Effective Teaching Strategies PDF

INTRODUCTION Every person performs a whole set of social roles. A teacher assumes the roles of a worker, husband/wife, parent, a member of higher religious group, and a citizen. In describing the roles of teachers, however, we shall not deal with various roles performed by teachers as persons, but o...

INTRODUCTION Every person performs a whole set of social roles. A teacher assumes the roles of a worker, husband/wife, parent, a member of higher religious group, and a citizen. In describing the roles of teachers, however, we shall not deal with various roles performed by teachers as persons, but only look at the roles performed by them as teachers. Thus, it is relevant here to examine the processes of reaching in its complexities. Teaching is the single most important profession in the world. Teachers pass on knowledge and values to children, prepare them for further education and for working life and are main contributors to good education. Teachers are one of the main pillars of a sound and progressive society. They bear the weight and responsibility of teaching, and, apart from parents, are the main source of knowledge and values for children. The role of a teacher in society is both significant and valuable. It has far-reaching influence on the society he/ she lives in and no other personality can have an influence more profound than that of a teacher. Students are deeply affected by the teacher\'s love and affection, his character, his competence, and his moral commitment. Learning is a complex process and there are many interacting variables that influence learning. Learning is not an isolated human activity and for internal school students' learning occurs within the context of a classroom, the school, a broader community and a particular society. The teacher, who is a variable in the classroom context, is charged with the function of acting as an intermediary between the variables outside the classroom and the students to assist the students in their learning (Tylee 1992). The function of being an intermediary means that the teacher has the role of facilitating student learning, as well as being a part of the school and community. Fulfilling the functions of a teacher means that the teacher is also actively engaged in learning. Learning about themselves, the changes in their field, the expectations of the community and society and most importantly learning about their students and ways of enabling their students to grow and develop. The role of the teacher has many facets but that of facilitating student learning is very important. OBJECTIVES After the completion of the unit the students will be able to: outline the qualities of an effective teacher; establish a link between communication and effective teaching; define and explain motivation, its type and theories; explain the role of teacher in the provision of conducive learning environment. 137 7.1 Characteristics of Effective Teacher Becoming an effective teacher takes practice and special guidance from mentors and administrators. Effective teaching does not involve presenting your exciting lessons or activities to the class, it is a craft learned over time. Effective teachers share some common characteristics. Here are the top six keys to being a successful teacher. Every teacher can benefit from focusing on these important qualities. Success in teaching, as in most areas of life, depends almost entirely on your attitude and your approach. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sense of Humor A sense of humor can help you become a successful teacher. Your sense of humor can relieve tense classroom situations before they succum to disruptions. A sense of humor will also make class more enjoyable for your students and possibly make students look forward to attending and paying attention. Most importantly, a sense of humor will allow you to see the joy in life and make you a happier person as you progress through this sometimes stressful career. A Positive Attitude A positive attitude is a great asset in life. You will be thrown many curve balls in life and especially in the teaching profession. A positive attitude will help you cope up with these in the best way. For example, you may find out the first day of school that you are teaching Algebra 2 instead of Algebra 1. This would not be an ideal situation, but a teacher with the right attitude would try to focus on getting through the first day without negatively impacting the students. High Expectations An effective teacher must have high expectations. You should strive to raise the bar for your students. If you expect less effort you will receive less effort. You should work on an attitude that says that you know students can achieve to your level of expectations, thereby giving them a sense of confidence too. This is not to say that you should create unrealistic expectations. However, your expectations will be one of the key factors in helping students learn and achieve. Consistency In order to create a positive learning environment, your students should know what to expect from you each day. You need to be consistent. This will create a safe learning environment for the students and they will be more likely to succeed. It is amazing that students can adapt to teachers throughout the day that range from strict to easy. However, they will dislike an environment in which the rules are constantly changing. Fairness Many people confuse fairness and consistency. A consistent teacher is the same person from day to day. A fair teacher treats students equally in the same situation. For example, students complain of unfairness when teachers treat one gender or group of students differently. It would be terribly unfair to go easier on the football players in a class than on the cheerleaders. Students pick up on this so quickly, so be careful of being labeled unfair. Flexibility One of the tenets of teaching should be that everything is in a constant state of change. Interruptions and disruptions are the norm and very few days are \'typical\'. 138 Therefore, a flexible attitude is important not only for your stress level but also for your students who expect you to be incharge and take control of any situation. Effective teaching is a teaching philosophy that can distinctly change given the situation. For example, a classroom with five students is a much different situation than addressing a class of forty students. Having the skills and abilities necessary to become an effective teacher will allow you to craft your lessons and teaching style to accommodate any size of class. Walker (2008) defined effective teacher who bears at least twelve characteristics of being an effective teacher. These twelve characteristics consistently affect students in positive ways. