ELS 107 REVIEWER.docx

**ELS 107 DISCOURSE** **CHAPTER 1** English discourse refers to the way language is used in written or spoken communication within the English language.It encompasses various aspects such as structure, style, tone, and the overall organization of ideas or information. Discourse in English can rang...

**ELS 107 DISCOURSE** **CHAPTER 1** English discourse refers to the way language is used in written or spoken communication within the English language.It encompasses various aspects such as structure, style, tone, and the overall organization of ideas or information. Discourse in English can range from everyday conversations to formal speeches, academic papers, literature, and more specialized forms like legal or scientific writing. Understanding English discourse involves analyzing how language is used to convey meaning,persuade,inform,or entertain within different contexts and audience. The concept of English discourse has deep roots in linguistics, rhetoric, and communication studies,and its background can be traced through various academic disciplines and historical developments: ***[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT:]*** 1. **Classical Rhetoric** **Origins:** The study of discourse dates back to ancient Greece and Rome, where rhetoric was developed as the art of persuasive speaking and writing. Thinkers like Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian laid the foundation for analyzing and understanding how language can influence and persuade an audience. **Impact on Discourse:** Classical rhetoric influenced the development of discourse analysis by emphasizing the importance of ethos (credibility), pathos (emotional appeal),and logos (logical argument) in communication. 2. **Structuralism and Linguistics** **Ferdinand de Saussure:** The Swiss linguist Saussure introduced the idea that language is a system of signs, where meaning is derived from the relationships between these signs.This structuralist perspective influenced the study of discourse by encouraging a focus on the underlying structures that govern language use. **Development of Discourse Analysis:** Later, linguists like Zellig Harris in the 1950s introduced the term \"discourse analysis\" to refer to the study of language beyond the sentence level, examining how sentences connect to form coherent texts and conversations 3. **Sociolinguistics** **Context Matters**: Sociolinguists like William Labov emphasized the role of social context in language use.They studied how factors like social class,ethnicity,gender, and power relations influence the way people communicate in different settings. **Discourse Communities:** The concept of discourse communities emerged, referring to groups of people who share a set of norms, values, and expectations regarding language use. For example, the discourse of academia differs from the discourse of journalism or casual conversation. 4. **Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)** **Norman Fairclough**: In the late 20th century, scholars like Fairclough developed Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), which examines how discourse reflects and reinforces power structures in society. CDA looks at how language shapes and is shaped by social practices, often focusing on issues like ideology, identity, and inequality. **Multimodal Discourse**: With the advent of digital media, discourse analysis has expanded to include multimodal forms of communication, where text, images, and other media work together to create meaning. 5. **Pragmatics and Speech Act Theory** J. **L. Austin and John Searle:** These philosophers contributed to discourse analysis by introducing speech act theory, which explores how utterances perform actions (e.g., promising,ordering,questioning) rather than just conveying information. **Discourse Markers:** Pragmatics also studies how certain words and phrases (like \"well,\" \"so,\" \"but\") function as discourse markers, helping to organize and signal relationships between different parts of a conversation or text. 6. **Modern Discourse Analysis** **Interdisciplinary Approach:** Today, discourse analysis is an interdisciplinary field that incorporates insights from linguistics, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and more. Researchers study how language functions in various contexts, from everyday interactions to institutional settings like politics,media,and education. **Global Englishes:** The rise of English as a global language has also led to studies of how English discourse varies across different cultures and regions, contributing to the understanding of World Englishes and intercultural communication. 7. **Digital and Online Discourse** **Impact of Technology**: The digital age has transformed discourse, with the rise of social media, online forums, and other digital platforms creating new forms of communication. Scholars now analyze how discourse functions in these online spaces,including how it shapes and is shaped by the technologies used. ***[PROPONENTS]*** **Discourse Analysis** \- is a method of studying language use in context, focusing on how language structures and meanings are shaped by social practices, beliefs, and power relations. 1. **James Paul Gee,** a prominent scholar in the field, Discourse Analysis \"involves the study of language in use: how people make and exchange meaning through language in various social settings\" (Gee, 2014). It examines not just the words themselves but also the broader social and cultural contexts in which communication occurs. 2. **Widdowson (1984:100)**- defines discourse as "a communicative process by means of interaction." It is a communicative process manifested through interaction. The definition can be understood to say that discourse is a process of communication. In other words, there should be "something"to be communicated;there should also be the giver or sender and the receiver of that particular "thing", and there should be an interaction between the sender and the receiver. 