Perspectives and Approaches in Human Development PDF

**Perspectives and Approaches in the Study of Human Development** **Learning Paradigm** A **learning paradigm** refers to the different ways students acquire knowledge and engage in activities within educational systems, encompassing teaching styles, pedagogical theories, and techniques. **Cognit...

**Perspectives and Approaches in the Study of Human Development** **Learning Paradigm** A **learning paradigm** refers to the different ways students acquire knowledge and engage in activities within educational systems, encompassing teaching styles, pedagogical theories, and techniques. **Cognitivism**: Focuses on mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving. **Constructivism**: Emphasizes that learners construct knowledge through experiences and reflections. **PERSPECTIVES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT** **Behaviorism**: Works on the assumption that people undergo stages of development through the process of interaction with their environment via observation, conditioning, reward, and punishment systems. **CLASSICAL CONDITIONING**: A learning process in which two stimuli are repeatedly paired. - - **OPERANT CONDITIONING**: A method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior. - Key Components of Operant Conditioning: - - - **Skinner\'s Box Experiment**: An experiment where a rat learns to press a lever to receive food, avoiding the other lever that delivers a shock or no reward. - **Bobo Doll Experiment**: A series of experiments conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and 1963, where children observed an adult model acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll. The experiment measured the children\'s behavior after seeing the model get rewarded, punished, or experience no consequence for beating up the Bobo doll. **CONDITIONS FOR AFFECTING MODELING** (ARMM): - - - - **Socio-Cultural Theory (Lev Vygotsky):** States that students learn through social interaction and their culture. - - - - - - - - - - **COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT (JEAN PIAGET):** Focuses on the intellectual development of children. **Jean Piaget**: A Swiss psychologist who developed this theory. **The Cognitive Development Theory** Based on the development of human intelligence. Children actively construct their own cognition or knowledge as a result of their independent explorations. **Four Stages of Cognitive Development:** - - - - **Ethology** - **Evolutionary and Socio-Biological** **Perspective**: Accounts for genetic and adaptation to one\'s changing environment. - - **Ethological Perspective**: Studies behavior in natural environments, emphasizing biological and evolutionary influences. - - - **A. Konrad\'s Lorenz Theory** Species are genetically constructed to process certain information, giving readiness to almost all species to respond to their needs, especially those that are physiological in nature. **B. Attachment Theories** Children develop a sense of emotional bond with their immediate caregiver, especially the mother, who becomes a prototype for developing social connections in the future. **System Approach**: Aims to provide an integrated view of human development, integrating genes, cultures, and learning to explain changes across the lifespan. **THE CONTEXTUALISM THEORY** (Richard Lerner) Focuses on the changing relations between the developing individual and their context. **Richard Lerner**: A professor of Human Development at Tufts University, who directs the Institute for Applied Research in Youth Development. **The Ecological Systems Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)** Posits that human development is influenced by various environmental systems, including microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems, macrosystems, and chronosystems. **Urie Bronfenbrenner**: An American psychologist who formulated this theory. - - - - - **MODULE 5** **1. Levels of Awareness** - - - **2. PSYCHE** The **psyche** refers to the totality of mental processes and functions, including both conscious and unconscious aspects of the mind. It is divided into three components: - - - **3. PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT** Freud proposed a series of psychosexual stages, each characterized by a specific erogenous zone where pleasure is focused: - - - - - **4. Defense Mechanisms** Defense mechanisms operate unconsciously to protect the Ego from threats posed by the Id and external reality. Some common defense mechanisms include: - - - - - - **5. Therapeutic Techniques** Psychoanalytic theory has influenced various therapeutic techniques, including: - - - **MODULE 6** **ERIKSON'S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT** **STAGE 1: TRUST VS. MISTRUST** - - **STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS. SHAME & DOUBT** - - **STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS. GUILT** - - - **Preschool Psychosocial Development** **Psychosocial Conflict:** Initiative vs. Guilt **Basic Virtue:** Purpose **Major Question:** "Am I good or bad?" **INITIATIVE** - - **GUILT** - - - **How to Limit Guilt** - - - **STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY** - - - **School-Age Psychosocial Development** **Psychosocial Conflict:** Industry vs. Inferiority **Major Question:** "How can I be good or bad?" Basic Virtue: **Competence** - - **STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS. CONFUSION** (**TEEN YEARS FROM 13 TO 18)** - - - - **STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION** **(YOUNG ADULT YEARS FROM 18 TO 40)** - - - **STAGE 7: GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION** **(MIDDLE ADULT YEARS FROM 40 TO 65)** **GENERETIVITY** \- If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the world, for instance, through raising children or contributing to positive changes in society, they will feel a sense of generativity. **STAGNATION** \- If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or are not involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience stagnation. **STAGE 8: INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR** (**LATE ADULT YEARS FROM 65 TO DEATH)** This stage involves reflecting back on one's life and coming to terms with it. - - - - **MODULE 7** **Kohlberg\'s Stages of Moral Development** **Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)** was an American psychologist and educator known for his theory of moral development. His *[theory proposes that individuals progress through a series of stages in their moral reasoning, moving from a focus on external consequences to internalized principles.]