Milestones of Indian Education PDF

# Milestones of Indian Education ## Dravidian Education * People who inhabit Southern India are generally known as Dravidians. * They speak Dravidian languages like Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Tulu. * Pazhathamil was the language of Dravidians. * Information about their social life were...

# Milestones of Indian Education ## Dravidian Education * People who inhabit Southern India are generally known as Dravidians. * They speak Dravidian languages like Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Tulu. * Pazhathamil was the language of Dravidians. * Information about their social life were gathered from the ancient literatures like: * Chilapopathikaia * Manimeghalai * Unniyadic haritham * Unnineelisandesami * Thol kappiyam * Akananooru * Purananooru * Jeeraka chinthamans * Thirukkural * The term Chattan or chattiran was used for pupil. * The term Bhattar was used for teacher. * Dravidians were small in stature and black in color and were a cultured, peace-loving set of people. * They have structured society. * Priest and scholars, farmers and artisans, warriors were the backbone of society. * Poet, scholars and women were honored and respected. ## Aim of Education * Development of Personality, social and spiritual efficiency. * Development of cultural and vocational competency. ## Curriculum * Dravidian education pupils were taught in schools attached to temples. * Schools were known as Vidya-Saalai. * Examples of schools: Kanthaloor, Muzhikulan etc. * The students were called Chattan, Chathran and Chathiran. * The Chilon was known as Bhattar. * Schools built in Thiruvalla by the Aay King Karunanthadaknan had all facilities to accommodate 95 residential students. * There were also Sabha mutts for vedic studies of Brahmins. * Institutions like Ezhuthupalli for education of non-Brahmin children, Kalaries for physical education and Gurukula for specialized areas of subject. * Subjects like 3R's, Grammar, Theology, Philosophy, and Law are prescribed. * Physical and military training were given in the kalaries. ## Institutions serving Scholastic functions * **Pallikkoodam:** Schools were small, indigenous, children learn reading writing and Arithmetic. Teachers were called Aa & Aans or Vadhyars. * **Kidai:** Center for Brahminical learning, Vedas were taught through chanting. * **Saalai:** For higher education. ## Institutions serving Social functions * **Doctrina Christiana:** First Book in Tamil, 1577 * **Manram**: For need of community, used for village sports, ancient Tamil institution, wrestling, goat fight, bird fight, all were conducted too. * **Mandapams**: Hymns in the Vedas and Upanishad were read and explained in the Mandapams. * **Madam and Arangu**: Residential center of religious education. ## Abstract Social Institutions * **Arai**: For all section of people, acted as a court of justice. * **Sabha**: Centre of devotees. * **Sangam**: Centre of poets. * **Institutions** played a great role for traditions. ## Methods of Teaching * Early stage of instruction has Tamil medium. * Oral method and memorization were given importance. ## Role of Teacher * Teacher commanded great respect in the society. # Vedic Education * The pivotal source for Vedic education were Vedas. * The Vedas consist of Rig-veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. * The age of Vedas is known as Vedic age. * It dated from prehistoric time to 1000 BC. * The word "Veda" is derived from the Sanskrit word Vid which means to know. * Knowing God, soul, mind and nature, to be, to be (to be one with God), to obtain (to obtain salvation), to **consider** (to consider various relationship like God and man, man and nature), to **feel** (to feel one with God), to **tell** (to tell the glories of God), to **dwell** (to dwell into the mysteries of universe and all existence). * Etymological meaning of the word Veda is knowledge. * Knowledge according to Veda is power. # Vedic Society * Vedic civilization was founded by Aryans. * They migrated to Indian Sub Continent and rapidly spread to the areas known as Sapta Sindhu. * Vedic period is divided into two periods: * Early Vedic period (1500-1000 BC) * Later Vedic period (1000-600 BC) # Rig Veda * Oldest of the four Vedas. * It is the work of humanity and its collection of 1028 hymns divided into 10 mandalas. * **Mandala 3** contain Gayatri mantra which is dedicated to Savitri recited by sage Vishwanutsa * **Mandala 7** contains mandooka sloga which deals with education. * **Mandala 10** contains Purusha Sukta which mentions the origin of the 4 Varnas. # Sama Veda * The knowledge of melodies. * Book of prayers and chants. * Origin of music * Most of the hymns were taken from Rig Veda. # Yajur Veda * Book of sacrificial prayers. * Yajur Veda is divided into: * Krishna Yajur Veda - Commentary in prose. * Shukla Yajur Veda - Mantras * Yajur Veda describes about 3 yagams like *Rajasuya*, *Vayjesyam* and *Ashwamedham*. # Atharva Veda * Magic chants and spells. * Ayurveda is a part of it. * It is considered a non Aryan Book. # Other Literary source * **Brahmanas**: Text which contain commentaries of Vedas. * **Satapatha