Discourse Analysis Lecture Notes PDF

Lecture: Introduction to Discourse Analysis Objective: This lecture provides an introduction to Discourse Analysis (DA), a field of study concerned with analyzing written, spoken, and signed texts in order to understand how language works in use. Unlike traditional linguistic analysis, which often...

Lecture: Introduction to Discourse Analysis Objective: This lecture provides an introduction to Discourse Analysis (DA), a field of study concerned with analyzing written, spoken, and signed texts in order to understand how language works in use. Unlike traditional linguistic analysis, which often focuses on sentences and individual utterances, discourse analysis examines how larger units of language — like conversations, speeches, or entire texts — are structured and how they function in different social contexts. 1. What is Discourse Analysis? Discourse Analysis (DA) is the study of language beyond the sentence level. While syntax, phonology, and semantics focus on the structure and meaning of individual words or sentences, discourse analysis looks at how sentences are organized to create meaning in actual communication. It involves analyzing discourse—a broad term that can refer to written, spoken, or signed communication, including everyday conversations, political speeches, media representations, academic texts, and more. Discourse analysis examines how language constructs identities, ideologies, power relationships, and social norms, depending on the context. 2. Key Concepts in Discourse Analysis a) The Structure of Discourse Discourse is not just a collection of isolated sentences but rather a structured flow of ideas, often dependent on context, coherence, and cohesion. Coherence refers to the overall sense or logic of a discourse, or how ideas are connected and follow each other in a meaningful way. Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical links that bind a discourse together, such as pronouns, conjunctions, and repetition. These elements make the discourse structurally cohesive and allow speakers or writers to "build" their messages effectively. Example: Cohesion: "Mary is my best friend. She lives next door." The pronoun "she" is cohesive because it refers back to Mary. Coherence: In a conversation, if someone says, "I love watching movies," and the next speaker responds with, "Me too, I prefer action films," the conversation is coherent because the second speaker's response logically follows the first one. b) Discourse Markers Discourse markers are words or phrases that guide the flow of conversation and help to manage the interaction. These include terms like "well," "so," "you know," and "anyway." They play an important role in signaling changes in topic, clarifying meaning, or indicating the speaker's attitude toward the conversation. Example: o "Well, I guess we should start the meeting." The word "well" signals the beginning of a new topic or a shift in the conversation. c) Turn-taking in Conversation Turn-taking refers to the system by which people in a conversation decide who speaks, when, and for how long. It is an essential feature of spoken discourse, and it can vary widely depending on the cultural context, the relationship between the speakers, and the purpose of the conversation. Example: In English, the speaker may pause or raise their intonation at the end of a sentence to signal that they are finished talking and that it is the listener's turn to speak. In other cultures, the speaker might continue without pausing, or speakers may interrupt each other more frequently. d) Speech Acts Discourse analysis often draws on speech act theory, which examines how people use language to perform actions, such as making requests, offering apologies, or issuing commands. Example: o Direct Speech Act: "Can you pass the salt?" (The speaker is directly requesting the salt.) o Indirect Speech Act: "Could you pass the salt?" (This may be interpreted as a polite request, though it is technically phrased as a question about ability.) e) Power and Ideology in Discourse Discourse analysis is often concerned with the relationship between language and power. Linguists examine how language reflects and reinforces social hierarchies, power structures, and ideologies. This includes studying how institutions (like governments, the media, or corporations) use language to persuade, manipulate, or maintain control over others. Example:  A politician’s speech may use language that legitimizes power or influences public opinion by framing issues in particular ways. For instance, referring to a military intervention as a "peacekeeping mission" is a way of shaping the discourse to align with a positive political ideology, regardless of the actual circumstances. f) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an approach that examines the relationship between discourse, power, and society. It aims to uncover the ways in which discourse shapes and is shaped by power relations, ideologies, and social inequalities. CDA researchers focus on how discriminatory practices, such as racism, sexism, and classism, are embedded in language and how discourse can either challenge or reinforce these inequalities. Example: An analysis of media coverage of a protest might show how the choice of words (e.g., calling protesters "rioters" vs. "activists") reflects an ideological stance, influencing how the public perceives the event. 3. Approaches to Discourse Analysis Discourse analysis can be approached from several different perspectives, depending on the researcher’s focus and goals. Here are a few common approaches: a) Conversation Analysis (CA) Conversation Analysis (CA) focuses on the micro-level of spoken interaction, specifically the turn-taking system and the social organization of talk. CA examines how people manage conversation in everyday life, including how they open and close conversations, repair misunderstandings, and negotiate meaning in real-time. Example: The study of interruptions in conversations: when and how speakers overlap or interrupt each other and how these interruptions can indicate power dynamics or conversational dominance. b) Discourse Analysis in Sociolinguistics In sociolinguistics, discourse analysis often explores how language reflects and constructs social identities (such as gender, ethnicity, and class) and how social contexts influence the way people talk. Example: Examining the differences in how men and women speak, and how gendered  language might reflect or reinforce societal norms about masculinity and femininity. c) Foucauldian Discourse Analysis Inspired by the work of French philosopher Michel Foucault, this approach looks at the relationship between discourse and power. Foucauldian discourse analysis investigates how discourse produces knowledge, shapes reality, and regulates behavior, often focusing on institutions (e.g., schools, hospitals) and how they use language to establish authority. Example: Foucault’s study of the medical profession illustrates how the discourse around "health" and "illness" defines what is considered normal or pathological, shaping societal views on health and medical authority. 4. Methods in Discourse Analysis Discourse analysis can involve both qualitative and quantitative methods, but it is often more focused on interpreting patterns, structures, and meanings rather than just counting occurrences of certain words or phrases. Some common methods include: Textual analysis: Analyzing the structure, content, and style of written or spoken texts. Ethnographic analysis: Understanding discourse in context, often by observing interactions in real-life settings. Interactional analysis: Focusing on how participants in a conversation manage social relations through language. 5. Applications of Discourse Analysis Discourse analysis is used in many fields and disciplines, including: Linguistics: To explore how language works in communication. Sociology and Anthropology: To study how discourse reflects and shapes social structures and cultural norms. Political Science: To examine how political discourse influences public opinion, policy, and power relations. Media Studies: To analyze how the media represents events, groups, and ideologies. Psychology: To understand how language constructs and reflects individual and collective identities. 6. Conclusion Discourse Analysis is a powerful tool for studying language in context, allowing us to understand not only the structures of communication but also how language functions to reflect, reinforce, or challenge social realities. By examining how people use language to interact, express identity, and construct meaning, we gain insight into the social, cultural, and political dimensions of communication.