3. **Leeuwen (2005)**- describes discourse as the use of language and all other semiotic modes such as gesture, facial expression and other forms of visual communication deployed for perception and expression of reality. 4. **Brown & Yule**- Discourse analysis involves studying and analyzing the uses of language (Brown & Yule, 1983). 5. **Jorgensen and Philips**- discourse analysis is the study of different patterns that people's utterances follow when they take part in different domains of social life. 6. **McCarthy-** explains discourse analysis to be concerned with the study of language and the contexts in which it is used. 7. **Gumperz(1977:17)-** defines discourse as "certain communication routines which are viewed as distinct wholes,separated from other types of discourse,characterized by special rules of speech and non-verbal behavior, and often distinguished by clearly recognized openings and closings." Clearly this definition gives more detailed and specific hints on what a discourse is. In its simplest form, discourse is verbal or written communication between people that goes beyond a single sentence. Importantly, discourse is more than just language. The term "language"can include all forms of linguistic and symbolic units (even things such as road signs), and language studies can focus on the individual meanings of words. Discourse goes beyond this and looks at the overall meanings conveyed by language in context. "Context" here refers to the social, cultural, political, and historical background of the discourse, and it is important to take this into account to understand underlying meanings expressed through language. Discourse analysis uses the language presented in a corpus or body of data to draw meaning. This body of data could include a set of interviews or focus group discussion transcripts. While some forms of discourse analysis center in on the specifics of language (such as sounds or grammar), other forms focus on how this language is used to achieve its aims. We'll dig deeper into these two above mentioned approaches later. 8. **Wodak and Krzyżanowski (2008)**- "discourse analysis provides a general framework to problem-oriented social research". Basically, discourse analysis is used to conduct research on the use of language in context in a wide variety of social problems (i.e.,issues in society that affect individuals negatively). For example, discourse analysis could be used to assess how language is used to express differing viewpoints on financial inequality and would look at how the topic should or shouldn't be addressed or resolved, and whether this so-called inequality is perceived as such by participants. Although **Discourse Analysis (DA) as a term was first used in 1952 by Zellig Harris** in a paper he published titled Discourse Analysis, the study of the functional use of language for persuasive effectiveness dates back to 2000 years ago. What makes discourse analysis unique is that it posits that social reality is socially constructed, or that our experience of the world is understood from a subjective standpoint. Discourse analysis goes beyond the literal meaning of words and languages. ***[WHEN SHOULD YOU USE DISCOURSE ANALYSIS:]*** There are many ways to analyze qualitative data (such as **content analysis, narrative analysis,and thematic analysis**). **Content Analysis-** is a research technique used to systematically analyze the content of communication.It involves coding and categorizing textual or visual data to identify patterns, themes, and meanings.Researchers use content analysis to quantify the presence of certain words, phrases,themes,or concepts within a text or set of texts and to make inferences about the context in which these elements appear. Commonly used in media studies,social sciences, and marketing to analyze communication such as advertisements,articles,speeches,and social media posts. **Narrative Analysis**- focuses on the structure and content of stories or personal accounts. It examines how individuals construct and convey their experiences and identities through storytelling. Narrative analysis is concerned with the sequence of events, the roles of characters, and the themes that emerge from the narrative. Frequently used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to study life stories, interviews,biographies,and case studies. **Thematic Analysis-** is a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data. It involves coding the data, grouping similar codes into broader themes, and interpreting the themes to understand underlying meanings. Thematic analysis is flexible and can be applied across a range of research questions and data types. Widely used in qualitative research across disciplines such as psychology, education, and health studies to analyze interview transcripts, focus group discussions,and open-ended survey responses. The purpose of discourse analysis is to investigate the functions of language (i.e., what language is used for) and how meaning is constructed in different contexts, which, to recap, include the **social, cultural, political, and historical backgrounds** of the discourse. ***[TYPES OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS:]*** 1. **Narrative Analysis**- the study of how stories are told and how they shape our understanding of the world. Narrative analysts are interested in story structure, content, and function.They may also be interested in how stories are told in different social contexts and how they are used to construct and maintain social identities and power relations. 2. **Conversation Analysis (CA)**- studies everyday conversation. CA researchers are interested in the micro-level details of conversation, such as turn-taking (speaking vs. listening), gaze (eye contact), and body language.They may also be interested in how conversation is used to achieve different social goals, such as building relationships,managing conflict,and exchanging information. 