Brahmana**: Agriculture. * **Aranyakas**: Text of Philosophy. * **Upanishad**: Forest Books. * **Upanishad**: Deals with philosophical treatises and metaphysics. * **Sathyameva jayathe**: Mundaka Upanishad * **Vedanga**: Part of Vedas. * Sinsha, Kalpa, Vyavarna, Nirukta, Chhanda and Jyotisha. * **Sutras**: Thread and laws. * **Dharamshastras**: Civil and religious laws. * **Puranas**: Ancient stories. * **Upavedas**: Ayurveda, Shilpa Veda. * **Epics**: Ramayana, Mahabharata. * **Early Vedic Society**. * **Joint family**: *Griha Orkula (Patriarchial)*, *Kulapati* * **Group of family**: *Cerama*, *Grammini*. * **Groups of Federal villages**: *Vis*, *Vispati* * **Group of Vis**: *Jana*, *Rajan* * The king was elected and he is known as Rajan. The power of Rajan is checked by 4 assemblies. * Sabha: Assembly of elders * Samiti: Assembly of all adult members. * Vidhata: Oldest folk woman played most important role. * Chana: Assemblies in Republic. * Cattle breeding is the main occupation. * Then, it changes to agriculture. ## Varnas of Later Vedic Period * **Brahmins**: Priest. * **Kshatriyas**: Warrior and ruling class. * **Vaishyas**: Merchant class. * **Shudras**: Servants. * This time, kingship becomes hereditary like all other jobs. ## Aim of Education * Realization of Truth. * Learning the individual from darkness to the light of knowledge. * All-round development of personality. * Self realization or Mukti * Development of spiritual qualities and vocational proficiency. * Free and compulsory education. * Formation of character. * Inculcation of civic and social sense and promotion of social efficiency ## Main Tenents of Vedic Philosophy * Concept of one God and one world. * Universe is formed by god. * Universe is real. * There are 3 entities in the universe, God, soul, matter. * Ultimate aim of life is to obtain salvation. * Law of Karma: Actions are followed by their results. * Universal fraternity should be promoted * Knowledge of truth should be acquired by education. * Justice should be done to all creatures and we should live in peace and harmony. ## Curriculum * Importance for spiritual and professional aspects. * Importance for meditation and thinking. * Practice of good behaviour and good conduct. * Four Vedas, puranas, history, spirituality, grammar, arithmetic, astronomy, dancing, singing, agriculture were subject. * **Kshatriyas**: Archery, Chariot race, Horsemanship. * **Vaishyas**: Agriculture, trade. * **Sudras**: Denied any kind of formal education. ## Methods of Teaching * Sravana: Learning, listening. * Manana: Meditation. * Nidhidhyasana: Highest stage learning, realization and experience. * Give importance for individualized instruction. * Sanskrit was the medium of instruction. * Question-Answer method, observation method, learning by doing etc. * **Verbal method**: Pupil learn lessons verbally and meditate under the guidance of Guru. Cramming of the hymns was the method of study. Guru should notice the pronunciation of the hymns by the students. Any mistake in the pronunciation was considered to be a sin. The disciples learnt by imitation and repetition. ## Life in Gurukula * The teacher was known as Guru or Achary and student is Shishya. If the pupil want to get in Gurukula, he has undergo Pranayama ritual. * It is the ceremony in which the disciple is drawn to Guru for instruction. * When the preceptor is satisfied by the birth, caste and creed of the pupil, he would accept him as Shishya. * The word Upanayana means "to bring close to Guru" (leading near). * Upanayana ceremony was performed at the age of 8 (for Brahmana), 11 (for Kshatriya) and 12 (for Vaishya). * Those who undergo Upanayana are reborn and are termed "Dwiias" (means twice born) It is second birth of the child. It is his spiritual birth. His Guru is his Spiritual father. * **Upakarma ceremony**: Marked the commencement of New Year’s programme. * **Upasarjana ceremony**: Marked the close of each year’s work. * After the Upanayana ceremony, he becomes the Shishya of the Guru. He was to live with Guru till the end of his education. He has to lead a life of purity and chastity. Till 25 he remains as Brahmachary. In this period in Gurukula, he has to perform certain jobs like: * Cleaning the surrounding of the Ashrama * Take care of the cattle. * Milking the cows. * Collecting the wood from forest for fuel. * Begging alms. What he gets in the form of charity must be presented to Guru only with his permission. * He can take something for his use. * Pressing tired foot of Guru. * Water the plants, pluck flowers for worship. * Luxury of any kind is not allowed. * He has to sleep on hard bed. He has to awake before sunrise. If not, he has to mutter Gayathrimantra. He has to pray 3 times a day. (morning, midday, and evening). He has to bath regularly, and should wear pure white and spotless dress * The upper garment is known as "Agina" made of animal skin and the lower garment is known as "Vasa" made of fibre. * At the age of 25 pupil will enter Grahasthashrama and it is time to leave the Gurukula. * The student life in Ashram comes to close with the Sana or Samavartana ceremony. * The pupils would receive convocational