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Prepared Positive High Expectations Creative Fair Personal Touch Develops a Sense of Belonging Admits Mistakes Sense of Humor 10. Give Respect to Students 11. Forgiving 12. Compassionate Effective teachers should have high expectations for their entire class. Whether a student constantly makes hundreds on tests or a fifty, each student should be given positive reinforcement in class. Effective teachers should exhibit positive expectations to ensure each student believes they can excel. Transmitting positive reinforcement by telling each student they have high abilities and are a capable learner will allow students to excel to their highest abilities. In addition, setting positive expectations in the classroom will help students who do not have proper motivation and support at home. Effective teachers should always exhibit enthusiasm in the classroom. Enthusiasm will allow your students to be interested in class discussions and classroom activities. Effective teachers should speak in expressive ways, not a monotone style. In addition, gestures with arms and constantly moving around the classroom will allow your students to be interested in the classroom discussion. Effective teacher should also maintain eye contact with their students at all times. Educators need to have proper classroom management skills in order to be effective teachers. Classroom management is not about disciplining your class, it deals with how to effectively manage the classroom. Classroom management deals with how to take roll, keep an effective grade book and how to discipline students. One of the most important skills for an effective teacher to master is how to design and implement lessons in the classroom. Designing lessons involves how to cater the needed curriculum into discussions, activities and assignments. In addition, an effective teacher should also be able to evaluate whether or not their students mastered the lesson. 139 An effective teacher should always establish rapport with their students. Establishing interpersonal relationships with students is crucial to form a trusting bond with each student. Effective teachers should be available outside of class to answer questions and provide additional help to students. In addition, an effective teacher should show tolerance to differing points of view during class. Activity: Make a list of different characteristics that a teacher should possess to be an effective teacher share it with your peers and see how many characteristics are common and how many differ. 7.2 Communication and Effective Teaching 7.2.1 Communication What is communication? According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary the word means the act of imparting, especially news, or the science and practice of transmitting information. These definitions clearly show the link between teaching and communication: teachers are constantly imparting new knowledge, or transmitting information. Hubley (1993) has shown us that communication is a complex process. Communication Process 140 At any stage of this process things may go wrong, making the communication less effective. For instance, the sender may not express what he/she wants to say clearly; or the room may be noisy; or the receiver may not understand the words the sender is using. To be effective, teachers have to try to minimize these barriers to communication. We do this in a number of ways - for example, by making sure that the room is quiet and well lit; by speaking slowly and clearly; by only using words which the students should be able to understand. However, the most important way to overcome the barriers is two-way communication. Two-way communication This means getting regular feedback from the receivers (the students in this case): do they really understand what we are trying to put across? Communication does not only take place by means of words; non-verbal communication (or body language) is equally important. We are all familiar with the different kinds of non-verbal communication Non-verbal communication/body language 141 This kind of communication is usually subconscious - we use it without thinking about it; that is why we say that \'it is difficult to lie in body language\'. If teachers really attend to the body language of their students they will know when they are bored or confused. From the body language of their teachers students pick up whether they are confident and enthusiastic. 7.2.2 Communication of Material 1. Person-to-Person Communication: Presentation Skills Some teachers like to talk, and expect the students to write down what they say and to learn it (this style encourages superficial learning - and rapid forgetting!). Other teachers see their role as one of helping the students to learn at a deeper level - to understand new ideas and concepts so well that they can apply them in a work situation. Either way, these teachers will do a better job if they communicate well with their students. An important element of communication in teaching is the use of teaching aids. We have all heard the saying: What I hear, I forget; what I see, I remember; what I do, I know. Pictures, written posters and practical demonstrations improve communication and we should use them as much as possible. Most of us have access to paper, posters, a chalkboard, or an overhead projector. We can use these to prepare aids for our lessons: summaries of important facts, or pictures and diagrams. The overhead projector is particularly useful, because it al lows us to face our students while using it. How can I know whether I am communicating well as a teacher? Communication is a skill - and we improve our skills by getting feedback on the way we perform them. We can get such feedback by asking an experienced colleague to sit in on our teaching, and to give us feedback. We can also ask someone to record us on a videotape as we teach which we then inspect critically afterwards. In either case the feedback will be better if we use a checklist to judge our performance. Checklist for Communication during Teaching About the Style of Presentation Does the teacher speak clearly? (loud enough; not too fast; faces the class; avoids mannerisms like \'um\') Is the teacher\'s non-verbal communication suitable? (appropriate gestures and expressions; moves around; eye contact with whole class) Does the teacher speak understandably? (uses words that the students should be able to understand) Is the speed of presentation right? (the students must be able to absorb the material that is presented) Is there two-way communication? (the teacher checks regularly if the students have understood) Is there evidence of a good relationship between teacher and students? (teacher and students respect each other, listen to each other) 142 About the Content Does the teacher emphasize important knowledge? (the main messages are clear and emphasized, unnecessary detail is left out) Is