ENG-101 Introduction to Linguistics Handout PDF

FOUNDATIONS ON THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE Rate yourself based on your personal definition and views of language. Four (4) as the highest and one (1) as the lowest. 1. I use language more in writing poetry. 1 2 3 4 2. I learn a language better when I interact with pe...

FOUNDATIONS ON THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE Rate yourself based on your personal definition and views of language. Four (4) as the highest and one (1) as the lowest. 1. I use language more in writing poetry. 1 2 3 4 2. I learn a language better when I interact with people. 1 2 3 4 3. Studying grammar or patterns is the best way to master 1 2 3 4 language. 4. I usually imitate those who interact with me. 1 2 3 4 5. Language is a product of my creative sense. 1 2 3 4 6. I believe that language is composed of systems and 1 2 3 4 structures. 7. Language is learned best in a context. 1 2 3 4 8. Language is a tool for communication. 1 2 3 4 9. Language is mind power; linguists are thinkers. 1 2 3 4 10. Without sounds and symbols, there is no language. 1 2 3 4 11. Deaf and mutes are language-deprived. 1 2 3 4 12. My language is reflective of my beliefs and practices. 1 2 3 4 Lesson 1: WHAT IS LANGUAGE? Language is defined as linguistic communication, speech communication, cognitive ability, and cultured-based. Verbal Communication Mental Process è Production of sound matters. è Language is some form of human è Language is about the production and intelligence. reception of sounds. è It is always believed that the brain è Through use of speech organs, processing of a person is observed in humans are capable of transferring his/her language. information, even in the shortest è Language as a cognitive ability is amount of time. professed as an instrument of thinking è Whenever language is used, humans where language mirrors the mind. use the articulatory mechanisms of è Language as a cognitive process is the vocal tract to produce strings of often illustrated as the workings of the oral sounds. brain, especially when we are alone. è Language indeed is a remarkable è The brain is such a gift that it is means to communicate. capable of decoding abstract symbols è It is innate to humans. and translating them into concrete symbols of sounds and structures of words. Linguistic Communication Culture-shaped è Perceived as sets of signs and a è Language is a means of system of symbols grounded on pure communicating the culture of a arbitrary concords. particular community or members of è Most people are particular with the society. spelling of words, the vocabulary è A particular expression could be command, and the structural control acceptable to a specific community of of a particular language. people but not to others whose  è Arrangement of words in the practices are formed from different sentences are systematic, which orientations. means that you cannot rearrange è One needs to investigate their beliefs, these words unless the meaning practices, and values. remains. è Considering what is acceptable for è They see language fluency in people people and what they approve of is a who are very good at playing with their good way to interpret their words and arranging the words into orientations. sentences under the prescribed grammar of a particular language. LANGUAGE VIEWED Several groups of linguists view language as follows: 1. Structuralist a. They believe that language is a structured system of components, an idea with a specific framework. b. Masters of linguistics and grammar. c. They believe that language, as a system, possesses a structure that governs the aspects of every element of a whole. d. The believe the structure of language concretely make up the total concept behind the surface meaning. e. They assert that learning language is putting all the pieces together because they are interrelated. f. They specifically view language as a means of communication, primarily vocal, arbitrary, and a system of systems. g. A structuralist teacher provides drills and activities where students are required to analyze the patterns of sounds, the configurations of word formations, the arrangements of the words in the sentences. h. Structuralist teachers focus on the students’ mastery of the codes and system of language. 2. Transformationalists a. Language is a generative and creative process. b. Language pervades creativity since it is more abstract and has more reflective elements. c. They maintain sight of language as an actual knowledge and use. d. Language is internalized when language atmosphere is provided. e. They see language creativity as competence and transformation. f. They view language as mental, innate, universal, and creative, thus all humans can master it. g. They believed that humans are naturally inventive, which allows them to creatively produce new combinations of words. h. Humans learn to use the language more successfully through continuous exposure to the language used around them. i. Human language, according to Chomsky (1980) is a system for free expression of thought, essentially independent of stimulus control, need-satisfaction or instrumental purpose. j. A transformationalist teacher allows students to use the language in a creative way by using their innate multiple intelligences to be creative and at the same time utilize language. 