address from the preceptors. * During this time, teacher advised pupil to: * Always speak the truth. * Fulfill his duties. * Never ignore self-study. * Never give away truth. * Stick to religion. * Strive to become great in society. * Treat parents, teachers and guest as god. * Seek advise from learned Brahmanas. * The pupils also take an oath to speak truth, perform their sacrifice, faith towards their profession, reverence towards teachers and parents and brotherhood of man. * The students used to visit the Ashrama occasionally to renew their Vedic knowledge. The Guru also used to visit them. ## Role of Teacher * Students has a direct, personal and immediate contact with a teacher. * Teachers should be a model. He was expected to possess all moral and spiritual qualification. * Teacher considered Shishya as his son. * Teacher was expected to teach everything he knew to his students. * Teacher was expected not to receive any fee or any reward from his Students. ## Women Education * During Vedic period, women started working as teachers learnt, dancing, music, fine arts etc. * They were given full status with men. They were honored and respected in society. * Ancient women poets were Apala, Lopamudra, Ghosh etc. ## Merits * Vedic Education helped to instill in the minds of parents a desire for education of their children. * It paid attention to the formation of character and the development of personality. * Evolution of Social skills. * Efforts for preservation and propagation of culture. * Free Education. * Dignity of labour was highlighted. * Women education received proper attention (Rigveda period). * Arts and handicrafts were highly respected. ## Demerits * Crave undue stress on spiritual matters * The secular and material aspects of life were not given adequate importance. * Education was not considered as the birth right of a person. * Vedic education was idealistic. ## Significance of Upanishad * Maintaining world peace and sustainable development. * One of the integral principal of Hindu philosophy is *Vasudaeva kutumbakam*, i.e. the whole world is but one family. * The teaching of vedas, Upanishad, Yoga Sutras among others are universal. That is why Hinduism is not bounded by any geographical, racial, national or ethnic boundary. Hinduism accepts that all paths are valid and lead to truth. * Ahimsa is a fundamental principle of Hinduism that goes deeper than non-violence, prohibiting subtle abuse and even simple, hurt. Hinduism believes in law of Karma, i.e. law of cause and effect. It also believes in Dharma (right living) and all pervasiveness of the divine in all things. * "Ohm Shanthi" i.e. peace mantra is important in Upanishad. ## Significance of Upanishad - Sustainable Development * Vedic philosophy support the concept that the earth is the supporter of all life and that human action should be careful not to destroy the balance. * Atharva veda define earth as cosmic cow and called as mother. . * Vedic philosophy worship different natural powers as god. The rain god Indra has largest number of hymns associated to him. Sun in vedic worship is of vital importance. Hindus regard everything about them as pervaded by divine presence. * "Everything in the universe belongs to the lord. Therefore take only what you need that is set aside for you. Do not take anything else, for you to know to whom it belongs. " - Upanishad # Vidhya and Avidhya * As two pillars of a civilized society. * The Upanishad identify two types of knowledge. The lower knowledge of the rituals and sacrifices, obligatory duties, occupational knowledge and the higher knowledge of self and supreme Self. The former is often equated with ignorance (Avidhya) and later with true knowledge (Vidhyhja). * The Upanishad state clearly that both type of knowledge is important. From the lower knowledge come the discipline and the ability to practice. The higher and realize the highest knowledge of Brahman is the highest knowledge because it is permanent, unchanging and indivisible by knowing, which there is no further know. * In worldly life, we seek knowledge for some worldly gain. We think we cannot conceptualise knowledge that arises spontaneously without the intervention of the mind, the senses and the ego. # Buddhist Education ## Causes for the rise of Buddhism * Supremacy of the priest or Brahmins created social unrest. * Riged caste system was opposed by others. * Other social divisions prescribed by other priests, decreased the cattle wealth and adversely affected the economy. * Vedic rituals and ceremonies became complicated and expensive. * Vedic text were written in Sanskrit and it was beyond the understanding of common people. Buddhism was communicated by Pali language. ## Introduction * Buddhism originated in the 6th century BC. * Gautama Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. * Gautama Buddha was born in Lumbini in 563 BC, in a Shakya Kshatriya clan. * He attain enlightenment at the age of 35 at Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree on the banks Ganga * His real name was Siddhartha Gautama Buddha. * Three Jewels of Buddhism were: * Buddha (The enlightened) * Dharma (The doctrine) * Sangha (The order) * Tripitakas (sacred books) of Buddhism were: * Vinayapitaka by Upali about management of Monasteries * Sutta pitaka about lectures of Buddha. * Abhidhamma pitaka contains interpretation of philosophical principles of Buddhist religion. ## Two Types of Buddhism are: * **Mahayanism**: * Vajrayana * Theravada * **Hinayarism**: * Buddhism is a world religion which arose in and around the ancient kingdom of Magadha and is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. In Sanskrit, the Buddhist wisdom was called "Anuttara Samyak Sambhodi" meaning the perfect ultimate wisdom. The Buddha’s teachings contain 3 major points: Discipline, meditation, and wisdom. * **Four Noble truth of Buddhism** * The world is full of suffering. * Suffering is caused by human desire. * The renunciation of desire is the path to salvation. * The salvation is possible through Ashtanga margass. ## Ashtanga Margass or the Eight fold Path * Right belief * Right resolve * Right speech * Right Conduct * Right living * Right endeavor * Right meditation * The Buddhist system of education was monastic. The Buddhist Monasteries or Sanghams were the agencies of education. Buddhist monasteries were also known as viharas. ## Education of a Child in Buddhist Viharas * Viharas started with the initiation ceremony known as Pabbajja meaning "to go out". * Pabbajja is the initiation ceremony coming out from the state house at the age of 8 years meaning holdership of the Sangham and he is known as sammer. He is then accepted as a member of the Sangham. The newly ordained monk is then placed under Upadhyaya (teaching theory), Achary (practicals). After 18 years, at the age of 20 the final ordination ceremony is conducted which is known as Upasampada. After this ceremony, he can be either permanent member of monastery or can leave the monastery. Total education period was 22 years. ## Aim * Attainment of Nirvana * All round development * Purity of character ## Medium * Pali ## Basis * Democratic * Peaceful * Secular ## Initiation Ceremony * Pabbajja ## Curriculum * Common education * Three R’s * Reading, writing, Arithmetic * Religious education * **Elementary** * Vidhyas: Sabdha (language), Silpa (Fine arts), Chikitsa (medicine), Hetu (logic) * Adhyatma (Philosophy) * **Higher education:** * Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Theology, Philosophy, Metaphysics, Sanskrit, Astrology, Politics, etc. with vernacular language. ## Method * Oral, discussion, inductive methods. ## Teacher Pupil Relation * Father-son relation. ## Women education * Encouraged, known as Bhikkuni. ## Convocation * Upasampada ## University * Taxila, Nalanda. ## Educational Implication * Democratic procedures are followed. * Republican procedures are followed. * Development of good contact. * Moral discipline. * Pragmatic ## Significance of Non Violence and attitude against materialistic life style * Non Violence: It is a situation in which someone avoids fighting or using physical force, especially when trying to make political change. ### Types Of Non-Violence * Non Resistance * Active reconciliation * Moral Resistance * Selective Non-Violence. * Passive Resistance. * Peaceful Resistance. * Gandhian Non-Violence. ## Significance * Non violence is a philosophy as well as life style. * Non violence provide us with tools to oppose and stop wars and preparation for war. * True non violence is a religion. * Non violence is a strategy for social change. * Non-violence is a policy of using peaceful methods. ## Characteristics of materialistic way of life * Interest in and excessive desire for money, possessions etc. * Constant fear of losing what we have. * Trying always to establish “This is mine”. * Selfishness. * Self-glorification * Corrupting power. * Having no compassion. ## Problems of materialistic life * Leads to anti-social behaviour. * Physical and psychological problems. * Low self-satisfaction. * Low personal wellbeing. * Pressure * Depression * Personality disorders. ## Attitude against materialistic life * Materialism blinds us to other values * Materialistic beliefs amplify negative events. * It is about change in attitude. * Ending materialism doesn’t mean forsaking all your possessions, meaning is often important than pleasure. # British Education * During the first period, the East India Company pursued a policy of indifference and non-interference with education. * By Charter Act 1813, the company assume responsibility for the education of Indians. * During second period, there were orientalists who supported the preservation of oriental learning and use of Sanskrit and Persian as the media of instruction. * The Anglicists who advocated dissemination of Western knowledge through English opposed them. * **Act 1813 Clause 43**: It shall be lawful for the governor general in council to direct that out of any surplus… in manners here in after provided a sum of not less than 1 lakh rupees in each year shall be set apart and applied to revival and improvement of literature and the encouragement of the learned natives of India and for the introduction and promotion of knowledge of the science among inhabitants of the British territories