3. **Pragmatics-** the study of how language is used in context. Pragmatists are interested in how we use language to convey meaning beyond the literal meaning of the words we use. They may be interested in the role of factors such as intonation, body language,and shared knowledge in communication. Variation Analysis studies how language varies across different social groups and contexts. It is interested in factors contributing to language variation, such as age, region, social class, and gender. They may also be interested in the implications of language variation for social identity and power relations. 4. **Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)-** focuses on the relationship between language and power.CDA researchers are interested in how language is used to construct and maintain social inequalities. They may also be interested in how language can be used to challenge and resist social oppression. 5. **Foucauldian Discourse Analysis-** a type of CDA based on **Michel Foucault\'s** theories. Foucault argued that discourse is not simply a tool for communication but that it also plays a role in shaping our knowledge and understanding of the world. Foucauldian discourse analysts are interested in how discourse is used to construct and maintain social norms and power relations. 6. **Ethnography of Communication**- a research approach that combines ethnography and discourse analysis methods. Ethnographers of communication study how language is used in different cultural and social contexts. They may be interested in how language is used to construct and maintain relationships,negotiate social meaning,and perform social identities. 7. **Rhetorical Analysis-** examines how language is used to persuade, inform, and entertain. It looks at the speaker or writer\'s purpose, audience, and the strategies they use to achieve their purpose. They may also be interested in the use of rhetorical devices,such as metaphors,similes,and rhetorical questions. **Language Ambiguity** in Discourse Analysis refers to the phenomenon where a word, phrase, or sentence has multiple meanings or interpretations depending on the context. This ambiguity can arise from various linguistic features such as polysemy (a single word having multiple related meanings), homonymy (a single word having multiple unrelated meanings),syntactic structure,or contextual factors. ***[KEY ASPECTS OF LANGUAGE AMBIGUITY IN DISCOURSE ANALYSIS:]*** 1. **Contextual Dependence:** The meaning of ambiguous language often depends on the specific context in which it is used. Discourse Analysis examines how participants in a conversation or text make sense of ambiguous expressions based on shared knowledge,social norms,or the particular situation. 2. **Role in Communication:** Ambiguity can serve various functions in communication. It can be used intentionally for humor, politeness, or to create double entendres. In other cases,it might arise unintentionally,leading to misunderstandings or requiring clarification. 3. **Negotiation of Meaning:** In discourse, speakers and listeners often engage in a process of negotiation to resolve ambiguity. This might involve asking for clarification, providing additional context, or rephrasing statements. Discourse Analysis explores how this negotiation unfolds in real-time interactions. 4. **Power Dynamics:** Ambiguity can be a tool of power in discourse. For instance, political or legal language might be deliberately ambiguous to leave room for multiple interpretations, which can benefit those in positions of power. Discourse Analysis looks at how such ambiguity affects power relations and the interpretation of messages. 5. **Impact on Understanding:** Ambiguity affects how messages are understood and can lead to different interpretations among different audiences. Discourse Analysis seeks to understand how various groups interpret ambiguous language based on their cultural,social,or ideological backgrounds. ***[SCOPE OF STUDY IN DISCOURSE ANALYSIS:]*** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. **CHAPTER 2** ***[TEXT AND TEXTURE:]*** \- A "**text**" in discourse analysis refers to any written or spoken material that communicates meaning. This could be a conversation, a written document, a speech, or any other form of communication. The primary concern with a "text" is its function and structure. How does the language work to convey meaning? What are the linguistic elements (e.g., grammar, syntax, semantics) that make the text coherent and understandable? Example: Consider a political speech as a "text". In discourse analysis, we would examine the speaker's choice of words,sentence structure,and rhetorical devices to understand how the speaker aims to persuade the audience. The analysis would focus on how different elements of the language come together to create a message that resonates with the listeners.  **- "Texture"** refers to the quality that makes a text "hang together" as a meaningful whole. **It involves cohesion and coherence, two fundamental aspects of texture.** **Cohesion** relates to the [linguistic elements] that connect different parts of the text, such as pronouns, conjunctions, and repetition. **Coherence**, on the other hand, refers to the [logical connections] between ideas in the text. Together, cohesion and coherence provide a sense of unity to the text, making it easier for the reader or listener to follow and understand. Example: In a news article, the \"texture\" can be analyzed by looking at how the writer uses cohesive devices like referential pronouns ("this", "that"), conjunctions ("and", "but"), and synonyms to create links between sentences and paragraphs. Coherence might be studied by examining how the ideas progress logically from one point to another, ensuring that the reader can easily grasp the argument or narrative. **Discourse Analysis-** It is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the use of language in texts and social contexts. This method examines how language functions beyond the sentence level, looking at the ways language shapes and is shaped by social structures, relationships, and identities. The social functions of texts, in particular, refer to the roles they play in organizing and influencing social life. ***[KEY CONCEPTS OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS :]*** 1. **Text and Context:** In discourse analysis, a "text" refers not only to written documents but also to spoken language, images, and any form of communication. Understanding a text requires looking at the context in which it occurs---who is speaking,to whom,for what purpose,and in what social situation.  