3. Functionalists a. They view language as an instrument for communication and a vehicle for expression.  b. They argue that structures can be best analyzed when referred to the functions they carry-out in a communicative context. c. They believe language is required, acquired, produced, used and structured for interactions. d. Language is a part of the social, semiotic, and interdependent relationship. e. A functionalist language teacher provides authentic tasks that will allow students to use the language and attain the function of the interaction. f. Using the language of the members of the community, such as the students, the students are allowed to express their emotions, persuade people, ask, and give information. g. Linguistic function, according to Michael Halliday (2018), involves meta and micro functions where one language is used by children as means of exploring their language skills and their environment, and the other is used by adults to create interaction and transmit order in society. 4. Interactionists a. They able to adapt language by learning. b. They view language as a product of a human desire to communicate with another and acquire the language which one desires to learn. c. They believe that human genetics provides an individual the capability to produce language, and his/her social interactions make him/her master the language. d. Interactionist teachers, who target the mastery of students in a second language, will allow students to communicate and interact with each other to practice the use of target language. e. According to Vygotsky (1962), language is developed through social interaction. ACTIVITY 1: Introduce yourself in the language of your choice, whether it be foreign, local, indigenous, etc. Hello! My name is __________. I live in __________. I am _____ years old. Nice to meet you. ACTIVITY 2: Create a meme that represents your learning and Example: personal view of language. Criteria: Visual Representation - 20% Relevance - 30% Humor and Emotional Appeal - 25% Message - 25% Total = 100% Lesson 2: NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE Answer the following questions below: 1. Describe your native language? 2. How did you acquire your first language? 3. How did you acquire your second language? 4. What makes your language unique? 5. In what way will you learn new words? 6. What makes human understand each other? THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE In its basic constitution, the nature of language is described as the following below: 1. Language as something learnt. a. In as much human beings are programmed to acquire language easily, they learn a language. b. Language could be programmed and coded in our genes as human beings, but mastering the system of language programming is far beyond being able to produce it. c. Language is something that is learned through exposure and practice. d. According to Perry (2020), although the language is genetically programmed in our brain to make distinctions of the different sounds, things, activities, and notions, language acquisitions is produced through active learning and repetitive interactions. e. Language learning is behavioral, imitative, and learned through effort. f. This means that human beings are capable of learning as many languages as they can when interested. 2. Language as related to the culture of society. a. Different people from different social orientations speak differently. b. Language influences culture: the values, the practices, and the interests of people Û culture influences language. 3. Language as species-specific, uniformed, and unique to humans. a. The ability to use and respond to language is genetically inherited by humans. b. It is species-uniformed since only human beings can acquire language, set in the right environment. c. According to Chomsky (1975), the human brain is different from that of the animals. Humans learn and produce language creatively. d. Humans converse with others using oral and auditory signals, which are important characteristics and forms of human behavior. 4. Language as a system. a. Language needs analysis. b. It is a system of sounds and symbols. c. A careful analysis of these symbols would lead you to the proficient use of a particular language. d. Noam Chomsky (1975) believed that language is a controlled-noise. i. The sounds form their own system as numerous sounds function systematically.  5. Language as vocal. a. Speech is the primary function in communication. b. Language has been passed on verbally and eventually in written form. 6. Language as a skill subject. a. Learning a language is acquiring skills. b. The macro skills in learning a language are listening and viewing, speaking, reading, and writing. c. Language mastery is acquired by learning the skills through constant practice and exposure. d. In a formal setting, language is part of the curriculum, the goal of which is usage in both verbal and non-verbal communication. 