in India". ## Major oriental and occidental controversy * **Aim of Education**: Whether it should be to educate classes in higher branches of learning or the masses in elementary education. * **Type of knowledge**: Whether to preserve and promote oriental learning or to introduce western knowledge/culture and science. * **Medium of Instruction**: Whether English or Persian and Sanskrit or Indian Languages should become the medium of instruction. * **Agency of Education**: Whether the govt. should assume direct responsibility of educating the Indians or the indigenous system of the Country to continue. * **Missionaries**: Whether the shores of India to be thrown open to missionaries of all parts of the work to promote education or to a few missionaries or not at all. ## Macaulay’s Minute * Macaulay wrote his famous minute on 2 February 1835. He was also appointed as the president of the general committee on public instruction, by governor Lord William Bentick. * Interpreting the word “literature” in the charter act meant the English literature, not Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian. * Interpreting the term “learnt natives of India” in the charter act meant the Indian Scholar well versed in western or English learning. * He emphasized, the study of European Literature and in order to justify his stand he remarked “a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.” * Downward filtration theory: He recommended English as the medium of instruction and did not favour the use of mother tongue. ## William Bentick Resolution * William Bentick passed the resolution on 7th of March 1835. * The great object of British government ought to be promotion of European literature and science in India. * The oriental institution should not be abolished. All the existing professors and students at all institution shall continue to receive their stipends. * No portion of funds in future shall be employed for publishing books in oriental languages. * The funds thus saved be henceforth employed in imparting to native population, a knowledge of English literature, and science. ## Merits: * A clear cut picture of national system of education in India emerged. * The system proved very helpful in promoting the objectives for which it was planned. * English schools began to be established and English became the medium of instruction. * Western arts and science became popular. * Emergence of filtration theory. ## Demerits * Indian culture and philosophy receded to the background. * Vernacular languages began to be neglected. * Mass education was neglected. * Western culture made rapid strides and Arabic and Sanskrit languages found very few takers. ## Downward filtration theory * It is clear that Macaulay did not plead English education for the masses but for the class or upper strata of the society. He decided that the government would not take direct responsibility of mass education. He believed that by educating the upper class, the knowledge would slowly filter down to the lower class. It also meant that if the high class of people would be educated, the common people would gain influence from them. ## Reasons * British need various types of employees to run business and the government. * Lack of fund for mass education. * Educated people educated on British lines through English medium would get higher post in government service. * After educating some people, the responsibility of educating masses could be left to them. * High class should adopt English ways of living. ## Wood's dispatch 1854 * The committee studied the issue thoroughly and reported that the question of the Indian education should not be ignored and its development will not be in any case harmful to British Empire. ## The declaration issued on 19 July 1854. ## Recommendations * **Aims and objectives of educational policy** * To impart western knowledge, information about the western culture to the Indians. * To educate the natives of India so that a class of public servants could be created. * To promote intellectual development and also raise the moral character of young generation. * To develop practical and vocational skills of the Indian people. * Establishment of department of education. * Expansion of mass education. * Establishment of universities in the three presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. * Grant in aid system: Grants were given to those schools and colleges which satisfied certain conditions. * Give importance to teaching of English but at the same time it also stressed on the teaching of Indian languages. * Support education for women. * Establishment of teacher training schools in each of the provinces. * It recommended the establishment of medical, engineering, law and other institute of professional education. * Policy of religious neutrality in educational institutes ## Merit * Start a new era in Indian Education system by clearly defining objectives of education. * Presented comprehensive scheme of education by embracing primary, secondary and higher education. * Downward filtration theory was discarded. * Recommended Scholarship for poor and deserving student. ## Demerits * Neglected general education, indigenous schools remained neglected. * Grant-aid system did not operate in proper sense. * Biased attitude towards the Christian missionaries. * Succeeded in only producing clerks and accountants. * It couldn’t remove the imbalance in Indian Education system. * This is recognized as “magna carta of Indian education”, because it brings so many uplift to the foundation of education. ## Other Educational Commissions * **(1) Hunter Commission 1882**: Importance to primary and vocational education. * **(2) Hartog Committee Report 1929**: Compulsory primary Education. * **(3) Sargent Report 1944**: High schools were divided into Academic and Technical. Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction, and English become second compulsory subject. ## Radhakrishnan Commission (December 1948) * University Education commission. * Dr. S. Radhakrishnan was the chairman. * For improvement of higher education. ## Submit Report on 1949 * **Aim**: To inculcate high ideals of life, like justice, patience, truthfulness etc. * To train for democracy, self development and to teach the life has meaning and education is a life long process. * To create leadership in social and political life. * To impart vocational and professional training. * **Teacher**: Clear description about quality teachers. * **Standard of Higher Education**: * Providing Laboratory, Library and Research facility. * Provide friendly interaction with teachers. * Post-graduate training and professional education. * **Uniformity** in the duration of M.A., M.Sc. courses and research degree. * **New post graduate and research programmes** in the field of marine biology, medicine, fine arts, Archeology, Social Science etc * For the proper implementation of the above programmes, the universities should become autonomous bodies responsive to the enlightened public opinion. * This commission emphasis on the role of professional education in the field of agriculture, commerce, business, administration etc… ## Curriculum * **Emphasis** on relation of special and general education. * **Attention** should be devoted to worked on each sphere. * **Each** sphere should be devoted to develop personality of students by accepting interest of students for various occupation. * **Physical education, NCC, National Social Service**. * Such schemes should be introduced. * **Provision** for scholarship and stipend. * **Medium** of instruction. * **Importance** for vernacular language. * **Pupil** at higher secondary and university level, should be familiar with 3 languages. * Regional language or mother tongue. * Federal language. * English. ## Examination System * Essay type examination were renounced * Give importance to objective type examination. * Grace mark system should be abolished. ## Structure of Education * The total school course should be of 12 years duration and the university course should spread over three years. ## UGC * University grants commission came into existence on 28th December 1953 to maintain academic standard and to provide financial assistance. ## Religious Education * Understanding basic principles of every religion in India. * To develop spirit of religious tolerance and secularism. ## Indian Education Commission (1964-66)(Kothari Commission) * Kothari Commission was formed on 14th July in 1964 under the chairmanship of Dr. D.S Kothari. This was the 6th commission in the history of education commission in India. * **Objective**: Advise government on the national pattern of education and on the general principles and policies for the development of education at all stages and in all aspects. Legal and medical education excluded from the purview of the commission.. * **“Education is the most powerful instrument of National development”.** ## Education and National Objective * It is education that determines the level of prosperity, welfare and security of the people. The destiny of India is being shaped in her classroom. To raise the standard of living. * Relating education to the needs and aspirations of the people: No reform is more important or more urgent than to transform education. It is a powerful instrument of social, economic and cultural transformation necessary for the realization of our national goals. ## Science as a basic component of education * Science education becomes an integral part of school education and ultimately some study of science should become Gandhi’s part of all courses, bw. * **Work Experience**: Work experience should be introduced as an integral part of all general or vocational education. * **Vocationalization**: Give a strong vocational bias to secondary education and to increase emphasis on agricultural and technological education at university. * **Social and national integration**: Promoting national consciousness by making social and national services as a part of education. * **Common School System**: It is the responsibility of educational system to bring different social classes and groups together and thus promote emergence of an egalitarian and integrated society. * **Social, moral and spiritual values**: Strengthening and deep sense of social responsibility and keen