Educ 8 LM 1: The Teacher and the Community (PDF)

LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY The Teacher and the Community A Collection of Learning Modules for Educ 8 based on Bern’s (2010) “Child, Family, School, Community: Socialization and Support” and additional topics on School Culture and Organizational Leadership Prepared by: ELVIS P. PATULIN LUCILLE G. TANGUIHAN RAYMON P. ESPAŇOLA College of Teacher Education First Semester, AY 2020-2021 Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 1 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY PREFACE Greetings of good health and well-being! This collection of learning modules is your ultimate guide for your independent study in the classroom, within the school campus, or at your home. This contains a total of seven modules that will help you acquire a good level of understanding and confidence in explaining, analyzing, and appreciating the indispensable role of the teacher in the ecology of learners, the ecology of socialization, the ecology of the school, and the ecology of the community, including its contribution to the development of school culture and application of instructional leadership. Your course instructor will be by your side; he will walk you through each module and accompany you in your journey towards the completion of this course. You are urged to set your best foot forward, prepare your strongest academic skills, such as planning, time management, deep learning strategies, self-monitoring, self- evaluation, and adaptive help-seeking to ensure productive and fruitful experiences with this learning material. Best of luck and enjoy! Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 2 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface ……………………………...………………………..……………………. 2 Table of contents ……………...……………………………………….…………. 3 Module 1 Ecology of Learners ….……….………………….…………………… 4 Module 2: Socialization: Basic concepts …………..………….…………..…… 27 Module 3: Ecology of the Schools …………..…………………..……………… 71 Module 4: Ecology of Teaching ………….……………………………………… 91 Module 5: Ecology of the Community ………….………………………..……… 125 Module 6: School Culture ………………….…………..………………………… 146 Module 7: Organizational Leadership: Instructional Leadership …………….. 172 Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 3 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY MODULE 1: THE ECOLOGY OF LEARNERS INTRODUCTION Our learning and development occur within the context of interconnected social worlds or ecologies. In this module, you are going to learn about the ecology of learners and the various social forces that are at play in such ecology. Ultimately, you are expected to develop or deepen your understanding on the ecological model of development, which is a theoretical perspective that assumes that the development of any learner occurs through various interactions of different agents of socialization, such as parents, peers, and community members. This understanding is necessary for you to see and appreciate later on in this course where the teacher gets into the ecology of learners. That is, the intention of this module is begin our journey on the learners’ world, and from there, we will find our way towards understanding the teacher and the community. TOPICS Ecology, Socialization, and Adaptation Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory TIME FRAME Face-to-face classroom interaction intended for introducing this module : 1hr Self-guided study and other learning tasks : 5hrs INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES. At the end of this module, you’re expected to: 1. Define ecology and socialization and explain how they are related; 2. Explain socialization as a reciprocal dynamic process and how it relates to adaptation; 3. Describe microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem and explain how they are interrelated; 4. Explain the impact of chronosystem on micro- and mesosystems; and 5. Create a simple concept map (Concept Map 1) that demonstrates your understanding of the ecology of a developing/learning child and highlight where the teacher stands in the such ecology. PRE-TEST. Before embarking on the learning tasks that you are about to do, check first your prior knowledge. Answer these questions briefly. What is ecology? How does it relate with the concept of socialization? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 4 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ What is socialization? How does it relate to development and adaptation? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ What are the key assumptions of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ LEARNING ACTIVITY: SELF-GUIDED STUDY Do a personal outline and summary of the learning content below. Do this in long- size bond papers or with the aid of a word processor (e.g., Microsoft Word, in case you have a personal computer or laptop; to be printed in long-size bond papers). Be guided with the rubric found in the Appendices section. LEARNING CONTENT: Taken from Berns (2010) Ecology, Change and Children How does growing up in a changing world affect how children are socialized? The concept of ecology can be applied to humans. Human ecology involves the biological, psychological, social, and cultural contexts in which a developing person interacts and the consequent processes (for example, perception, learning, behavior) that develop over time. As humans develop, they must continually adapt to change, on a personal, social, and societal level. For example, such forces as demographics, economics, politics, and technology present challenges to human adaptation. One of the purposes of this course is to examine how growing up in a changing world affects the development of children through socialization. Children are socialized and Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 5 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY supported by their families, schools, and communities, in that these significant agents accept responsibility for ensuring children’s wellbeing. These socializing agents nurture children’s development, enabling them to become contributing adults. Socialization and Child Development What is socialization? Socialization is the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge, skills, and character traits that enable them to participate as effective members of groups and society. Socialization is what every parent does: “Help your brother button his jacket.” “We use tissues, not our sleeves, to wipe our noses.” Socialization is what every teacher does: “Study your spelling words tonight.” “In our country we have the freedom to worship as we choose.” Socialization is what every religion does: “Honor your father and mother.” “Do not steal.” Socialization is what every culture does via its language, customs, and beliefs. Socialization is what every employer does: “Part of your job is to open the store at 8:00 and put the merchandise on the tables.” “Your request must be in writing.” Socialization is what every government does through its laws and system of punishment for violations. Socialization is what friends do when they accept or reject you on the basis of whether or not you conform to their values. Socialization is what the media do by providing role models of behavior and solutions to common problems. The concept of socialization, including parenting or child rearing, social development, and education, really goes back in time as far as human life: “Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old, he will not depart from it” (Proverbs 22:6). As we shall see, many forces in society contribute to children’s development—as do the children themselves. Socialization takes place in the family, school, peer group, community, as well as via the media. While socialization enables a person to participate in social groups and society, it also enables the very existence of a society and its consequent social order. According to Handel, Cahill, and Elkin (2007, p. 84), socialization occurs over time, through interaction with significant others, by means of communication, in emotionally significant contexts, leading to certain outcomes that are shaped by social groups of varying scopes. Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 6 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Socialization as a Unique Human Process What makes socialization unique to humans? Most social scientists agree that socialization is unique to human beings. More than 75 years ago George Mead (1934), a social interaction theorist, wrote that it is language that sharply separates humans from other animals. Mead goes on to say that language makes ideas and communication of these ideas possible, and language also makes it possible to replace action with thoughts and then use thoughts to transform behavior. A little boy who breaks his mother’s favorite vase and encounters her anger understands her threat the next day when she says, “If you don’t hold your glass with both hands, it might fall and break, and then I will be very angry.” The child now well understands what break and angry mean. Language enables humans to develop the ability to reason, and a characteristic pattern of behavior. It is reason and behavior that enable us to internalize the attitudes of others. (Internalization is the process by which externally controlled behavior shifts to internally, or self-regulated, behavior.) Children internalize the attitudes of their parents in the form of role-taking. They incorporate parental and significant adult expectations into their behavior, thereby becoming socialized as a “generalized other.” They, in turn, have similar expectations of others with whom they interact. These expectations for people to behave appropriately form the foundation for a society. Helen’s thoughts led to behavior that caused her mother to vehemently express her feelings regarding taking other people’s things without permission. Her mother’s communication of values such as this to Helen will lead to Helen’s internalization of self-control. If other children, too, learn to internalize behavioral control (for example, respect each other’s property), then a human society is possible. Socialization as a Reciprocal Dynamic Process How does the child influence his or her developmental outcomes? Socialization begins at birth and continues throughout life. It is a reciprocal process in that when one individual interacts with another, a response in one usually elicits a Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 7 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY response in the other. It is also a dynamic process in