in a world full of knowledge. Not just that, there is so much of knowledge getting added each day that it is almost impossible to compete on any other basis. For sure, financial prudence and soundness helps, but that is useful only if you can compete in the first place. It therefore makes eminent sense for organizations to create an environment where lots and lots of people learn lots and lots of new things all the time. Yes, companies do recognize this, but they do mighty little about actually getting down to making it happen in big and continuous doses. There is another completely different advantage of competing on learning. Organizational knowledge is the sum of many parts— the sum of many minds working together. This simply cannot be replicated by the competition. Why? The reason is quite simple. It is not possible to replicate the same set of circumstances and the same set of people existing in one company into another company. So, even if a few people leave and join forces with the competition, all is not lost. As a result, when discussions center around return on investment, there is the invariable war cry for cost cutting. Such debates are common in corporate settings, and the outcome is invariably one-sided. Since the majority of costs relate to people, let’s seize a hatchet and cut the headcount. Few, far too few, senior managers think about the incredible damage they are doing by taking such an approach. No one pauses to ponder over the loss of knowledge, human capital, and loyalty. This is where the story of the titmouse becomes relevant. Alan Wilson, a zoologist and biochemist at the University of California at Berkeley, has been studying how animals learn. His research has established that there is a certain behavior that enables primates and songbirds to share the position at the top of the table of evolved species. Wilson’s theory for accelerated anatomical evolution describes three characteristics that enable learning: Innovation: As individuals and as a community, they have the ability to invent new behavior. They are capable of developing skills that enable them to exploit and take advantage of their environment in newer and better ways. Social propagation: Skills are propagated and transferred in a proper and established way to the entire community through direct communication, not genetically. Mobility: Individuals of the species have the ability to move around. They use this ability to a tremendous extent. They flock and move in herds, instead of keeping to themselves like hermits. To determine whether his theory would hold water, Wilson researched studies done on the British titmouse, a small songbird commonly found in Britain. The study is extremely revealing and goes thus: During the early part of this century, milk was distributed to the doors of British country houses in bottles without tops. The cream would settle at the top of the bottles. Two species of birds—the titmice and red robin, learned to siphon the cream from the bottles and get an enriched diet. This diet was obviously richer than other food the birds had. The digestive systems of these two species underwent a metabolism to cope with the extra nutrition. By the early fifties, the entire titmouse population had learnt how to pierce the aluminum caps and get to the cream. On the other hand, the red robins simply did not learn how to pierce the caps. There was a stray robin here and a stray robin there that had learned how to pierce the cap, but the species as a whole, simply failed to learn. In other words, the knowledge was simply, not passed to all red robins. What was the difference between the two species? Basically, the titmice underwent a remarkably successful process of institutional learning, while the red robins