information presented in a logical sequence? (bits of information follow logically after one each other - easy to understand and remember) About the Place Where the Teaching is Happening Is the place conducive to good communication? (enough lights; no noise from outside) Are the students comfortable? (adequate seating; students can see the teacher; not too hot/cold) About the Use of Teaching Aids 2. Are the teaching aids relevant? (the aids only deal with the subject matter of the lesson, and clarify it) Are the teaching aids well prepared? (only contain highlights/main points; neat; different colours are used) Are the teaching aids easy to read and understand? (letters and pictures are large enough; not too much crammed onto one aid) Are the teaching aids skillfully used? (the teacher handles them with confidence; uses a pointer; does not mix them up) Written Communication: Handouts Teachers communicate by speaking, but also by writing. We have seen how we can improve the overhead projector transparencies we use, if we write them carefully. The same is true of the handouts that almost all teachers prepare for their students. What is a handout? It is not a photo copy of a journal article, or of some pages out of a textbook. Rather, it is a document which the teacher writes him/ herself. It may be a summary of important points to be learnt; or a guide to students on work they have to do, or references they have to look up. Teachers may use handouts for students to refer to during a lesson, and students will definitely use them in their self-study time. Because handouts are such an important way of communicating with students, they must communicate effectively. Checklist for Writing Good Handouts About the Contents Does it emphasize important knowledge? (makes clear what is important - the students don\'t know) Does it present information in a logical sequence? (information logically connected, so it is easy to understand and to learn) Is it scientifically accurate and up-to-date? (information is true, comprehensive, in-line with current thinking) About the Style of Writing Are the sentences short? (not more than 20 words; one idea per sentence) Are active verbs used as much as possible? (\'feed children regularly\' not \'children should be regularly fed\') 143 Are the readers likely to understand the words? (no jargon; using the simplest word that will say what you want it to say) About the Layout/Presentation Is it legible/easy to read? (handwriting, copies photocopies clear) Is it well spaced and not too full? (a page crammed full of print is discouraging, boring, difficult to read) Is it striking and interesting? (different letter sizes; bold font used for emphasis; pictures or diagrams included) These days many teaching institutions have websites where teachers put their handouts for the students to find. It doesn\'t matter whether the handout is on paper or on a website - it still needs to be well written. Activity: With the help of your teacher prepare a checklist for effective communication of material. 7.3 Motivation of Students Definition The word motivation refers to getting someone moving. When we motivate ourselves or someone else, we develop incentives or we set up conditions that start or stop behaviour. In education, motivation deals with the problem of setting up conditions so that learners will perform to the best of their abilities in academic settings. We often motivate learners by helping them develop an expectancy that a benefit will occur as a result of their participation in an instructional experience. In short: Motivation is concerned with the factors that stimulate or inhibit the desire to engage in behaviour. "The concept of motivation is linked closely to other constructs in education and psychology such as constructs of attention, needs, goals and interests which are all contribute to stimulating students' interest in learning and their intention to engage in particular activities and achieve various goals." (Krause, K.L, Bochner, S, & Duchesne, S., 2003) Types of Motivation There are 2 types of motivation. They are extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation as illustrated in figure Figure: Types of motivation 144 1. 2. Extrinsic Motivation Motivation is concerned with the factors that stimulate or inhibit the desire to engage in behaviour. Teachers use extrinsic motivation to stimulate learning or encourage students to perform in a particular way. It is one of the most powerful motivations. It is operative when an individual is motivated by an outcome that is external or somehow related to the activity in which she or he is engaged. In other words, Morris and Maisto said that: "Extrinsic motivation refers to rewards that are obtained not from the activity, but as a consequence of the activity." (Morris & Maisto, 2002) This motivation arises from the use of external rewards or bribes such as food, praise, free time, money or points toward an activity. These incentives are all external, in that they are separate from the individual and the task. Example, a child may do chores not because he enjoys them but because doing so earns an allowance and students who are extrinsically motivated may study hard for a test in order to obtain a good grade in the course. Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation refers to rewards provided by an activity itself. Intrinsic motivation arises from internal factors. The motivation arises from internal factors such as a child's natural feeling of curiosity, exigent, confidence and satisfaction when performing a task. People who are involved in a task because of intrinsic motivation appear to be engaged and even consumed, since they are motivated by the activity itself and not some goal that is achieved at the end or as a result of the activity. Intrinsic motivation is the ultimate goal in education at every level. Example: Children play game for no other reward than the fun they get from the game itself or students who are intrinsically motivated may study hard for a test because he or she enjoys the contents of the course. Self Assessment Questions 1. 2. 3. 