appreciation of moral and spiritual values is also essential for the disposal of modern society. * **Secularism and Religion**: The instruction in religious dogmas will not be provided in state schools. * Science and Ahimsa to work jointly. If science and Ahimsa join together in a creative synthesis of belief and action, mankind will attain new level of purposefulness, prosperity and spiritual insight. ## Guidance and Counselling * It should be an integral part of education that helps students to make decisions. ## Education of the backward classes * The education of the backward classes in general and of the tribal people in particular is a major programme of equalization and social and national integration. No expenditure is too great for the purpose. ## Learning while earning * Facilities for students to earn and play a part of the expenses should be developed on large scale, as a supplement to the programme of scholarships. * **Development Plan for each district**: A development plan for secondary education should be prepared separately for each district. ## Two sets of curricula * The state board of school education should prepare two sets of curricula, advanced and ordinary. Every school need not adopt the advance curricula in all the subjects. But schools may be permitted to try out experimental curricula. * **Two Years Duration for Higher Secondary**: The higher secondary stage should be extended to cover a period of two years and to be located exclusively in schools. * Maximum utilization of school facilities: The libraries, laboratories, workshops, craft sheds, etc., should be open all the year round and should be utilized for at least 8 hours a day. ## Identification of Gifted Students * State make assistance available to all the schools and organize a testing service at the end of the primary stage and the lower secondary stage. ## Holidays to be minimized * There is no need to close an educational institution on a religious holiday, birthday or death anniversaries of great Indians. ## Provision of Day Study Centers * Provide large number of study centers at secondary and university stage. # Secondary Education Commission * The Secondary Education Commission was appointed by the government of India with Dr. Lakshmana Swami Mudaliar as chairman. * **Objectives**: * To inquire into and report on the present position of secondary education in India in all its aspects. * To suggest measures for improvement and re-organization so that a sound and reasonably uniform system of secondary education suited to our needs and resources may be provided for the whole country. * **Main recommendations**: * Under the new organizational pattern, middle or senior basic education should commence after 4 to 5 years of primary or junior basic education. * Senior basic or junior secondary stage should include (a) middle or junior secondary stage of 3 years. (b) The higher secondary stage of 4 years. * **Technical Schools**: Technical schools should be started in large numbers, either separately or as a part of the multipurpose schools. * **Admission to professional colleges**: admission to professional colleges be open to those who have completed the higher/secondary courses or have taken one year pre-University course. * **Multipurpose schools**: Multipurpose schools should be started wherever possible to provide varied courses of instruction to students with diverse aims, aptitudes and abilities. * While no distinction need be made between education imparted to boys and girls. * **Special facilities**: Special facilities for the study of home science should be made available in all girls’ schools and co-education schools and mixed schools. * **Mother tongue and regional language**: Mother tongue and regional language should generally be the medium of instruction throughout the secondary school stage, subject to the provision that for linguistic minorities, special facilities should be made available. * **At the middle school stage**: Every child should be taught atleast 2 languages, English and Hindi Should be introduced at the end of the senior basic stage, subject to the principle that no two languages should be introduced in the same year. * **At high school**: At least two languages should be taught and atleast one of them is mother tongue or regional language. * **High School Diversified Courses**: At High School, diversified courses of instruction should be provided. * **High Power Text Book Committee**: A high power text book committee should be constituted. * **Dynamic methods:** Dynamic methods such as Activity method and project method should be adopted for instruction. * **Experimental and Demonstration schools**: Experimental and demonstration schools should be established. * **Extracurricular activities**: Extracurricular activities should form an integral part of education. * **Provision for educational guidance**: The commission also recommended radical steps for improvement of examinations. Objective test are to be encouraged, number of external examinations reduced to minimum and proper credit should be given to internal assessment. * **Uniform procedure**: Uniform procedure should be devised for the