that interactions change over time, with individuals becoming producers of responses as well as products of them (Maccoby, 2007). These reciprocal dynamic processes become more complex throughout development. Maturation Maturation refers to developmental changes associated with the biological process of aging. Newborn humans with inherited characteristics come into the world with certain needs and abilities that change as they mature. They are given names, which indicates that they are members of society. They are clothed in the manner appropriate to the society into which they are born. In the United States they are diapered, dressed in stretch suits, and kept in cribs. In certain African societies they are swaddled and put on their mothers’ backs. The way their parents respond to their cries and their needs, the way their parents communicate expectations, the people with whom their parents allow them to spend time (babysitter, relatives, and so on) all contribute to infants’ socialization and consequent development. As children mature, their needs and abilities elicit changes in parental expectations for behavior. Toddlers may need adult assistance when eating; preschoolers can eat independently using some utensils; school-agers are capable of taking some responsibility in meal preparation (such as making sandwiches, using a microwave, or cleaning utensils). Throughout development, children play a role in their own socialization. As most parents will tell you, children sometimes instigate how others treat them. You know that if you smile, you are more likely to get a smile back than if you frown. The way you socialize children is often influenced by their reaction to you. Meaning, not only do children actively contribute to interactions, but in so doing, they affect their own developmental outcomes, transforming themselves in the process and influencing how others reciprocate (Bugental & Grusec, 2006; see Figure 1.1). Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 8 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Genes Biology plays a role in the child’s contribution to his or her developmental outcomes, beginning with the child’s genotype, the total composite of hereditary instructions coded in the genes at the moment of conception. According to Plomin and Asbury (2002) as well as Scarr and McCartney (1983), parents not only pass on genes to children but also provide environments, or contexts for development (see Figure 1.2). In other words, there is a correlation between the influence of one’s genotype and one’s environment on developmental outcomes (Rutter, 2006). Because children inherit genes from their parents, children are “prewired” or predisposed to be affected by the environments their parents provide. This type of genotype– environment interaction is referred to as passive. For example, a child born to intelligent parents will, most likely, possess the genes involved in intelligence. The parents, because of their genotypes and their developmental experience, will likely provide intellectually stimulating things and activities in the home. The child’s “prewiring” will enable him or her to benefit from such stimulation. A story in the Los Angeles Times (Perdomo, 2007) describes two teenage cousins who won a science fair competition on their research on drug-resistant breast cancer cells. Both girls’ parents are physicians and one’s mother is a cell biologist. Hence, the genes from their parents, as well as the scientifically rich environments in which they grew, were contributing factors to their scientific interest and ability. Another type of genotype–environment interaction is evocative, meaning an individual’s genotype will tend to evoke, or elicit, certain responses from the environments in which they interact. For example, a happy, sociable child is more likely to engage others in social activities than is a moody, shy child. Consequently, the happy child tends to experience more warm, responsive environments growing up. Still another type of genotype–environment interaction is active, meaning an individual’s genotype will tend to motivate that person to seek out environments most compatible with his or her genetic “prewiring.” For example, a shy child might prefer solitary activities to group ones, consequently influencing the path of that child’s development. My yoga teacher describes herself as an introspective person. As a child she grew up in a beach community in Southern California. Rather than join the extroverted beach culture, she preferred to daydream, making castles in the sand. Her high school activities were dance and gymnastics. Having those skills, she tried the cheerleading squad, but did not feel comfortable in the “rah-rah” role, so years later chose yoga. Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 9 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Temperament Another aspect of one’s biological makeup, in addition to genes, is temperament— the innate characteristics that determine an individual’s sensitivity to various experiences and responsiveness to social interaction. Research supports what parents have known for centuries: babies are born with different temperaments (Wachs & Bates, 2001). That is, they respond differently physiologically to various experiences. This is evident soon after birth in the individual differences in activity level, distractibility, adaptability to new situations, mood, and so on (see Figure 1.3). Children’s physiological responses fall into three broad temperamental categories: “easy,” “slow-to-warm-up,” and “difficult.” How caregivers respond to their children’s temperaments influences the socialization process. If there is a “goodness of fit” between the child’s temperament and his or her caregivers, then socialization is likely to proceed smoothly (Chess & Thomas, 1987). For example, if the child does not adapt easily to new situations (is a “slow-to-warm-up” child), and the caregivers understand this and are patient (not pushing the child, yet encouraging him or her to get used to new things slowly), then Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 10 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY socialization is likely to be smooth. In a longitudinal (long-term) study on the socialization of conscience, or internal monitor, Kochanska (1995, 1997) found that the use of gentle parenting techniques such as persuasion, rather than harsh power assertion, was more effective in getting timid children to comply; whereas assertive children responded better to harsh power assertion. If, on the other hand, the fit between the child’s temperament and the caregivers’ is poor, socialization is likely to be rough. For example, if the child is very active, responds intensely to people and things, and is moody (a “difficult” child), and the caregivers force him or her to sit still, punish him or her for crying or being frightened, and demand a smile much of the time, then socialization may become a battleground of wills. A longitudinal study of more than 1,000 twins and their families showed that genetically influenced antisocial behavior (difficult temperament) was a significant provoker of parental use of harsh discipline (Jaffee, Caspi, Moffitt, Polo- Thomas, Price, & Taylor, 2004). As infants become children, adolescents, and then adults, they interact with more people and have more experiences. In so doing, they acquire skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, motives, habits, beliefs, interests, morals, and ideals. You may learn to read from your first-grade teacher. You may learn to appreciate music from an uncle who takes you to concerts. You may learn about sportsmanship from your coach and about love from the girl or boy down the street. Thus, from the point of view of society, individuals are socialized to fit into an organized way of life (a social identity). And from a personal point of view, socialization enables them to discover themselves—their potentialities for personal growth and fulfillment (a personal identity). The environment (including various genotype–environment interactions, discussed earlier) also plays its part in the Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 11 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY socialization process. The environment is what the child experiences—the setting, the roles, and the interactions. For example, a child growing up in a large family on a farm has different socialization experiences than does a child growing up in a single- parent family in the city. Over time, children choose and are exposed to many different environments that affect their development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). By going to school, children not only gain knowledge; they also find out in what subjects they do best. As members of a peer group, they not only learn to cooperate; they find out whether they are leaders or followers. One child may discover that he or she likes art, another likes dance, still another prefers sports. As these children are enabled to pursue their interests and their abilities are encouraged, they have different socialization experiences. Intentional and Unintentional Socialization Is all socialization deliberate? Much socialization is intentional, done on purpose. When an adult tells a 6-year-old to share a toy with a 4-year-old sibling, that is intentional socialization. Or when an adult reminds a 10-year-old to write a thank-you note to Grandma, that too is intentional socialization. Thus, when adults have certain values that they consistently convey explicitly to the child, and when they back these up with approval for compliance and negative consequences for noncompliance, it is referred to as intentional socialization. Much of socialization, however, takes place spontaneously during human interaction, without the deliberate intent to impart knowledge or values. Unintentional socialization may be the product of involvement in human interaction or observation of interaction. For example, 4-year-old child approaches two teachers conversing and excitedly says, “Miss Jones, Miss Jones, look!” One teacher says, “Sally, don’t interrupt; we’re talking.” Later that morning Sally and her friend Tanya are busily playing with Legos. Sally is explaining and demonstrating to Tanya how to fit the pieces together. Miss Jones comes over to the block corner and interrupts with, “Girls, please stop what you’re doing and come see what Rene has brought to school.” It is very likely that the message Sally received from the morning’s interactions was that it is not OK for children to interrupt adults, but it is OK for adults to interrupt