1. What is motivated behaviour? Review the key concepts in motivation such as extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and consider how these apply to you? Can you identify if and how your motivation changes over time in the course you are studying at the moment? What factors have influenced your motivation to read or study or attend to listen to lectures in the past few weeks? Are these internal or external factors? Theories of Motivation Different psychological perspectives explain motivation in four different ways. Let us explore four of these perspectives; behavioural, humanistic, cognitive and social. The Behavioural Perspective According to the behaviourist view of learning, when children are rewarded with praise and a gold star for doing their job correctly, they will look forward to the 145 next mathematics lesson, anticipating another rewards. At some time in the past, they must have been rewarded for similar achievements and this experience acts as a motivator for future learning of a similar type. For behaviourists, motivation is simply a product of effective contingent reinforcement. So, they emphasize the use of extrinsic reinforcement to stimulate students' task engagement. The reinforcement can take the form of praise, a smile, an early mark or loss of privileges such as missing out on sport. According to Brody: "Almost all teachers use extrinsic reinforcement in some form to motivate students, although they may not realize they are doing so and may not always use such reinforcement effectively." (Brody, 1992 in Krause, et. al, 2003) 2. The Humanistic Perspective The humanist theory of motivation is interesting because it is not only linked to achievement and education, but also has implications for students' welfare and well-being through its concern with basic needs. It stresses on students' capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose their destiny and positive qualities. There are two theories of motivation from humanistic perspective: (a) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Maslow (1954) perceived motivation in terms of a hierarchy of needs that can also conceived as 'motives'. According to Maslow's model, once basic physiological needs have been satisfied, efforts are directed toward achieving needs associated with safety, love and belonging, and self esteem. Figure: Maslow's Theory of Motivation 146 (b) Roger's Motivation Theory Carl Roger's ideas are also influential in discussing the nature of motivation and its impact to human lives. Rogers argued that: Behaviour was influenced by the individual's perception of both personal and People should listen to their 'inner voices' or innate capacity to judge what was good for themselves, rather than 3. Motivation Through Teacher Personality One aspect of motivation, probably the hardest to change, lies in the personality of the teacher. Like all human beings, teachers perceive the behaviours that are appropriate in a given environment. The classroom environment can be one of the most demanding environments on individuals\' perceptions of their self-worth. In addition, from my own experience, most children exhibit the ability to see through a person\'s actions, recognizing those actions as genuine or fake. Consequently, the teacher\'s task of exhibiting the characteristics necessary to motivate a class is a careful daily process that inevitably meets some failure and need for improvement. Various characteristics of teachers are perceived as important for motivating students to learn. In Escalante\'s opinion, the required characteristics of a motivating teacher are obvious concern and caring for the students. According to Meek (1989), Escalante explained that \"a teacher has to possess love and knowledge and then has to use this combined passion to be able to accomplish something\" (p. 47). As stated by Vasquez (1988), \"Student perceptions of whether the teacher cares for them have meaningful effects on their performance and behaviour\" (p. 248). Vasquez compiled several studies and sources that indicate the importance of caring in a teacher who motivates students to learn. He noted, \"Students who perceived that, while teachers would not lower their standards for them, teachers were willing to reach out to them and provide needed assistance in practical ways, were the highest achievers\" (p. 249). 147 While love and caring seem to be the most important characteristics for a teacher to exhibit, some writers also include humor and high expectations of students. Hunsaker (1988) claims that \"the main value of humor in the classroom lies in its use to stimulate, illustrate, motivate, and ease tensions\" (p. 285). Weaver and Cotrell (1987) studied the effects of humor in the classroom. They explain that in the classroom, students want most to see instructors as real human beings. Weaver and Cotrell (1987) established a ten-step, systematic sequence for becoming more comfortable using humor in the classroom: 1. Smile/be lighthearted. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Be spontaneous/natural. a) Relax control a little/break the routine occasionally. b) Be willing to laugh at yourself/don\'t take yourself so seriously. Foster an informal climate/be conversational and loose. Begin class with a thought for the day, a poem, a short anecdote, or a humorous example. Use stories and experiences that emerge from the subject matter. Use personal experiences. Relate things to the everyday life of students. Plan lectures/presentations in short segments with humor injected. Plan a commercial break use a slide or overhead. Encourage a give-and-take climate between yourself and students. Learn their names. Ask students to supply you with some of their jokes, stories, or anecdotes. Share these. 10. Tell a joke or two. Do outrageous things. Admit you\'re no good at it. Appear human. Along with using humor, it has been found that teachers who motivate students have high expectations of them. Vasquez (1988) indicated that \"high expectations are communicated to the student through different types of cues, verbal or nonverbal, and the student\'s performance is consequently affected\". He emphasized that students are affected by the high expectations of a teacher even if the student has negative expectations about that teacher. Glasser (1989) indicated that students will often work harder in a job at McDonald\'s than in school because they have been given a standard for quality work. According to Glasser (1989), the primary prerequisite to a solid, motivational routine is an identifiable standard of quality. When this quality is attained and explained to the students, they will work hard to maintain it. Teachers can determine a standard of quality and expect students to meet that standard. When teachers set a sufficiently high standard with clearly specified ways of attaining that standard, students will begin to have more success in meeting high expectations. 