Geography PDF - Chapter Summaries

Chapter 15: Ocean Basins Oceanic vs. Continental Crusts: ○ Oceanic crust: thinner, denser, primarily basaltic. Mariana trench ○ Continental crust: thicker, less dense, mainly granitic. Ocean Basin Characteristics: ○ Covers most of Earth’s surface, holding v...

Chapter 15: Ocean Basins Oceanic vs. Continental Crusts: ○ Oceanic crust: thinner, denser, primarily basaltic. Mariana trench ○ Continental crust: thicker, less dense, mainly granitic. Ocean Basin Characteristics: ○ Covers most of Earth’s surface, holding vast amounts of water. 70% Continental Margins: ○ Active margins: tectonically active (e.g., subduction zones, earthquakes). ○ Passive margins: stable, sediment-rich (e.g., east coasts of continents). Chapter 16: Oceans/Coastlines Seawater Composition: ○ Major salts include sodium chloride; salinity impacts water density. 3.5% Types of Tides: ○ Spring tides (largest range), neap tides (smallest range). Meteorological Coriolis Effect/Ocean Currents: ○ Earth’s rotation causes water deflection, creating gyres (circular currents). Fisheries: ○ Key food resource, influenced by ocean currents and overfishing concerns. Chapter 17: The Atmosphere Early Atmosphere: ○ Initially dominated by volcanic gases, lacked oxygen. Hydrogen helium Layers of the Atmosphere: ○ Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere. Air Pollution Hazards: ○ Includes smog, greenhouse gases, and health/environmental impacts. Chapter 18: Energy Balances Solar Radiation/Reflection: ○ Albedo effect: reflection of solar radiation by surfaces like ice. Snow and ice albedo different types of albedo Energy and Heat Storage/Transfer: ○ Heat absorbed by land, water, and atmosphere. Conduction Heat Capacity: ○ Water’s high heat capacity moderates Earth’s climate. Metals solids low heat continental low heat capacity Solar Heating: ○ Uneven solar distribution causes temperature variations the seasons. Chapter 19: Weather  Humidity and Supersaturation: ○ Dew point and frost form when air cools to saturation. Precipitation Mechanisms: ○ Orographic lifting (mountain-induced), frontal wedging (air masses collide). Convection () Cloud Types: ○ Cirrus, cumulus, stratus, and their characteristics. Cumulonimbus Storms: ○ Hurricanes (tropical), tornadoes (land-based), cyclones (regional storms). Chapter 20: Climate Tropical climates (A) Dry climates (B) Temperate climates (C) Continental climates (D) Polar climates (E) Climate Zones: ○ Tropical, temperate, and polar zones with distinct features. Differences Between Zones: ○ Varying temperatures, precipitation, and biodiversity. Continental vs. Oceanic Climates: ○ Continental: greater temperature variation. ○ Oceanic: milder temperatures due to water’s heat capacity. Essay Topics 1. Continental Margins in Ocean Basins: ○ Active Margins: Found at plate boundaries; features include earthquakes, volcanic activity, and trenches (e.g., Pacific Ocean's Ring of Fire). ○ Passive Margins: Far from plate boundaries; characterized by wide continental shelves, sediment deposits, and limited tectonic activity (e.g., east coasts of Americas). 2. Three Types of Tides: ○ Spring Tides: Occur during full and new moons; produce the highest tidal range. ○ Neap Tides: Occur during quarter moons; result in the smallest tidal range. ○ Diurnal/Semidiurnal Mixed Tides: Vary based on location and lunar effects. 3. Beach Features: ○ Examples may include dunes (wind-shaped sand structures), berms (flat areas at the back of a beach), and wave-cut platforms (eroded flat rock areas near cliffs). SAND SPITS 4. Earth’s Tilt and Yearly Effects: ○ Earth's axial tilt (23.5°) causes seasons. ○ Equinox solstices ○ Varies solar radiation intensity; summer/winter solstices mark extreme day lengths, while equinoxes have equal day and night.  5. Continental vs. Oceanic Climates: ○ Continental Climate: Found inland; experiences greater temperature variations between seasons. ○ Oceanic Climate: Near coasts; moderated by water’s high heat capacity, leading to smaller temperature ranges. Chapter 15: Ocean Basins Wave crest Cumulonimbus Terogynus sediments Oceanic Crust: The dense, thin, basaltic layer of Earth's crust under the oceans. Continental Crust: The thicker, less dense, granitic layer of Earth's crust forming continents. Active Margins: Tectonically active boundaries where plates converge or diverge (e.g., subduction zones). Passive Margins: Stable, sediment-rich regions far from tectonic boundaries. Chapter 16: Oceans/Coastlines Salinity: The concentration of dissolved salts in seawater, typically measured in parts per thousand (ppt). Gyres: Large-scale circular ocean currents driven by wind and the Coriolis effect. Spring Tides: Tides with the largest range, occurring during full and new moons when the Sun, Moon, and Earth align. Neap Tides: Tides with the smallest range, occurring during quarter moons when the Sun and Moon form a right angle with Earth. Chapter 17: The Atmosphere Troposphere: The lowest atmospheric layer where weather occurs; contains most of Earth's air mass. Stratosphere: The layer above the troposphere; contains the ozone layer that absorbs UV radiation. Greenhouse Gases: Gases like CO₂, CH₄, and H₂O vapor that trap heat in Earth’s atmosphere, contributing to warming. Chapter 18: Energy Balances Albedo: The reflectivity of a surface; high albedo surfaces like ice reflect more solar energy. Heat Capacity: The ability of a material (e.g., water) to store heat; water’s high heat capacity moderates Earth’s climate. Solar Heating: The process of solar radiation warming Earth, influencing temperature and weather patterns. Chapter 19: Weather Dew Point: The temperature at which air becomes saturated, causing water vapor to condense into dew. Orographic Lifting: The upward movement of air over mountains, leading to cooling and precipitation. Cyclones: Large, rotating storm systems with low-pressure centers, including hurricanes and typhoons. Chapter 20: Climate Climate Zones: Earth's regions classified by temperature, precipitation, and vegetation (tropical, temperate, polar). Continental Climate: Climate with large seasonal temperature variations, typical of inland regions. Oceanic Climate: Climate with mild temperatures and smaller variations, common near oceans due to water's moderating effect. Tropical climates (A) Dry climates (B) Temperate climates (C) Continental climates (D) Polar climates (E) Wave Crest The wave crest is the top or highest point of a wave. Cumulonimbus A cumulonimbus is a big, tall cloud that brings thunderstorms, heavy rain, and sometimes hail or tornadoes. Terrigenous Sediments Terrigenous sediments are bits of rock, sand, and soil that come from land and are carried into the ocean by rivers, wind, or ice. Meteorological Tide A meteorological tide is a change in sea level caused by weather, like strong winds or low air pressure, instead of the moon or sun.