children. Sometimes, a socialization goal can be intentional on the part of the parents, but have both intentional and unintentional outcomes on the child. For example, toilet training is usually purposeful and deliberate in Western cultures. Behavior-learning techniques for using the potty involve conditioning children to associate the urge to urinate or defecate with using the potty, reinforcement (praise and juice) is used for effort and success. The problem is that not all children respond as intended, and sometimes the outcome of being “toilet-trained” is short-term because of other events in the child’s life. For example, if a new baby enters the family, the toilet- trained child, who has gotten much attention for his or her achievement, may Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 12 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY perceive the new baby as getting attention for wetting its diaper. The toilet-trained child may then regress to wetting his or her pants in order to regain attention. In sum, children take cues, emote, and learn from others’ behavior as well as from their verbal statements. This information is all processed (constructed, interpreted, transformed, and recorded) in the brain to influence future behavior and feelings. Socialization and Adaptation How can socialization help children adapt to change? Socialization is elaborate; it involves many variable and reciprocal experiences, interactions, and environments that affect children’s development. Analyzing some of the variables involved in the socialization process can help people adapt to change. For instance, understanding how the “input”—socialization interactions in various settings and situations—affects the “output” of socialization—values, attitudes, motives and attributions, self-esteem, self-regulation of behavior, morals, and gender roles— may enable us to manipulate that input to induce the desired output (see Table 1.1). A simplified example of this kind of manipulation is described in a classic book, Walden Two, by B. F. Skinner (1948). Walden Two is a utopian community founded on behavioral principles. To learn self-control, young children (age 3 to 4) are given lollipops dipped in sugar at the beginning of the day, to be eaten later, provided that they have not been licked (reinforcement). There are practice sessions in which the children are urged (instruction) to examine their own behavior in the following situations: when the lollipops are concealed, when the children are distracted from thinking about the candy by playing a game, and when the lollipops are in sight. Thus, when the children are given the lollipops again for a real exercise in self-control (learn-by-doing), they have at their disposal some adaptive behaviors to use (put them out of sight or keep busy) to help them avoid the temptation. Another example of how input can be used to affect output is Sherif ’s (1956) classic Robber’s Cave experiment, in which manipulation of the environment was Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 13 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY used first to bring about antisocial behavior (hostility) via competitive strategies between two groups of young boys, and then to reverse that pattern via cooperative strategies. How was this done? To produce friction, competitive tournaments were held—baseball, tug-of-war, touch football, and so on. Frustration led to name-calling, raids, and aggressive behavior. To eliminate this friction, the counselors rigged a series of crises that forced all the boys to work together in order to solve the problem. Once, the water line was deliberately broken; another time, the camp truck broke down just as it was going to town for food. Thus, antisocial behavior gave way to prosocial behavior when a compelling goal for all concerned had to be achieved. The previous examples are illustrations of intentional socialization, in which input affected desired output. In reality, all of us have unique biological characteristics; we come into the world with different “wiring.” As a result, we perceive and interact with the world differently, resulting in a range of outputs. A muscular, coordinated child will tend to be attracted to sports, while a frail, timid child will tend to avoid competitive activities. Thus, children play a role in their own socialization (Scarr, 1992), which sometimes makes intentional socialization difficult. In contrast to the scientifically shaped utopian society described in Walden Two or the manipulated situation in the Robber’s Cave experiment, in reality each human being is exposed to many different environments in which many different interactions and experiences, both intentional and unintentional, take place. Therefore, individuals reflect both their biological characteristics and their socialization experiences (Bugental & Grusec, 2006; Collins et al., 2000). As the child changes, so must the process of socialization. Socialization is not static; it is dynamic, transactional, and bidirectional, or reciprocal (Sameroff, 1987). Ideally, as children develop, control over their behavior gradually shifts from the adult to the child. More specifically, infants and toddlers require much adult direction. Preschoolers are developmentally capable of directing some of their activities and are exhibiting some self-control of their behavior. School-agers can direct most of their activities with adult support and some direction. Adolescents who have been socialized by nurturant adults exhibit much self-control and self-directed behavior, even though they still need some adult guidance. Theories Relating to Socialization What are some explanations of how children are socialized? A theory is an organized set of statements that explains observations, integrates different facts or events, and predicts future outcomes. Theories provide a framework for interpreting research findings and give direction for future study. Some theories explain a particular aspect of development, such as genetics. Others describe settings that influence many aspects of the child’s development, such as culture. Still others examine the interaction between the child and his or her environment, such as ecology. Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 14 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY The general framework for the entire course is based on developmental psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of human development (1979, 1989, 1995; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). The model provides the “whole picture” of the developing child. What features of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model make it especially appropriate for understanding “the whole picture” of human development, including both nature and nurture? The bioecological model of human development represents the evolving character of science because it can accommodate other theories and old research while providing a conceptual scheme to assimilate new research. It is possible to do such integrative and complex studies due to computer technology, which enables multifaceted analyses, and communication technology, which enables collaboration among researchers. While some theories focus on patterns or similarities among individuals to explain human development, Bronfrenbrenner (1979; 1989; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) has provided a way to explain human variation and adaptation within general patterns. An example of a theory that describes a pattern is that of Piaget (1952). His theory of cognitive development delineates the stages in which children, in general, develop a conceptual understanding of the world based on their maturation and active experiences. Bronfenbrenner (1993) looks beyond, proposing researchers examine various ecological settings that the child participates in, such as family and child care, to explain individual differences in children’s cognitive development. To exemplify, a longitudinal ecological study on the effects of nonparental care (“child care”) on children’s cognitive development from birth through age 15 has found that toddlers and preschool children, especially those from low-income families, who attend a quality child-care center are more advanced cognitively, demonstrating Piaget’s stages earlier and scoring higher on school achievement tests, than those children who do not (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2005). The bioecological model represents a composite of bits and pieces of information about human development designed to foster understanding. It is like a mosaic or a graphic design as in a website comprised of words, colors, figures, or pictures, and so on, to convey meaning. The bioecological model of human development comprises information relating to persons, processes, contexts, and outcomes. This book follows such a pattern, discussing (1) the child as a biological organism, (2) socialization processes, (3) significant contexts of development, and (4) socialization outcomes. Examining Socialization in an Ecological Context What ecological contexts and interactions influence the process of socialization? The social context of individual interactions and experiences determines the degree to which individuals can develop their abilities and realize their potentials, according Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 15 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY to Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1989, 1995; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). His conceptual model (see Figure 1.4) for studying humans in their various social environments—the bioecology of human development—allows for a systematic study of interactions and serves as a guide for future research on the very complicated process of socialization. Bronfenbrenner’s complicated but inclusive definition of the bioecology of human development is as follows: the scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation, throughout the life course, between an active, growing, highly complex biopsychological organism characterized by a distinctive complex of evolving interrelated dynamic capacities for thought, feeling, and action—and the changing properties of the immediate setting in which the developing person lives as this process is affected by the relations between these settings, and by the larger contexts in which the settings are embedded. (1993, p. 7) More simply, ecology involves interrelationships between humans and their environments, including the consequent psychological, social, and cultural processes over time. According to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory, there are four basic structures—the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem—in which relationships and interactions take place to form patterns that affect human development. Such a conceptual framework enables us to study the child and his or her family, school, and community as dynamic, evolving systems that are influenced by broader social change (the chronosystem). Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 16 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Microsystems What are the most significant contexts in which a child interacts? The first basic structure, the microsystem (micro, meaning small) refers to the activities and relationships with significant others experienced by a developing person in a particular small setting such as family, school, peer group, or community (see Figure 1.5). Family. The family is the setting that provides nurturance, affection, and a variety of opportunities. It is the primary socializer of the child in that it has the most significant impact on the child’s development. According to James Garbarino (1992), the child who is not adequately nurtured or loved, such as one who grows up in an abrasive or dysfunctional family, may have developmental problems. Also, children who do not have sufficient opportunities to manipulate objects, to model desirable behaviors, to initiate activity, and to be exposed to a language-rich environment will be at a disadvantage when they reach school. This early disadvantage will persist and even worsen as the child progresses through school unless intervention, such as that provided by some quality child-care programs, can modify the opportunities at home and in school. School. The school is the setting in which children formally learn about their society. The school teaches reading, writing, arithmetic, history, science, and so on. Teachers encourage the development of various skills and behaviors by being role models and by providing motivation for children to succeed in learning. Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 17 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Peer Group. The peer group is the setting in which children are generally unsupervised by adults, thereby gaining experience in independence. In the peer group, children get a sense of who they are and what they can do by comparison with others. Peers provide companionship and support as well as learning experiences in cooperation and role taking. Community. The community, or neighborhood on a smaller scale, is the main setting in which children learn by doing. The facilities available to children determine what real experiences they will have. Is there a library? Are stores and workplaces nearby where children can observe people at work? Are the people with whom children interact in the community similar or diverse? Are the people in the community advocates for children? These questions relate to the significance of the community as a socializer. Media. The media—television, movies, videos, DVDs, books, magazines, music, computers, consoles, and cellular phones—are not regarded as a microsystem by Bronfenbrenner because they are not a small, interactive setting for reciprocal interaction. However, I consider the media as significant a socializer as those just described because the media present a setting in which a child can view the whole world—past, present, future, as well as places, things, roles, relationships, attitudes, values, and behaviors. Much of today’s media technology is interactive, such as computerized games, and can also be combined with other media, such as cell phones, providing opportunities to relate socially. The child’s development is affected in each of the aforementioned settings not only by the child’s relationships with others in the family, school, peer group, or community, but also by interactions among members of the particular microsystem. For example, the father’s relationship with the mother affects her treatment of the child. If the father is emotionally supportive of the mother, she is likely to be more involved and to have more positive interactions with the child (Cox, Owen, Henderson, & Margand, 1992). For another example, a child’s classroom performance varies as a function of whether or not the teacher has taught the child’s older sibling and how well that sibling performed (Seaver, 1973). A teacher who has taught a high achieving older sibling tends to have high expectations for the younger sibling. The younger sibling, in turn, is more likely to perform as expected. Mesosystems How are the child’s significant contexts of development linked to one another? The second basic structure, the mesosystem (meso, meaning intermediate), consists of linkages and interrelationships between two or more of a developing person’s microsystems, such as the family and the school, or the family and the peer group Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 18 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY (see Figure 1.6). The concept of linkages was introduced by Guglielmo Marconi, inventor of the wireless telegraph and winner of the 1909 Nobel Prize in physics. He posited the principle of “six degrees of separation,” meaning it would take no more than six connections to link any two people in the world. Marconi was referring to telegraph stations, but today social scientists apply the idea to personal linkages. By having subjects send letters to people they knew in the United States, Stanley Milgram (1967) found that two random people were connected by an average chain of six acquaintances. The impact of mesosystems on the child depends on the number and quality of interrelationships. Bronfenbrenner (1979) uses the example of the child who goes to school alone on the first day. This means that there is only a single link between home and school—the child. Where there is little linkage between home and school “in terms of values, experiences, objects, and behavioral style,” there also tends to be little academic achievement for the child. In contrast, where all these links are strong, there is likely to be academic competence. To illustrate, a longitudinal study following adolescents from their last year of middle school through their first year of high school found a relationship between academic performance and the joint effects of family and school (Epstein, 1983). When the style of family interaction was similar to the school’s, in that both settings encouraged child participation, academic performance was enhanced (Ginsburg & Bronstein, 1993). Thus, the more numerous the qualitative links or interrelationships between the child’s microsystems, the more impact they have on socialization. Mesosystems, then, provide support for activities going on in microsystems. For example, when parents invite a child’s friends to their home, or when parents encourage their child to join a certain club, team, or youth Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 19 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY group, the socialization impact of the peers is enhanced through parental approval. Another example of mesosystem impact occurs when businesses in the community form partnerships to support schools (Target does this), sponsor local events, or give rewards. Exosystems How do settings in which the child does not participate influence his or her development? The third basic structure, the exosystem (exo, meaning outside), refers to settings in which children are not active participants, but that affect them in one of their microsystems—for example, parents’ jobs, the city council, or parental social support networks. The effects of exosystems on the child are indirect via the microsystems. To illustrate, when parents work in settings that demand conformity rather than self- direction, they reflect this orientation in their parenting styles, tending to be more controlling than democratic. This orientation, in turn, affects the child’s socialization. When the city planning commission approves a freeway through a neighborhood or an air traffic pattern over a school, children’s socialization is affected because the noise interferes with learning. Studies show that parental employment, income, and setting affect child development outcomes. For example, low-income parents involved in work-based antipoverty programs (ones that provide sufficient family income, child care, health insurance, and support services) have been shown to enhance the school performance and social behavior of their children (Huston et al., 2001). On the other hand, high-income parents living in upwardly mobile suburban communities have been shown to have children who exhibit a relatively high rate of lower-than-expected school performance and negative social behavior (anxiety, depression, and substance abuse) as a reaction to achievement pressure (Luthar & Becker, 2002). Macrosystems How do characteristics of the larger society influence the child’s development? The fourth basic structure, the macrosystem (macro, meaning large), consists of the society and subculture to which the developing person belongs, with particular reference to the belief systems, lifestyles, patterns of social interaction, and life changes. Examples of macrosystems include the United States, the middle or lower class, Latino or Asian ancestry, Catholicism or Judaism, or urban or rural areas. Macrosystems are viewed as patterns, or sets of instructions, for exosystems, mesosystems, and microsystems. Democracy is the basic belief system of the United States and so is considered a macrosystem. Democratic ideology affects the world of work, an exosystem—for example, employers cannot discriminate in hiring. Democratic ideology also affects school–family interaction, a mesosystem— for example, schools must inform parents of policies, and parents have the right to Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 20 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY question those policies. Finally, democratic ideology affects what is taught in schools, a microsystem—for example, children must learn the principles upon which the United States was founded. A person who lives in the United States and subscribes to its basic belief system of democracy, and consequently is influenced by that macrosystem, may also be part of other macrosystems, such as his or her ethnic group and culture. Ethnicity refers to an ascribed attribute of membership in a group in which members identify themselves by national origin, culture, race, or religion. Culture refers to the learned behavior, including knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, and traditions, that is characteristic of the social environment in which an individual grows up. While “ethnicity” and “culture” often overlap because an ethnic group usually has a common culture, Bugental and Grusec (2006) clarify the distinction: “Ethnicity” refers to ascribed attributes passed on by one’s family (for example, biology and/or social status) and “culture” refers to acquired attributes cultivated through learning (for example, language and/or celebrations). Since the United States is becoming increasingly diverse, we need to understand some basic effects of various macrosystems. Examples of how children, families, schools, and communities adapt to cultural contrasts will be discussed throughout the book. Interaction of Ecological Systems over Time: The Chronosystem What role does time play in how environmental conditions affect the child and how the child affects his or her environments? The chronosystem involves temporal changes in ecological systems, or within individuals, producing new conditions that affect development. For example, changes in computer software technology may result in your having to purchase new equipment or having to learn different passwords for Internet access and security. For another example, significant societal events can produce a variety of effects on children. The shootings at various schools over the past few years affected many on- campus security procedures; schools installed metal detectors, hired guards, and initiated “zero tolerance” policies whereby aggressive students are expelled for one offense. Certainly, the fear for safety at school has increased. As a final example, the physical changes a child experiences during puberty can affect his or her self- esteem, depending on how the child’s developing body compares to his or her friends’ as well as to the cultural ideal body type. Impact of Significant Historical Events To illustrate that changes in a macrosystem can result in changes in exosystems, mesosystems, and microsystems, sociologist Glen Elder (1974, 1979) and his colleagues (Elder & Hareven, 1993; Elder, Van Nguyen, & Casper, 1985; Elder & Shanahan, 2006) conducted a very thorough, longitudinal study of 167 California children born 1920–1929. They compared the life-course development of children Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 21 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY whose families had experienced a change in their socioeconomic status during the Great Depression (a period of widespread economic insecurity in the United States) and those who had not. The immediate exosystem effect was loss of a job. This in turn caused emotional distress, which was experienced in the home and affected the children (effect on a microsystem). There were also secondary exosystem effects: In families hit by the Depression, the father lost status in the eyes of the children and the mother gained in importance. The affected father’s parenting behavior became more rejecting, especially toward adolescent girls. Children, especially boys, from affected families expressed a stronger identification with the peer group. Children from affected families also participated more in domestic roles and outside jobs, with girls being more likely to do the former and boys the latter. The fact that longitudinal data were available over a period of more than 60 years gave Elder the opportunity to assess the impact of childhood experience, within and outside the family, on behavior in later life (effects of chronosystem). He found that the long-term consequences of the Depression varied according to the age of the child at the time. Children who were preadolescents when their families suffered economic loss did less well in school, showed less stable and less successful work histories, and exhibited more emotional and social difficulties, even in adulthood, than did those of the same socioeconomic status from families who did not suffer economically. Such adverse effects have been explained (Conger, Xiaojia, Elder, Lorenz, Simons, & Whitebeck, 1994) as due to the impact of economic hardship on the quality of parenting and hence on the psychological well-being of children. In contrast, those who were teenagers when the Depression hit their families did better in school, were more likely to go to college, had happier marriages, exhibited more successful work careers, and in general were more satisfied with life than youngsters of the same socioeconomic status who were not affected by the Depression. These favorable outcomes were more pronounced for teenagers from middle socioeconomic-status backgrounds but were also evident among their lower- status counterparts. Interestingly, adults whose families escaped economic ruin turned out to be less successful, both educationally and vocationally, than those whose families were deprived. Why was this so? According to Elder (1974): It seems that a childhood which shelters the young from the hardships of life consequently fails to develop or test adaptive capacities which are called upon in life crises. To engage and manage real-life (though not excessive) problems in childhood and adolescence is to participate in a sort of apprenticeship for adult life. Preparedness has been identified repeatedly as a key factor in the adaptive potential and psychological health of persons in novel situations. (pp. 249–250) Thus, a major consequence of the Depression was that economic loss changed the relation of children to the family and the adult world by involving them in work that was necessary for the welfare of others. This early involvement contributed to deprived children’s socialization for adulthood. Elder hypothesized that the loss of Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 22 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY economic security forced the family to mobilize its human resources. Everyone had to take on new responsibilities. In sum, Elder’s study shows how ecological change over time can have varying impacts on a child’s socialization depending on other variables, such as the age and gender of the child, the existing family relationships, and the socioeconomic status of the family before the change, thereby illustrating the multiplicity of variables interacting to affect socialization. Impact of Ongoing Events Socialization must pass on the cultural heritage to the next generation while also enabling that generation to become competent adults in society. Thus, every socializing agent engages in preparing children for both stability and change. Training for stability, which is implemented by passing on the cultural heritage and the status quo to children, involves making their behavior somewhat predictable and conforming; but paradoxically, preparation for change, enabling children to become competent for a future society, very likely involves disrupting some stable patterns and encouraging new ways of thinking and behaving. SUPPLEMENTAL LEARNING ACTIVITY: SELF- AND PEER FEEDBACK After reading the learning content and doing your personal outline and summary, determine the specific topics that are clear to you and the specific topics that you need to get clarified with, if any. In addition, work with a friend and identify the specific topics that he/she friend needs help with. Lastly, narrate what you and your friend did together in achieving a good level of confidence in the difficult topics in the reading material. SPECIFIC TOPICS THAT SPECIFIC TOPICS THAT I ARE CLEAR TO ME PERSONALLY FIND CONFUSING OR DIFFICULT I am confident that I can define and/or I am not confident with my explain _____ understanding of ______ Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 23 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY SPECIFIC TOPICS WHICH MY WHAT MY FRIEND AND I DID TO FRIEND FOUND SOMEHOW RESOLVE OUR DIFFICULTIES AND DIFFICULT TO UNDERSTAND WHAT I FELT AFTERWARDS After working with a friend, I learned that he/she is not confident with his/her understanding of ___________ REVIEW OF CONCEPTS Ecology Socialization Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem Adaptation Ecological theory Urie Bronfenbrenner Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 24 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY POST-TEST. With your newly developed understanding, do the following tasks to put yourself to some tests. Describe the process of socialization in an ecological context. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Describe different ecological contexts of development and describe how they are interrelated. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Describe how useful the ecological theory is in understanding the role of the teacher and the community in learning of children in schools. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ ENHANCEMENT LEARNING ACTIVITY. Enhance your understanding by doing the following learning tasks. Use your own sheets of paper (or use Microsoft Word to be converted into a.pdf file) in accomplishing these tasks. Activity 1: Purpose: To understand the impact of change (chronosystem) on microsystems and mesosystems. Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 25 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Part 1: Describe one to three changes you observed: 1) in your family as you grew up; 2) in your school; 3) in your peer group; 4) in the media—television, movies, or books; and 5) in your community. Part 2: Pick one change for each microsystem and discuss: 1) why you think it occurred; 2) how it affected you; and 3) what impact, if any, it had on the other microsystems (mesosystem). Activity 2: Purpose: To understand the place of the teacher in the ecology of learners. Create a concept map which demonstrates the ecology of a learner and where the teacher is placed within this ecology. You can use Bronfenbrenner’s concentric circles to do this task or be creative to have your own graphical organizer format. Describe your concept map. REFERENCE FOR FURTHER READING: Berns, R. M. (2010). Child, family, school, and community: Socialization and support. Wadsworth Cengage Learning: USA. APPENDICES: RUBRICS FOR GRADING YOUR RESPONSES/ANSWERS Rubric for pre-test & post-test responses, self- & peer feedback responses, Activity 1 Area of evaluation Brief description Focus and Content Presence of correct ideas relevant to the topic and the question/task Organization and Grammar Proper order is observed; choice and use of words are correct Rubric for lesson outline and summary and Activity 2 Area of evaluation Brief description Accuracy and Organization All ideas are connected accurately. The map is described accurately; the outline is organized well Completeness and Richness All ideas are captured; map/outline is rich with important concepts and connections -----END OF MODULE 1----- Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 26 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY MODULE 2: SOCIALIZATION: BASIC CONCEPTS INTRODUCTION Now that you have a good understanding and appreciation of the ecology of learners and where the teacher might be operating in such social world, let us explore further the basic concepts and processes involved in socialization. In this module, you are going to learn more about the nitty-gritty of socialization and why it serves as the key force that makes interactions through various ecologies possible. This understanding necessary for you to see and appreciate later on in this course a) how, b) what purposes, c) what methods, and e) what outcomes we can expect from teachers as agents of socialization within the ecology of learners. TOPICS Processes, Aims, and Agents of Socialization Methods and Outcomes of Socialization TIME FRAME Face-to-face classroom interaction intended for introducing this module : 1hr Self-guided study and other learning tasks : 5hrs INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES. At the end of this module, you’re expected to: 1. Describe the aims of socialization; 2. Describe the agents of socialization; 3. Discuss methods of socialization by giving examples from personal experience; 4. Discuss the outcomes of socialization; and 5. Create an enhanced concept map (Concept Map 2) that demonstrates their understanding of the teacher as an agent of socialization of a learner (correctly use arrows and lines to denote direction of influence). PRE-TEST. Before embarking on the learning tasks that you are about to do, check first your prior knowledge. Answer these questions briefly. What are the processes involved in socialization? What is the nature of influence that comes from socialization? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 27 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Who are the key agents of socialization in the development of a child? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ What individual attributes and characteristics can result from socialization with family, teachers, peers, and community? _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ LEARNING ACTIVITY: SELF-GUIDED STUDY Do a personal outline and summary of the learning content below. Do this in long- size bond papers or with the aid of a word processor (e.g., Microsoft Word, in case you have a personal computer or laptop; to be printed in long-size bond papers). Be guided with the rubric found in the Appendices section. LEARNING CONTENT: Taken from Berns (2010) Socialization Processes How do you enable a helpless infant to eventually become a contributing adult? This chapter explores the process of socialization, including its aims or goals, its agents, their methods, and its outcomes. Figure 2.1 shows an ecological model of the bidirectional interactive systems involved in the process. Because socialization outcomes are affected by many variables (biological, sociocultural, interactional), they will be discussed more specifically in other modules. In the past, socialization research focused on the effect of forces outside the child (for example, the influence of significant adults on the child’s moral development) or forces inside the child (for example, the influence of unconscious motives on aggressive behavior). Today, socialization processes have come to be regarded as dynamic and reciprocal—dynamic in that the aims and methods change Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 28 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY as does the child; reciprocal in that the child contributes to his or her own developmental outcomes (Laible & Thompson, 2007). Socialization processes are affected by biological, sociocultural, and interactive factors (Bugental & Grusec, 2006). Biological factors (genetics, evolution, hormones) are thought to influence basic neural circuitry of the brain during early development. These neural connections, referred to as experience-expectant, develop under genetic influence independent of experience, activity, or stimulation (Bruer & Greenough, 2001). For example, our brains are equipped at birth to receive visual, auditory, tactile, and other stimuli from the environment. One-month-old infants can distinguish different speech sounds and prefer to listen to sounds falling within the frequency range of the human voice (Aslin, Jusczyk, & Pisoni, 1998). Sociocultural factors are also thought to influence the development of brain neural circuitry. These neural connections, referred to as experience-dependent, develop in response to experience. This mutual facilitation between the environment and the brain is thought to be significant in learning to adapt (Bruer & Greenough, 2001). For example, a child’s language development depends on being spoken to and participating in conversation, beginning with eye contact, then babbling, single words, and finally sentences. Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 29 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Interactive factors, such as individual life history, include the child’s receptivity to socialization. For example, a child with a difficult temperament may react rebelliously to parental demands for compliance (Dodge & Pettit, 2003). For another example, a child exposed to extreme stress, such as maltreatment, war, or natural disaster, may be at risk for developmental problems (Chisholm, 1998); or the child may be resilient in the face of adversity (Rutter & O’Connor, 2004) because of his or her biology or supportive social networks in his or her life. Aims of Socialization What are society’s goals for children? Socialization enables children to learn what they need to know in order to be integrated into the society in which they live. It also enables children to develop their potentialities and form satisfying relationships. More specifically, socialization aims to develop a self-concept, enable self-regulation, empower achievement, teach appropriate social roles, and implement developmental skills. Develop a Self-Concept How do you perceive yourself and why? Self-concept is an individual’s perception of his or her identity as distinct from that of others. It emerges from experiences of separateness from others. When you were born, your parents named you and may have sent out announcements to relatives and friends signifying that a new individual had entered the world. Although everyone else treated you as a separate being, you were unaware of where your environment ended and you began. As the months passed and you had some experiences using your senses, you noticed that when you touched your hand you felt something in your fingers and hand, whereas when you touched your mother’s hand, you only felt sensation in your fingers. Gradually, as people met your needs, you realized they existed even when you could not see them. As you developed language, you learned that objects have names and so did you, and each had an independent existence. Language enabled you to describe and compare. Sometime around 15-18 months, you put it together and understood that you are you. You could recognize yourself in a mirror. You could assert your wants, especially when you perceived that someone else was controlling you. As you got older, your concept of self—your identity, your understanding of who you are—was influenced by significant others (such as family, teachers, friends, coaches). If your needs were met consistently and you were given opportunities to discover things on your own, you developed a sense of autonomy, or self-regulation and control. If, on the other hand, your needs were not met consistently and you did not get to explore your environment, you developed a sense of doubt. These significant others also acted as a mirror, providing constant feedback on your Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 30 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY achievements and failures. And so, in developing a self-concept or identity, you also develop self-esteem. As you entered adolescence, your self-concept included how you related to others. Being a member of a group was important to your identity. In the later part of adolescence, your self-concept expanded to include how you related to the larger community. Self-concept involves not only “who am I?” but “where am I going?” and “how will I get there?” Charles Horton Cooley (1909/1964), one of the founders of sociology, observed that through the experiences of interacting with others, children begin to distinguish themselves from others. Children call themselves “I” or “me” “I hungry,” “Me go.” As they begin to act independently, they gradually become aware that others are evaluating them, saying “Good boy/girl” or “No, don’t do that.” Thus, their behavior is being judged according to certain rules and standards. These rules and standards must be learned and understood before the individual is capable of self- evaluation. As children gradually learn these criteria, each develops a self-concept; this concept, which reflects the attitudes of others, is termed the “looking-glass self.” Cooley summed up his postulate: Each to each a looking glass reflects the other that doth pass. George Herbert Mead (1934), another important sociological theorist, referred to this gradually maturing way of looking at the self as the “generalized other.” When children refer to themselves as “shy” or “hardworking,” they have incorporated the standards of others into the description. Thus, a self-concept develops when the attitudes and expectations of significant others with whom one interacts are incorporated into one’s personality, making it possible to regulate one’s behavior accordingly. One’s perceived competence in self-regulation/control is part of one’s self-esteem. Susan Harter (1998, 1999) studied various types of competence involved in self-esteem— behavioral, academic, physical, and social.. Psychologist Erik Erikson (1963, 1980) has explained the personality development of individuals as the outcome of their interactions in their social environment. He identified eight critical stages of psychosocial development in a human’s life that affect the self-concept: trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus identity diffusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus self-absorption, and integrity versus despair (see Figure 2.2). How one copes with these normal