148 Motivation through Interaction and Worthwhile Tasks Although a teacher\'s personality is of great importance in motivating students, teachers can also elicit students\' desires to learn by a variety of teaching techniques. Most teachers think that motivational teaching has to be entertaining; this perception is not necessarily accurate. As discussed in the previous section, much of motivation is dependent on the teacher\'s personality; consequently, the learning experience will depend on the interaction between the lesson structure and the teacher\'s personality. Teachers must be comfortable with themselves as well as with the tasks they are using in their lessons. Palardy and Palardy (1987) point out that \"regardless of the cause, and regardless of the teachers\' years of experience, teachers who are uneasy are going to communicate that uneasiness to their pupils. When this happens, the door to restlessness among pupils is wide open\". As a teacher attains sincere concern for the students while allowing humor and expectations to increase, students\' restlessness will decrease and learning tasks will motivate students more easily. Also important to any learning experience is the interaction between the teacher and students. In his book High Impact Teaching, Brown (1988) emphasized the following statements repeatedly: \"Teaching is interaction that facilitates learning if you can\'t interact with them, you can\'t teach them\". The reason many teachers cannot interact with students is that they have not developed respect for the students. Brown (1988) presented five postulates for establishing and maintaining an atmosphere of mutual respect between teachers and students: Teaching is interaction that facilitates learning. Differences must not only be tolerated, they must be affirmed. Values are neither right nor wrong; they simply exist in all of us. Freedom to choose is one of the most precious rights we have. Those who dare to teach must never cease to learn. (pp. 7-8) Even though these statements seem basic to any foundation of education, they are seldom fully used. For instance, the second postulate encourages the affirmation of differences; yet most teachers treat all students alike. All students can do the same work; they can all be treated the same way. Such attitudes interrupt the interaction that is being nurtured. Not all students want to go to college; not all students want to make a lot of money or live as middle class citizens. When a teacher can accept those differences, the teacher has opened a door to interaction. Instead of having a class full of students, the teacher will have, for example, a \"specialist\" in 4 x 4 trucks, another \"specialist\" in rock music, and still another \"specialist\" in street talk or rap. Drawing from the expertise of these specialists, the teacher has many additional areas from which to present illustrations and real situations that can create the desire for students to learn. Brown (1988) states that \"regardless of the lifestyle pursued, its quality is improved by the knowledge and skills acquired through active participation in the learning process\" (p. 36). Another of the postulates that deserves comment is \"those who dare to teach must never cease to learn\" (Brown, 1988, p. 8). Society is changing every day. Consequently, the 149 subjects taught are also changing to meet the needs of this new society. In addition to the subject areas, teachers also need to be aware of student lifestyles. In an article on developing humor, Weaver and Cotrell (1987) point out, \"One factor that creates distance between instructors and students is that the interests of the instructors vary dramatically from the interests of students\" (p. 174). They went on to encourage reading the student newspaper, going to student-oriented movies, listening to \"their\" music, reading some of \"their\" books or magazines, attending student events. An instructor\'s interest in these events reveals a caring attitude toward the students (Weaver & Cotrell, 1987). Teachers who feel they can come in and teach their subject matter without taking the initiative to learn more about their students\' interests are losing a great motivational technique. For many teachers, learning about their students\' lives will be a unique challenge; yet it is essential in order to be the type of teacher that will truly impact students\' lives. The teaching techniques discussed thus far have dealt specifically with promoting interaction in the classroom. There are several other techniques that have been found to be very motivational. One of these techniques is cooperative learning. Escalante implements cooperative learning as a team approach: \"I make them believe that we have a team which is going to prepare for the Olympics\" (Meek, 1989, p. 47). The \"Olympics\" or goal to be achieved can be determined by the teacher or the class. For Escalante, it was the Advanced Placement calculus examination. For another teacher, it may be an organizational competition, college, a group or school project, or simply the next unit test. Again, an important aspect about any technique used is that it must allow the teacher to feel comfortable with its implementation. Much has been written recently on cooperative learning. Brown (1988) recommends the use of the THINK-PAIR-SHARE model where students take time to develop answers to important questions, share their answers with a partner, and then reveal their results to the class in order to encourage the participation of each student in the class. In my classroom, I have used this method to help shorten the amount of time spent reviewing homework. Each student has a class partner with whom to compare the solutions to difficult problems. If a pair requires help after discussing a problem, we review the difficult problem as a class. Since the desired outcome of any motivational strategy is participation by each student, this type of cooperative learning can be a very effective strategy for teachers to use. Many studies include the use of competition within the cooperative learning context. In fact, Slavin (1988) has conducted extensive research on what he calls \"student team learning.\" This approach to instruction entails the use of student teams, each working cooperatively, competing as groups with the other student teams in the class. Many school systems have utilized student team learning with much success (Allen & Van Sickle, 1984; Frechtling, Raber, & Ebert, 1984; Lockwood, 1988). Maller (1929) a predecessor of Slavin, indicated, \"In any study of incentives the element of competition holds a prominent place. It usually causes an act to be performed better or faster than it is performed by others or than the individual himself performed it before\". 