7. Language as a means for communication. a. Communication is branded as a process of conveying and exchanging messages from person to person using a medium. b. It is a basic human necessity. c. Communication and language are mutually linked since the beginning of time. 8. Language as arbitrary. a. Language is arbitrary in the sense that language meanings existed as they are. b. There are no plausible reasons or inherent relation as to how meanings are assigned to each letter, symbol, or word. c. Saussure, the father of modern linguistics, contended that the structural configuration of the word has no relation to its meaning. He also added that language is a convention, the nature and sign that are agreed upon do not matter because they are arbitrary, it follows no law but rather based on pure tradition. d. Language, therefore, is a structure of conventional symbols. e. If language was not randomly created, there could only be one language in the entire world – fixed and unchanging. CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE Language is characterized according to its distinguishing qualities. These include conventionality and non-instinctive, productivity and creativity, duality, displacement, humanness, and universality. Conventional Non-instinctive ß Language is brought about by ß Humans are not born with the evolution and strengthened with spontaneity to speak any language. convention. ß It is learned through interaction and ß It is a silent pact that each socialization. generation transmits to the next. Productivity and Creativity ß Humans can play with words, Aguratively, to make a point or to express. Duality ß Human language comprises of two sub-systems: the sound system and the meaning system. ß This gives language expressive power.  Displacement ß Human beings are capable of narrating events and situations without living them now. ß This explains why humans can create tales/stories that may not be realistically possible. Humanness ß Language is innate to human beings. ß Human language is changeable and extendable. Universality ß Although language has a unique style of functions in terms of sounds, vocabulary and structures, language is equal in all parts of the universe. ACTIVITY 3: Paper-and-pencil quiz. Lesson 3: LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS Choose and perform the tasks given below. Task A: Give some advice on how to: a. Cope for a failed exam. b. Quit addiction. c. Move on from a failed relationship. Task B: Persuade a friend to: a. Listen to your favorite singer. b. Watch your favorite movie. c. Travel abroad with you. GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE 1. Interpersonal 2. Informative 3. Performative 4. Expressive JAKOBSON’S FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE CONTEXT SENDER MESSAGE RECEIVER CHANNEL CODE Roman Jakobson’s Communication Model (1960) ß Referential Function (CONTEXT) o This language function is concerned with the content.  o Language describes a situation or an object. ß Emotive Function (SENDER) o It is focused on the sender, like expressive language. o It is best illustrated with interjections, which are phrases spoken to express a burst of emotions. ß Conative Function (RECEIVER) o This is used when the speaker expresses purposively to persuade or influence the receiver. o It is used for commands and requests. ß Phatic Function (CHANNEL) o A psychological and physical association between the sender and the receiver. o A socio-linguistic function used for the sake of interactions. ß Metalingual Function (CODE) o The use of language to describe itself or use of the code. o It is used when a language talks about its features. o The language is used to talk about itself. o It usually develops from an interruption in the communication process. ß Poetic Function (MESSAGE) o It is associated with how the message reflects itself. o This refers to the descriptive language used to create a picture in the mind. o It is an aesthetic manipulation of the intrinsic linguistic elements. HALLIDAY’S FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE Textual Interpersonal Ideational Halliday's Metafunctions of Language Ó Ideational Function § Involves the natural world and human consciousness. § This is concerned with creating and maintaining a notion of experience, which is both experiential and logical. Ó Interpersonal Function § This is about the world of people working together.  § This seeks to create and uphold social relationships. § This includes sentences and grammatical choices that allow a person to enact interpersonal relations. Ó Textual Functions § This comprises all the grammatical systems needed to create relevance to context. § A text is created that coheres the context of the situation within self. Halliday’s Micro-functions of Language Ó Instrumental function § Refers to the use of language to communicate needs, express desires, choices, and preferences. Ó Regulatory function § Refers to the use of language to control and regulate behavior. Ó Interactional function Ó Personal function § This is demonstrated when it is used to convey information based on a personal level. Ó Heuristic function § Curiosity. Ó Imaginative function § Language is used to get into the world of fantasy. Ó Representational function § Language is used to convey facts, explain ideas, relay, and request information. OVERVIEW ON THE STUDY OF LINGUISTICS: BRANCHES, THEORIES, AND APPROACHES Lesson 1: BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS Linguistics is the scientiAc study of human language. It is a science that studies the rules, systems, and principles of human language. It is also concerned with human life, behavior, society and so forth. It is divided into two broad categories, namely: micro- linguistics and macro-linguistics. Micro-Linguistics Macro-Linguistics ß Theoretical linguistics ß Views language from a boarder ß General linguistics perspective. ß It is the linguistic branch that studies ß It is concerned with how language is the nature of language – what is acquired or used and how it relates language and how it works. to society. ß It focuses on the structural ß It focuses on the application of components of language under the language in daily life. broad level of grammar, which is ß Under this branch of linguistics are divided into few structures or levels the famous Aelds of such as phonetics, morphology, and psycholinguistics and syntax. sociolinguistics. Phonology Sociolinguistics î The branch of linguistics that î It deals with the study of the studies the system of sounds effects of the different social and within a language or between cultural factors on the use of different languages. language. î It primarily concerned with the î It examines the patterns and systematic organization of variations in language within a sounds especially in spoken society or community. languages. î It analyzes how people make î It studies the patterns of sounds choices in terms of language in a language, how speech style or the way they use sounds are organized, and how language to express their they are used to convey meaning. personal and social identity. Morphology Psycholinguistics î The linguistic branch that focuses î It focuses on the interrelation on the study of morphemes – the between linguistic and smallest meaningful unit of a psychological factors that enable language that cannot be further humans to understand, acquire, divided. and use language. î Forming of words. î It’s concerned with the processes related to word cognition and learning and language acquisition in general. Syntax Computational Linguistics î The linguistic branch that focuses î It studies the application of on the arrangement of words and computer science in the analysis phrases to form sentences. of language and speech and î It deals with how sentences are other linguistic studies. structured. î It is concerned with how computational modeling and approaches can be used to help describe linguistic processes and analyze research data related to linguistic issues and problems. Semantics Historical Linguistics î One of the major branches of î Diachronic linguistics. linguistics. î It deals with the study of î It deals with the study of the language change of a group of linguistic meaning of words and languages over time, including sentences. phonological, grammatical, and î It encompasses morphological semantic changes. meaning and the combined î It is concerned with tracing the meaning of syntactical structures. history of language family and î It studies the conceptual meaning identifying how a particular of words and sentences. language develops into its present form. Pragmatics Comparative Linguistics î It studies the contextual meaning î Comparative-historical linguistics. of sentences. î A sub-Aeld of historical linguistics.  î It deals with meaning beyond the î It is concerned with comparing surface or literal. languages to establish their î It focuses more on the intended similarities and differences meaning of the speaker rather especially in identifying whether than what the sentence literally they have a common ancestral means. language. … continuation of Macro-Linguistics: Ó Structural Linguistics î It focuses on the study of language as an independent network of formal systems or structures. î It is based on theories and principles that languages are composed of structural units such as a lexical and syntactic element. Ó Biolinguistics î An interdisciplinary study involving other disciplines such as biology, linguistics, psychology, and neurolinguistics. î Primarily aims to explain the evolution and formation of language. Ó Applied Linguistics î Primarily concerned with the application of language studies in real life, such as in language teaching and learning. î It is a broad term referring to the range of activities that involve the solving of some language-related problems and concerns. Ó Clinical Linguistics î A sub-discipline of applied linguistics that focuses on the application of linguistic concepts and theories in the Aeld of Speech-Language Pathology. î It involves the description, analysis, and treatment of language disabilities and disorders. Ó Development Linguistics î A