challenges at one stage of development affects one’s ability to overcome difficulties in the next stages. Infancy: Trust versus Mistrust (Birth to Age 1) The first “task” of infants is to develop the “cornerstone of a healthy personality”—a basic sense of trust in themselves and of the people in their environment. The quality and consistency of care the infant receives determines the successful outcome of this stage. A child whose basic needs for nourishment and physical contact are met Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 31 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY will develop a sense of trust. This sense of trust lays a foundation for positive self- esteem. A child whose care is negligent or inconsistent will develop a sense of mistrust, which may persist throughout life and result in negative self-esteem. Some mistrust, however, is healthy in that it can guard against danger and manipulation. Contemporary research shows a positive relationship between parental nurturance and self-worth (Cheng & Furnham, 2004; Harter, 1999; Hopkins & Klein, 1994). Early Childhood: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (Age 2 to 3) Physical and cognitive maturation enables children to behave autonomously—to walk without help, feed themselves, get things off the shelf, assert themselves verbally. If children are allowed to be self-sufficient according to their ability, the outcome of this stage will be a feeling of autonomy. If children are deprived of the opportunity to develop a will, if they are continually being corrected or reprimanded, later they may feel shame when being assertive and self-doubt when being Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 32 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY independent. However, some shame is healthy in that it can prevent certain socially unacceptable behaviors such as picking one’s nose in public. Studying of the influence of parental rearing style on self-esteem and selfcriticism, Cheng and Furnham (2004) found a significant correlation between maternal rearing style and teenagers’ reported self-esteem and self-criticism. Play Age: Initiative versus Guilt (Age 3 to 5) Children’s increasing ability to communicate and to imagine leads them to initiate many activities. If they are allowed to create their own games and fantasies, to ask questions, to use certain objects (a hammer and wood, for example) with supervision, then the outcome of this stage will be a feeling of initiative. If they are made to feel that they are “bad” for trying new things and “pests” for asking questions, they may carry a sense of guilt throughout life. Probably the reason “Pinocchio” has remained a favorite story is that, like all children, Pinocchio was continually learning which activities he initiated were OK and which ones were not. Thus, some guilt is healthy in that it can control misbehavior. In a study of preschoolers and their first years at school (Tudge, Odero, Hogan, & Etz, 2003), a relationship was found between initiating activities and conversation in preschool and academic competence, as reported by teachers, two years later. School Age: Industry versus Inferiority (Age 6 to Puberty) During school age, while learning to accept instruction and to win recognition by showing effort and by producing “things,” the child is developing the capacity to enjoy work. The outcome of this stage for children who do not receive recognition for their efforts, or who do not experience any success, may be a feeling of incompetence and inferiority. Children who are praised for their efforts will be motivated to achieve, whereas children who are ignored or rebuked may give up and exhibit helplessness. Some feelings of inferiority are healthy, however, in that they can prevent the child from feeling invincible and taking dangerous risks. A study of 3rd to 5th graders (Skinner & Belmont, 1993) found a relationship between teacher involvement in students’ classroom activities and children’s motivation to achieve. Specifically, teacher provision of autonomous support and optimal structure led to higher levels of student engagement in schoolwork all year. In turn, student effort led to teachers’ increased responses. Based on their findings, the researchers suggest that disengaged students receive teacher responses that further undermine their motivation to achieve (hence, fostering helplessness). Adolescence: Identity versus Identity Diffusion (Puberty to Age 18+) With rapid growth and sexual maturity, the young person begins to question people, things, values, and attitudes previously relied on and to struggle through the crises of earlier stages all over again. The developmental task during adolescence, then, is to integrate earlier childhood identifications with biological and social changes occurring Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 33 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY during this time. The danger in this stage is that while young people are trying out many roles, which is a normal process, they may be unable to choose an identity or make a commitment and so will not know who they are or what they may become (identity diffusion). Because adolescence is a time for exploration, some diffusion is healthy in that it can allow for learning what is suitable and what is not for an individual. This exploration time has been labeled “moratorium” by psychologists (Marcia, 1966). The process of identity formation in a study of a sample of over 1,500 early and middle adolescents from various cultural groups (Crocetti, Rubini, Luyckx, & Meeus, 2007) actually differentiated five statuses in the process of developing an identity: (1) achievement (choices explored and commitment made), (2) foreclosure (commitment made without exploring choices), (3) moratorium (exploring choices in order to make commitments), (4) searching moratorium (reevaluating choices and commitments and reexploring choices), and (5) diffusion (little choice exploration and no commitments made). These statuses were associated with distinct personality features, such as: high self-esteem in the achievement status, conformity in the foreclosure status, high anxiety in the moratorium as well as in the searching moratorium status, and depression in the diffusion status. Young Adulthood: Intimacy versus Isolation (Age 18+ to Middle Adulthood) Individuals who have succeeded in establishing an identity are now able to establish intimacy with themselves and with others, in both friendship and love. The danger here is that those who fear losing their identity in an intimate relationship with another may develop a sense of isolation. Some isolation is healthy, however, in that it can enable one to learn about oneself and provide time for individual pursuits. Researchers (Kacerguis & Adams, 1980) found a relationship between identity development and intimacy. Male (44) and female (44) college students were assessed via measures of identity and intimacy. Those more advanced in identity formation, especially occupational identity (they had made a commitment to a particular field of work), scored higher on intimacy measures. Adulthood: Generativity versus Self-Absorption (Middle Adulthood to Late Adulthood) From the development of intimate relationships comes generativity, an interest in establishing and guiding the next generation. This interest can be manifested by becoming a parent; by being involved with the development of young people through teaching, religion, Scouts, or other means; or through productivity and creativity in one’s work. In this stage, a lack of generativity may result in self-absorption, which may show up as depression, hypochondria, substance abuse, or promiscuity. Yet some self-absorption is healthy in that it can lead to creativity and the development of hobbies. A sample of educated, midlife women were assessed for generativity at age 43, and again 10 years later. Those who scored high on the measure at age 43 Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 34 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY reported a greater investment 10 years later in intergenerational roles (for example, daughter and mother), fewer subjective feelings of burden in caring for aging parents, and more knowledge about community resources for elders (Peterson, 2002). Senescence: Integrity versus Despair (Late Adulthood to Death) The individual who has achieved an identity, has developed a satisfying intimacy with others, and has adapted to the joys and frustrations of guiding the next generation, reaches the end of life with a certain ego integrity or positive self- esteem—an understanding acceptance of personal responsibility for one’s own life (past and present). For those who have not achieved that integrity, this stage may produce despair or extremely negative self-esteem. Despairing individuals tend to be in ill health, to abuse drugs and/or alcohol, or to commit suicide. They may become burdens to their families physically, financially, or psychologically. On the other hand, individuals with a sense of integrity are likely to have friends, to be active (physically and mentally), and to look at life positively even though they know that death is imminent. Probably the only characteristic of despair that could be considered healthy is that which leads to change or greater appreciation of life. Enable Self-Regulation How did you learn to control your feelings and behavior? Self-regulation involves the ability to control one’s impulses, behavior, and/or emotions until an appropriate time, place, or object is available for expression. This can be interpreted as routing our feelings through our brains before acting on them according to the situation. Regulated behavior often involves postponing or modifying immediate gratification for the sake of a future goal. This implies being able to tolerate frustration. For example, you curb your urge to spank a child who has just thrown a plate of food on the floor in a tantrum because you want to set an example of how to deal with frustration. When you are trying to maintain your weight, you postpone satisfying those hunger pangs until mealtime. You postpone sexual intercourse until marriage because of your religious or personal goals. Even though you hate to wake up early, you set your alarm in order to be at work on time because your supervisor depends on you. Early relationships, especially attachment to parents, play a significant role in the development of emotional regulation (Bridges & Grolnick, 1995) and “emotional intelligence” (Goleman, 1995). As the child progresses from infancy to childhood, emotional and behavioral