150 Many teachers have incorporated strategies involving competition, such as student team learning, into the routine of their classrooms. The routine starts with the teacher\'s assignment of students to learning teams. The teacher then presents a lesson, and the students work within their groups to master the concepts. At the end of a unit or a week, the teacher gives individual quizzes and compares team scores or team improvements; some teachers conduct a type of tournament during which some sort of quiz is given. Peterson and Fennema (1985) concluded that competition is more motivational for boys and may even have a negative effect on girls. They also reported that girls performed better in cooperative learning environments while these environments were statistically ineffective for boys. Although Peterson and Fennema did not study the combined effect of cooperation and competition, Manos (1988) showed that students in a delinquency prevention program benefited from and enjoyed student team learning which involves both cooperation and competition. Creative problem solving is another motivational tool that is gaining in popularity. Since the teacher is attempting to relate to the students\' environment, it is important to see the way in which students would solve problems. Brown (1988) explains it this way: An effective way to solicit contributions indicating what students already know is through a process of creative problem solving. You may begin by having your class engage in brainstorming exercises designed to produce possible solutions for problems that affect the human condition. (p. 39) This technique is motivational in that it requires eliciting responses from each student. It must be in a context of learning in which no one would feel exempt. Schwartz also recommends using newspaper articles, magazines, and government documents as excellent sources for problems. Using such sources for problem solving will generate motivation as well as a context for learning that will provide future benefits for the students. Brown (1988) indicates, \"One strategy for reducing the ability of students to predict what will take place in the classroom is the use of counter-intuitive interventions. By definition, things which fall into this category defy immediate comprehension by most students, but are not incomprehensible\" (p. 48). Brown includes many different things as counter-intuitive: Selections from Ripley\'s \"Believe It or Not,\" optical illusions created by mirrors or straight lines, perpetual motion displays, dancing mothballs in a solution of vinegar and water, and creative uses of the center of gravity for balance are examples of things that work well. Motivation Due to Environment Although the personality of the teacher and the learning tasks in the classroom can be developed to create more effective teaching through motivation, a quality atmosphere for learning in the classroom can also be a motivational factor that contributes to effective teaching. Most teachers have experienced that, as the year progresses and the pressures 151 mount, there is a tendency to limit the creativity in lesson plans in order to survive until the next holiday. Although it would be desirable to come up with some dynamic way of presenting the next topic, the stack of papers on the desk leaves little time for the teacher to do anything beyond the minimum. Because times like this will occur, it is good to know that there are methods that can be used to maintain a motivating environment within a pressured routine. The use of routines can establish a comfortable atmosphere for learning because students know what to expect. It is important, however, that these routines not become mundane and boring. Establishing classroom routines that include the motivational techniques previously discussed will help prevent the routines from becoming mundane. Johnson (1982) feels that his classroom routines help promote student success. During his routine for the end of the class period, his greatest goal is \"to have the students leave class with confidence knowing that they have succeeded in mastering the objectives for the day\" (p. 40). Having the students leave the classroom with a feeling of accomplishment is important in maintaining a motivating environment. When a student feels that he is succeeding in a class, he will continue to build the intrinsic motivation to succeed (Vasquez, 1988). If the students can leave the classroom feeling that they are more competent than before they started to learn and their work can be recognized as a good job by anyone\'s standards, including their own, then quality education has been achieved. Along with the classroom routines and the development of success of students comes the inevitable in any classroom environment discipline. Since motivated students would be indicated by students who are on task, act responsibly, and show good human relations, teachers who maintain effective discipline elicit characteristics in students that are important to motivating students. A teacher who truly cares for the students will maintain consistent discipline because of its effects on learning, regardless of the students\' dislike for such discipline. Many techniques can be used. Among these techniques is the use of preventative strategies that focus students\' attention on behaviours to attain rather than on behaviours to avoid. Palardy and Palardy (1987) discuss nine preventative strategies: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Teachers must feel comfortable with themselves, their pupils, and their subject matter. Teachers must believe in their students\' capacity and propensity for appropriate classroom conduct. Teachers must ensure that their instructional activities are interesting and relevant. Teachers must match their instructional activities with their pupils\' capabilities. Teachers must involve their pupils in setting up \"the rules\". Teachers must make certain that their pupils know and understand \"the routine.\". 152 7. 8. 9. Teachers must identify their problem times. Teachers must remember that pupils are not \"little adults\". Teachers must give evidence that they genuinely like and respect their pupils. Most of these techniques can be seen as caring actions taken by a teacher whose role goes far beyond merely being a school district employee. Activity: Create a section in your classroom management plan that addresses motivation. In a few pages outline the principles and strategies you will use to support the motivational levels in your classroom. 7.4 Provision of Environment Conducive to Learning The learning environment plays a very important role in creating a happy learning atmosphere. An environment conducive to learning can improve students' active participation and the effectiveness of teaching. That is why we need to review the learning environment. The learning environment in a classroom includes the physical conditions of the classroom (temperature, hygiene, air circulation, interior design, etc), the arrangement of the classroom, its management and use of learning resources. For this activity discussion will focus on the use of learning resources, the arrangement of the students and displays of student work. In reality, conducive to learning environments do not just happen, they are the result of effective classroom management that establish and maintain work systems for pupils to engage in their learning. A conducive to learning environment is one that is task-oriented and predictable, where pupils know what is expected of them and how to succeed. Pupils in these classrooms are consistently engaged in the learning