* **KOHLBERG\'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - **Key Points:** - - - - **MODULE 8** **BRAIN REGION** - - - - - - - **FRONTAL LOBE** Responsible for control over many abilities, including: - - - - - **PARETIAL LOBE** Vital for sensory perception and integration, Including: - **OCCIPITAL LOBE** Visual processing area of the brain. Associated with: - - - - - **CEREBELLUM** - - **SPINAL CORD** - - **TEMPORAL LOBES** Part of your brain that helps you use your senses to understand and respond to the world around you. Plays a key role in: - - - - **JEAN WILLIAM FRITZ PIAGET** - - - **THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT** **Jean Piaget\'s Theory of Cognitive Development** suggests that children move through four different stages of learning. His Theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. **JEAN PIAGET COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:** Piaget believed that learning was proceeded by the interplay of assimilation (adjusting new experiences to fit prior concepts) and accommodation (adjusting concepts to fit new experiences). After observing children closely, Piaget proposed that cognition developed through distinct stages from birth through the end of adolescence. **JEAN PIAGET:** By **"stages"** he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features: - - - - **JEAN PIAGET:** Basically, this is a **"staircase"** model of development. Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called them: **[Sensorimotor Stage, Pre-Operational Stage, Concrete Operational Stage & Formal Operational Stage.]** Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately. **Piaget\'s Stages of Cognitive Development:** - - - **SENSORI-MOTORSTAGESENSORI-MOTOR STAGE: BIRTH TO AGE 2** - **PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE** - **THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE: AROUND 4YRS.OLD** - - **CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE: AGE: 7 TO 11** - - - - **CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE: AGE: 7 TO 11** - **NOTES TO SELF FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE: AGE 12 UP** - **FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE: AGE 12 UP** - - **VYGOTSKY'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE** **DEVELOPMENT LEV VYGOTSKY SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY** - - **LEV VYGOTSKY\'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY** - - **VYGOTSKY\'S THEORY** highlights people\' active participation in their cognitive development, emphasizing the interplay of innate skills, social interaction, and cultural resources. **EFFECTS OF CULTURE** \- Infants are born with basic intellectual development abilities known as "**[ELEMENTARY MENTAL FUNCTIONS]**.\" These include attention, feeling, perception, and memory. \- Higher mental functions are advanced cognitive processes that develop through social interaction and cultural influences. They are distinct from the basic, innate elementary mental functions. - - - - **EFFECTS OF CULTURE** Language and communication skills, logical reasoning, problem solving, planning, attention control, self-regulation, and metacognition are a few examples. **CULTURAL TOOLS** The ways of thinking and problem-solving tactics that children learn from their contacts with more knowledgeable members of society. **Language**, **numbering systems**, **mnemonic strategies**, and **art forms** all influence how people think, solve problems, and interact with their surroundings. **TOOLS OF INTELLECTUAL ADAPTATION** - - - - - **MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER** \- As a result of shared dialogues with more knowledgeable others, which provide hints, instructions, and encouragement, the child can internalize the 'how to do it' part of the task as part of their inner or private speech. The child can use this later when they tackle a similar task independently. What **MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER** constitutes knowledgeable" can vary cultures and contexts. In some situations, traditional knowledge held by elders might be most valued, while in others, cutting-edge technical skills of younger individuals might be more relevant. **MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER** - - - **ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT** - - - - - - **VGOTSKY & LANGUAGE** - - **ACCORDING TO VYGOTSKY (1962**), language plays two critical roles in cognitive development: 1\. **Cultural Transmission Of Knowledge:** Language is the primary vehicle for passing down cultural knowledge, values, and practices across generations. This transmission occurs through formal instruction and informal interactions, shaping individuals\' understanding of the world and their place within it. 2\. **Language Becomes a Powerful Tool for Intellectual Adaptation:** Language is not merely a tool for communication; it's a tool for thinking. Language facilitates the development of higher mental functions like abstract thinking, planning, and problem-solving. **VYGOTSKY & LANGUAGE** Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: - - - **VYGOTSKY & LANGUAGE** For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age. At this point, speech and thought become interdependent: thought becomes verbal, and speech becomes representational. As children develop mental representation, particularly the skill of language, they start to communicate with themselves in much the same way as they would communicate with others. **1. PRIVATE SPEECH** - - - - Talking through the steps helps them organize their approach. - - - **INNER SPEECH** - - **CHARACTERISTICS** - - **FUNCTIONS** - - **MODULE 9** **BRONFENBRENNER\'S ECOLOGICAL THEORY** **Bronfenbrenner\'s ecological model** is a framework that can be utilized to understand the complex systems that influence human development. In particular, this model emphasizes the importance of environmental factors and social influences in shaping development and behavior. **Overview** - - **Introduction:** The theory suggests that a child\'s development is affected by the different environments that they encounter during their life, including biological, interpersonal, societal, and cultural factors. **What Does Bronfenbrenner\'s Ecological Model Describe?** - - **History and Development of the Model** - - - - - - **Five Ecological Systems in Bronfenbrenner's Model** 1. - - 2. - - 3. - - 4. - - 5. - - **Interactions** - - **Examples of Bronfenbrenner\'s Ecological Model** **MICROSYSTEM** - - - - - - **MESOSYSTEM** - - - - **EXOSYSTEM** - - - - - - **MACROSYSTEM** - - - - - **CHRONOSYSTEM** - - - - - **RELEVANCE** - - **Examples of Bronfenbrenner\'s Relevance** **EDUCATION** - **MENTAL HEALTH CARE** - **CULTURAL SENSITIVITY** -