Aeld of linguistics that studies the development of the linguistic ability of an individual, especially children. î It focuses on how children acquire language in childhood, such as acquisition of syntax and other linguistic elements. Ó Linguistic Typology î It aims to classify languages based on their structural and functional components. î It focuses on describing the diversity of the languages in the world, especially in terms of their properties and structures. Ó Neurolinguistics î It studies the relationship between language and the structures and functions of the brain. î It aims to analyze the different brain functions and mechanisms that are related to language comprehension, production, and acquisition. Ó Stylistics î It deals with the study on how different individuals or social groups use language in all types or forms, spoken or written in their communication. î Literary linguistics  î It studies the different authors and writers, especially on their writing styles as they use a variety of literary techniques and devices to provide distinctness and variety in their writing. Ó Etymology î Investigates the origin of words, their birth, and development, often delineating their spread from one language to another and their evolving changes in form and meaning. ACTIVITY 1: Match the branches in Column A with their descriptions in Column B. A B 1. Phonetics a. The study of formation of words 2. Phonology b. The study of the production of speech sounds. 3. Morphology c. The study of the conceptual meaning of words and sentences. 4. Syntax d. The study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. 5. Semantics e. The study of meaning in context. 6. Pragmatics f. The study of the formation of sentences. Lesson 2: LINGUISTIC THEORIES AND MODELS Behaviorism ß They believe that for language learning to occur, imitation, drills and constant practice are very important. ß They demand that language teachers must be proficient enough or possess native- like fluency so that what will be taught to the learners are only the perfect ones. ß Their principle of learning as a habit formation has its own weaknesses, thus ushering the birth of innatism and mentalism. ß Main proponent: BF Skinner. Nativism/Innatism ß Noam Chomsky criticized the imitation and stimulus response learning principles of behaviorism for its failure to explain why, with limited knowledge of grammatical rules, people can generate a limitless number of sentences. ß Chomsky hypothesized that humans must be born with Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in their brain which is the reason why children can acquire language quickly. ß He argued that LAD contains the universal rules by which human languages operate. ß He called this set of rules Universal Grammar (UG) or mental grammar which allows us to feel unconsciously whether our utterance or sentence is well-formed. ß His theory has some issues as some theorists argue that UG is only applicable to children during the critical period in early childhood when they acquire their native language. When it comes to learning foreign language, it would be different. Interactionism ß The proponents of this theory assert that language acquisition has both biological and social components. ß It is the result of the application of the principles propounded by the behaviorists and nativists. ß They believe that there must be a good interplay between the biological and environmental factors for language acquisition to occur. ß Under this principle is Lev Vygotsky’s social interaction theory, which state that children’s language development is a by-product of children’s social interactions with the important people in their lives. Monitor Model ß Stephen Krashen’s Monitor model, also known as the Input hypothesis, which is composed of five hypotheses or components expounding the process of language acquisitions. o The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis o Natural Order Hypothesis o The Monitor Hypothesis o The Input Hypothesis o Affective-filter Hypothesis Communicative Competence Model ß Dell Hymes first coined the term in 1972. ß It was developed further and expounded by Canle and Swain into a language model composed of four components: grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence. o Grammatical Competence: (linguistic competence) the ability to create grammatically correct utterances, incorporating the linguistic knowledge of morphology, phonology, syntax, and semantics. o Sociolinguistic Competence: concerned with the appropriateness of the utterances. o Discourse competence: concerned with the learners’ mastery of producing coherent and cohesive language outputs in the models of listening, speaking, reading and writing. o Strategic competence: refers to the learner’s ability to solve problems during communication. Lesson 3: DISTINCTIONS OF LINGUISTIC APPROACHES Aside from understanding the nature and foundation of language, learning the linguistic descriptions and approaches will help you understand better the intricacies of language and help you to narrow down your studies into a specific field, which interests you most.