tasks that their teachers have set for them and very few pupil behaviours interfere with those tasks (Emmer & Evertson, 1981; Doyle, 1990; Munn, Johnstone, & Chalmers, 1990). For education in school to be effective, the environment needs to be conducive to learning, allowing the pupils space and time to interact within the learning and teaching process. Creating and maintaining stimulating learning environments can be achieved through effective classroom organization, interactive and whole school displays and a climate of innovation. The learning environment plays a very important role in creating a happy learning atmosphere. A conducive environment can improve students' active participation and the effectiveness of teaching. That is why we need to review the learning environment. The learning environment in a classroom includes the physical conditions of the classroom (temperature, hygiene, air circulation, interior design, etc), the arrangement of the classroom, its management and use of learning resources. For this activity discussion will focus on the use of learning resources, the arrangement of the students and displays of student work. 153 Govender (1997) relates the learning environment which is inclusive of some of the following, lecture halls, individual study areas, libraries, instructional materials, support services and options available must not simply permit learning to occur in the educational institution. All environments should be conducive in a way so as to enhance the learning process. Going further, conducive learning can also include classroom management which means more than just maintaining strict and rigid control over the class and its content it means establishing a comfortable environment that allows everyone to learn and participate freely" How to Create a Good Learning Environment Creating a good learning environment to meet learners\' needs involves adjusting classroom elements that within the instructors control. A learning environment that is conducive to learning takes into consideration the comfort of all learners. Good lighting, seating, room temperature, acoustics and visual aids will ensure that participants are comfortable and engaged. Good Lighting for Learning Good lighting can not only improve the ambiance of a space but promote learning by improving visibility and the energy level within the room. Lighting can be altered by choosing when to have the full complement of lights turned on, when to use just natural light (if the room has windows) and creating a warm reading space with the addition of floor or table lamps or creating a seated task area with task lighting. Arranging Seating to Allow for Active Learning Training room layout or the seating arrangement is one factor that can be changed in most classrooms. Use the opportunity to create a space that is conducive to the activities planned such as a horseshoe arrangement for discussions, pods for small group activities and theatre style for large participant numbers where demonstrations or lectures are the main delivery style. Make sure that the room is large enough for the number of participants; cramped rooms can distract learners. Comfortable Room Temperature Keeps Learners Engaged Room temperature can influence attention spans and learning. It is important to check the room temperature and close blinds, open windows, use space heaters etc. if necessary. Basic comfort is needed if learners are to retain the information they are learning. Test room acoustics to see if sound equipment is necessary. If the room is large and the participant numbers is in excess of 50 people, a microphone and speakers may be necessary in order for the presenters or instructors voice to carry to the back of the room. Bad acoustics can be highly frustrating for learners who are intent on hearing the message. Good conference phone equipment is also important if learners are calling in to the session. Speakers may also be required if audio presentations such as video clips are shown. 154 Visual Aids Need to be Seen by All Learners Visual aids can have a huge positive impact on learners' ability to understand key concepts. However, if visual aids are poorly designed and are not visible to all learners within the classroom, they lose their impact. Choose font sizes of no less than 20 in PowerPoint presentations and choose backgrounds that are light with dark colored font. Comfortable learners are engaged learners and so it is important for instructors to consider the elements that they can control to create a classroom environment that is conducive to learning. Activity: Illustrate through picture what type of classroom environment you will provide to your students for learning? 7.5 Classroom Management Classroom management is the term educators use to describe methods of preventing misbehaviour and dealing with it if it arises. In other words, it is the techniques teachers use to maintain control in the classroom. Classroom management is one of the most feared parts of teaching for new teachers. For the students, lack of effective classroom management can mean that learning is reduced in the classroom. For the teacher, it can cause unhappiness and stress and eventually lead to individuals leaving the teaching profession. The ability of teachers to recognize classrooms and manage the behaviour of their students is critical to achieve positive educational outcomes. Although sound behaviour management does not guarantee effective instruction, it establishes the environmental context that makes good instruction possible. Reciprocally, highly effective instruction deduces, but does not eliminate, classroom behaviour problems. Structuring a classroom so that it supports positive student behaviour requires forethought and planning. Highly effective teachers structure the classroom environment so that it decreases the likelihood of inappropriate student behaviour increases desirable student interactions and set up students for success. Effective classroom structuring requires attention to the following features: Creating a physical arrangement that eases traffic flow, minimizes distractions, and provides teachers with good access to students in order to respond to their questions and better control behaviour. Making efficient use of classroom time, including transitions between various classroom activities. Ensuring that the nature and quality of student interactions is positive. 