regulation gradually shifts from external socializing agents to internal, self-induced mechanisms (Eisenberg, 2006). Caregivers provide children with information (body language, facial expressions, verbal instructions and explanations) to help them deal with situations. As children develop cognitively and have more real experiences, they learn how to interpret events and how to express emotions appropriately. They develop strategies for coping with disappointment, Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 35 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY frustration, rejection, and anger. Self-regulation/control is related to moral development, an outcome of socialization. Empower Achievement How did you decide what you were going to do as an adult? Socialization furnishes goals for what you are going to be when you become an adult— a teacher, a police officer, a business executive. These goals provide the rationale for going to school, getting along with others, following rules, and so on. In other words, socialization gives meaning or purpose to adulthood and to the long process a child has to go through to get there. In order for Pinocchio to become a real boy, he had to go to school as well as learn right from wrong. Significant adults and peers influence one’s motivation to succeed. For example, adults who understand child development and provide the appropriate challenge at the “right” time with the “right” amount of support are likely to produce highly competent and motivated children (Wigfield et.al., 2006). Teach Appropriate Social Roles How do we learn to act according to what is required in different social settings? In order to be part of a group, one has to have a function that complements the group. For example, in a group of employees, the supervisor’s function or role is to lead the employees; in a family group, the parents’ role is to nurture the child; in a peer group, the role of friends is to provide emotional support. We have many social roles throughout life, some of which occur simultaneously, and we must assume the appropriate behavior for each at the appropriate time. I am a wife, a parent, a child, a teacher, and a friend—all at the same time. As a wife, I am a confidante; as a parent, I am nurturant; as a child, I am submissive; as a teacher, I am a facilitator; as a friend, I am emotionally supportive. Gender is a social role, too, in that boys and girls learn gender-appropriate behavior from significant members of their society (McHale, Crouter, & Whiteman, 2003; Ruble, Martin, & Berenbaum, 2006). What is appropriate (Maccoby, 2000) is affected by culture, ethnicity, and religion (macrosystem influences), as well as time (chronosystem influence). Implement Developmental Skills How do you meet your own needs while accommodating society’s expectations? Socialization aims to provide social, emotional, and cognitive skills to children so that they can function successfully in society. Social skills may involve learning how to obtain information from other people, use the telephone, or conduct business negotiations. Emotional skills may involve controlling aggressive impulses, learning to deal with frustration by substituting another goal for one that is blocked, or being able to compensate for mistakes. Cognitive skills may include reading, mathematics, writing, problem solving, geography, history, and science. Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 36 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Psychologist Robert Havighurst (1972) examined how society’s expectations with regard to certain behavioral skills change according to the maturation of the individual (chronosystem influence), using the term developmental task to explain this aspect of socialization. According to Havighurst, “a developmental task is midway between an individual need and a societal demand.” The developmental tasks of life are those things one must learn if one is to get along well in society (macrosystem influence). As we grow, we develop physically, intellectually, and socially. Our physical development will enable us to walk, control our bladders, and use a pencil. Our intellectual development will enable us to learn to read, do arithmetic, and solve problems. Our social development will enable us to cooperate, empathize, and interact with others. And our emotional development will enable us to regulate our impulses and express our feelings. Developmental tasks categorized according to societal demands for certain behaviors are listed next. 1. Achieving an appropriate dependence/independence pattern 2. Achieving an appropriate giving–receiving pattern of affection 3. Relating to changing social groups 4. Developing a conscience 5. Learning one’s “psychosociobiological” role 6. Accepting and adjusting to a changing body 7. Managing a changing body and learning new behavioral patterns 8. Learning to understand and control the physical world 9. Developing an appropriate symbol system and conceptual abilities 10. Relating oneself to the cosmos As we develop along these dimensions, we face new expectations from significant socializing agents in the surrounding society. We are expected to learn to walk, talk, use the toilet, and dress ourselves. We are expected to read, write, add, and subtract. We are expected to share, develop a conscience, and achieve an appropriate gender role. We are expected to love other people and be responsible for our actions. Thus, developmental tasks arise from societal pressures on individuals according to their development: “If the task is not achieved at the proper time, it will not be achieved well, and failure in this task will cause partial or complete failure in the achievement of other tasks yet to come” (Havighurst, 1972, p. 3). If children do not have experiences in language, such as being spoken to and making sounds during the critical stage of language development (first year), their ability to communicate will be handicapped for the remainder of their lives. A child who is not socialized to develop a conscience may engage in delinquent behavior in adolescence. A child who does not have experiences receiving and giving affection may not succeed in a marriage or family relationship. Developmental tasks differ from society to society, and each group in a society has its own developmental definitions and expectations. For example, a developmental milestone for many American, middle-class infants is to “sleep through the night.” This expectation is usually fulfilled by about age 4 to 6 months Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 37 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY and is often facilitated by parents’ feeding the baby just before they go to sleep and/or playing with the baby and putting him or her to sleep for the night as late as possible. However, in other families where the infant sleeps with the mother and nurses on demand, “sleeping through the night” is not pushed as a developmental milestone—this is more the norm in other cultures around the world. Differences in developmental definitions and expectations may account for some of the social adjustment problems in school among children from diverse cultural groups. For example, the developmental task for achieving an appropriate dependence/independence pattern may be interpreted differently by various families. Most middle-class American mothers, as well as American teachers, expect children to be independent of adults by school age in that they can take care of personal needs and learn on their own with some directions. In Japan, however, mothers expect some of their child’s dependency needs to be transferred to the teacher when the child goes to school, and Japanese mothers generally remain very involved in their child’s learning throughout school. In other cultures, such as Latino and Hawaiian, mothers expect their child’s dependency needs to be transferred to older siblings, and interdependence, rather than independence, is encouraged. Thus, children from high-context cultures (such as Japanese, Latino, Hawaiian, and others) may experience conflicts between developmental skills taught by their families and those taught in American schools (Bennett, 2003). Every individual in a society is the outcome of the process of socialization (along with his or her genetic traits). The success of this outcome in terms of society’s expectations will depend on a series of interactions with significant socializing agents—such as parents, teachers, peers, and media—that constitute the community in which this individual lives (Collins et al., 2000). Figure 2.3 illustrates the processes and outcomes of socialization. Educ 8: The Teacher and the Community August 2020 Edition 38 Patulin, Tanguihan, & Espanola LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY Agents of Socialization Who was significant in shaping you? The generalized community is made up of many groups that play a part in socializing an individual. These agents of socialization exert their influence in different ways and at different times (Arnett, 2007). In the early years, the family assumes the primary role of nurturing the child. As the child gets older, the peer group becomes a primary source of support. In primitive societies, training for competency occurs in the family in the form of learning to hunt or build a shelter, whereas in industrial societies it occurs in the school in the form of learning to read, write, compute, and master a wide range of subject matter. Each agent has its own functions in socialization. Sometimes the agents complement each other; sometimes they contradict each other. The value of getting along with others is usually taught in the family, the school, the religious community, the peer group, and perhaps in the media, with the agents complementing each other. The value of academic achievement, however, may be supported by some families and the school, but scorned by the peer group—an example of contradiction among the agents of socialization. The media and the peer group may support sexual experimentation, while the family and religious group condemn it. Family How did your family influence who you are? The family is the child’s introduction to society and has, therefore, borne the major responsibility for socializing the child. The family into which a child is born places the child in a community and in a society; newborns begin their social lives by acquiring the status and cultural heritage of their families, which in turn influence their opportunities and developmental outcomes (Leyendecker, Harwood, & Comparini, 200

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