For instance, the way politicians speak during a campaign differs from how they speak in private or informal settings. Discourse analysis would explore how their language reflects,reinforces,or challenges power structures. 2. **Intertextuality**: This concept involves the ways in which texts refer to or draw upon other texts. No text exists in isolation; it is influenced by prior discourse and will influence future discourse. By examining intertextuality, analysts explore how texts circulate in society and contribute to social norms and practices.  **Example**: News reports often reference earlier news stories,political speeches,or historical events, creating a network of meanings that shape public understanding. Discourse analysis would explore how these references build a narrative that serves particular social or political functions. 3. **Power and Ideology:** Discourse is not neutral; it often reflects and perpetuates power relations and ideologies.Language can reinforce dominant ideas or challenge them, and discourse analysts are interested in uncovering the underlying assumptions and social effects of different texts.  **Example**: Advertisements often depict idealized images of beauty and success, promoting certain ideologies about gender, consumerism, and identity. A discourse analysis of such advertisements might explore how these images contribute to societal pressures and expectations. ***[SOCIAL FUNCTION OF TEXTS :]*** Texts play various social functions in organizing and influencing behavior within society.Some common social functions include: 1. **Legitimizing Authority:** Certain texts, such as legal documents, policies, or religious texts, serve to legitimize authority and regulate behavior. They set norms and expectations for society.  Example: Government policies on health care are texts that not only inform the public but also regulate what is considered acceptable behavior in society. The language used in these policies reflects and reinforces governmental authority. 2. **Constructing Identities:** Texts contribute to the construction of social identities, whether it\'s through media representations, educational materials, or everyday conversations.  Example: School textbooks often construct national identity by emphasizing certain historical narratives while omitting others. Discourse analysis would look at how these narratives contribute to students\' understanding of their place in the nation. 3. **Facilitating Social Interaction:** Texts also play a role in facilitating social interaction, whether through conversations, social media posts, or professional communication. The way language is used in these interactions can promote social cohesion or highlight divisions.  **Example**: Workplace emails often follow specific conventions that promote a professional atmosphere. A discourse analysis might explore how these conventions shape power relations in the workplace and contribute to organizational culture. ***[ANALYZING GENRES:]*** **Genre Analysis** falls under discourse analysis and is a method used to examine the structure,function,and social context of different types of texts.The concept of genre goes beyond just categorizing texts (e.g., novels, reports, or lectures); it involves understanding how these texts serve specific purposes within particular contexts and howthey follow predictable patterns. **John Swales** is a key figure in this area,particularly through his work on the concept of "**rhetorical moves**" within genres. Swales suggests that genres can be broken down into various stages or moves,each fulfilling a specific function.For example,in academic writing, a research article typically includes sections like the introduction, literature review, methodology, results, and conclusion. Each section serves a unique role in the overall communication of the research. ***[DISCOURSE AND IDEOLOGY:]*** **Discourse and ideology** are interrelated.Language is not neutral;it carries with it the values and ideologies of those who use it. For example, media discourse can perpetuate or challenge dominant ideologies, such as gender roles, racial stereotypes, or political beliefs. Through discourse, ideologies can be reinforced or contested. **Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)** is a branch of discourse analysis that focuses specifically on how discourse shapes and is shaped by power and ideology. According to **Norman Fairclough**,a key figure in CDA, discourse is a form of "social practice" that contributes to the reproduction of social structures, including ideologies that maintain inequalities (Fairclough,1995). Examples: **Media Representation of Gender:** News articles often reflect and reinforce gender ideologies. For example, headlines that describe women in terms of their physical appearance rather than their professional achievements can perpetuate sexist ideologies. An analysis of media discourse can reveal how certain gender norms are maintained and presented as"natural"or"normal". **Political Discourse:** Politicians often use discourse to promote particular ideologies. For instance, the language of "freedom" and "security" is frequently used in political speeches in ways that align with specific ideological perspectives. By analyzing political discourse, researchers can uncover how language is used to shape public opinion and maintain political power.