155 Clearly communicating appropriate behaviours for particular classroom activities. For example, student may be expected to interact with one another during cooperative learning activities but not during independent work at their seats. According to specialists in the field of education, school and classroom management aims at encouraging and establishing student self-control through a process of promoting positive student achievement and behaviour. Thus academic achievement, teacher efficacy, and teacher and student behaviour are directly linked with the concept of school and classroom management. Classroom management focuses on three major components: contents management, conduct management, and covenant management. Each of these concepts is defined and presented with details in a list of observable elements in effective teaching practices. Researchers showed that a high incidence of classroom disciplinary problems has a significant impact on the effectiveness of teaching and learning. In this respect, it has been found that teachers facing such issues fail to plan and design appropriate instructional tasks. They also tend to neglect variety in lesson plans and rarely prompt students to discuss or evaluate the materials that they are learning. In addition, student comprehension or seat work is not monitored on a regular basis. In contrast, strong and consistent management and organizational skills have been identified as leading to fewer classroom discipline problems. How do the most effective teachers... manage behaviour in their multi-ethnic, multi-cultural classrooms? develop and use classroom rules and routines? use classroom consequences that work? design positive behavioural supports for challenging behaviours? avoid career- and health-threatening frustration and burnout? The establishment and maintenance of safe and supportive classrooms that contribute to high quality student achievement are critical skills that are rarely taught at the university. Consequently, those skills must be crafted and honed "on the job." Each school and each classroom presents its own unique challenges, and because every year brings a new group of students, teachers must become lifelong learners. The foundation of this learning lies in just a few research-supported principles and actions. Everything starts with TEACH: T -- Tailor for diversity. Make it a point to know as much as possible about your students, including their diverse cultural, ethnic, behavioural, and learning characteristics, along with stressors they may experience outside of school. 156 E -- Encourage positive behaviour. Aim for a 4:1 ratio of positive comments to negative corrections for all the students. A -- Arrange the environment for success. Teach your behavioural expectations directly and immediately through collaboratively-established classroom rules and well-designed classroom routines. C -- Consult your peers. Seek collaboration with experienced teachers and specialists before difficult problems start to become entrenched. H -- Hug yourself. Prevent stress and burnout by focusing each day on what you are accomplishing and not just on what is frustrating. To help you implement the TEACH guideline, we have put together the next section that elaborates, clarifies, and expands on these five essential principles. In well taught lessons, with pace, variety and challenge, behaviour problems were uncommon; in others order was maintained by spending a disproportionate amount of time quelling trivial but continual disruption and talking about behaviour, often to the detriment of pupils\' learning. Where teaching is poor and teachers\' expectations are low, pupils get bored and behaviour deteriorates. Hence the following tips are offered as suggestions for improving classroom management by more effective teaching and learning: 1) Give students an overview of what they are learning. Don\'t teach isolated segments of content without showing how they link into the whole. 2) 3) 4) 5) Help students to understand the relevance of what they are learning. Not only in terms of practical usefulness, but also how it relates to other areas of knowledge or the overall subject matter. Use a variety of approaches for both input and student presentation of work. Research shows that students have different learning styles so a variety in both input and output allows more students to work in their preferred style. It is not only to encourage the participation of students less able in reading and writing, but also allows more able students to develop creativity. Make tasks clear. Investing time at the outset by giving a full explanation to the whole class can save time later having to clarify the task for individual students. This may also involve teaching the language of the subject so that instructions are understood (key words and definitions can be kept on display in a subject classroom). Use tutorial groups to have regular personal contact with students in a manageable way. Establish ground rules for this so that the rest of the class remains on task whilst you are talking to a particular group. 157 6) 7) 8) Use a variety of resources - video, audio, pictures, books etc and establish a system (colour coding, clear labeling) which enables students to access and replace resources easily so that the teacher does not become the resource manager. Design activities to develop understanding rather than closed questions to produce the right answers (right answers and understanding do not always go hand in-hand). Activities that require the student to process information rather than just transfer it from one place to another will improve motivation by challenging the student as well as deepen understanding. When producing your own resources make them into learning guides which give an overview of the learning objectives of the task, provide prompts as to which resources could be used, and how the presentation of information could be made etc. to avoid students being over-reliant on the teacher to start and get on with their work. Dimensions of Classroom Management Morgado (2005) defined a Model of Differentiation in Classroom Management that can promote quality and inclusion and help the teachers to deal with the differences between pupils inside classrooms. The Model is designed in six dimensions. In each of one, teachers should be considering different forms to carry out their work. A. B. C. D. E. F. Organization of pupils work -- this dimension is related to the different ways and goals that teachers can use to organize the functioning of pupils. Evaluation -- in this dimension we consider all the processes related to the evaluation and regulation of learning and teaching process including procedures and devices. Planning -- here we include the educational planning process namely curricular management. Materials/Resources -- in this dimension we analyse the importance attached to the use of different materials and resources to support learning and teaching process and the criteria to choose them. Learning activities/Tasks -- here we underline the importance attached to use of different learning activities and tasks considering the diversity of learning styles of pupils. Social Climate -- this dimension is essentially directed for social interactions between pupils and between teacher and pupils.