Earth Science.pdf

Earth Science – Semester 1 – Quarter 1 STEM 11 MATTER ERA EPOCH EDWIN HUBBLE Atomic  observation during the 1920’s led him to the  Electrons attached to nuclei conclusion th...

Earth Science – Semester 1 – Quarter 1 STEM 11 MATTER ERA EPOCH EDWIN HUBBLE Atomic  observation during the 1920’s led him to the  Electrons attached to nuclei conclusion that “the universe is expanding” and  Formation of hydrogen and helium atoms that “an object‘s recession velocity is proportional to it’s distance from the observer” Galactic Epoch  guiding the Hooker telescope in 1923  Formation of atomic clouds  The Hooker  Clusters of atoms formed galaxies o near Pasadena, CA o atop Mt. Wilson Stellar Epoch o largest telescope in 1917-1947  Formation of stars  Stars converted helium and hydrogen into other ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE elements The Big Bang Theory  Elements became building blocks for planets,  The universe began from a hot, infinitely dense moons, life point (singularity)  Similar to a supercharged black hole  Occurred approximately 13.7 billion years ago  Resulted in the creation of all matter, energy, space, and time RADIATION ERA EPOCHS Planck Epoch  No matter, only energy and the superforce  Gravity separated from the superforce  Grand Unification Epoch  Three unified forces of nature  Strong nuclear force separated  Inflationary Epoch  Rapid expansion from atom-sized to grapefruit- sized  Universe filled with hot, churning particles  Electroweak Epoch  Electromagnetic and weak forces separated Quark Epoch  Presence of quarks, universe still too hot for particle formation Hadron Epoch  Cooling down, quarks formed protons and neutrons Lepton Epoch  Formation of electrons and other leptons Nuclear Epoch  Protons and neutrons fused to create helium EARTH’S FOUR SUBSYTEMS Hydrosphere Interactions Atmosphere  Atmosphere  A blanket of air composed of nitrogen, oxygen, o Water cycles between the atmosphere carbon dioxide, and water vapor, extending over and the hydrosphere through 560 kilometers (348 miles) from Earth's surface evaporation and precipitation, It has five layers: exchanging energy during these o Troposphere: Closest to Earth, processes responsible for climate and life support  Biosphere o Stratosphere: Contains the ozone layer, o The hydrosphere helps transport protecting life by filtering UV radiation nutrients and waste products for living o Mesosphere: A cold layer where organisms temperatures drop significantly  Geosphere o Thermosphere: Very hot with diffuse o Water plays a significant role in atmospheric particles weathering, helping break down rocks o Exosphere: The outermost, thin layer of and form soil and loose rock fragments the atmosphere with extremely high temperatures Biosphere Interactions  Atmosphere Hydrosphere o Living organisms either take in or  Includes all of Earth’s water, with 3% being release gases to and from the freshwater, of which 70% is frozen atmosphere, maintaining the balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide Biosphere  Hydrosphere  The region that supports life, where the food o Evaporation from plants (transpiration) chain starts with photosynthesis and respiration transfers water from the biosphere to the processes atmosphere  Geosphere Geosphere o The biosphere and geosphere are linked  Earth's solid layers, mostly composed of oxygen, through soil formation and plant silicon, and magnesium activity, which involves the breakdown  Minerals are mined from here of rocks both chemically and mechanically RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER SUBSYSTEMS Geosphere Interactions Atmosphere Interactions  Atmosphere  Hydrosphere o Volcanic eruptions spew gases into the o The atmosphere exchanges gases with atmosphere, influencing its composition water bodies, particularly through  Hydrosphere processes like evaporation and o Water from the hydrosphere assists in precipitation mineral formation, speeds up chemical  Biosphere reactions, and helps melt rocks o It supplies essential gases such as  Biosphere oxygen and carbon dioxide, which are o Nutrients from rocks dissolve into water crucial for life processes like and are then used by aquatic plants, photosynthesis and respiration contributing to the biosphere’s  Geosphere sustenance o Volcanic activity in the geosphere releases gases into the atmosphere, contributing to its composition PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS Color Chemical Composition  Visible characteristic, but unreliable due to  Each mineral has a specific chemical formula impurities. that determines its composition and structure.  May consist of a single element (e.g., Gold) or Streak multiple elements (e.g., Quartz = SiO₂).  The color of the mineral's powder when rubbed on a streak plate. Reaction to Acid  More reliable than surface color for  Some minerals (e.g., Calcite) react with dilute identification. hydrochloric acid by fizzing (releasing carbon dioxide gas). Luster  Describes how light reflects from the mineral's Solubility surface.  Describes a mineral's ability to dissolve in water or  Types include metallic, glassy, pearly, dull, etc. other solvents.  Influenced by temperature, pressure, and chemical Hardness nature.  Resistance to scratching, measured on the Mohs hardness scale (1-10).  Talc = 1 (softest), Diamond = 10 (hardest). Oxidation  Certain minerals (e.g., Pyrite) can oxidize when Cleavage exposed to air, changing their chemical composition  Tendency of a mineral to break along flat planes and appearance (e.g., rusting). of weakness in the crystal structure. Fracture Magnetism  Describes how a mineral breaks when it doesn’t  Minerals containing iron, like Magnetite, can exhibit cleave; may be irregular, conchoidal (smooth magnetic properties due to their chemical curve), etc. composition. Density (Specific Gravity) Fluorescence  Ratio of a mineral’s weight compared to the  Some minerals glow under ultraviolet (UV) light due weight of an equal volume of water. to impurities or structural defects. Crystal Form  The external shape of a mineral based on its Radioactivity internal atomic structure.  Certain minerals containing radioactive elements  Common forms cubic, hexagonal, tetragonal, (e.g., Uraninite) can emit radiation due to unstable etc. atomic nuclei. Tenacity  Describes a mineral’s resistance to breaking, Electrical Properties bending, or being deformed.  Piezoelectric and pyroelectric minerals generate  Terms brittle, malleable, flexible, etc. electrical charges when subjected to mechanical stress or temperature changes, respectively (e.g., Transparency Quartz).  The degree to which light can pass through a mineral.  Categories transparent, translucent, opaque. IGNEOUS ROCKS METAMORPHIC ROCKS Formed from the cooling and solidification of molten Created from the recrystallization of minerals due to heat rock (magma or lava) and pressure, transforming the parent rock (which can be igneous, sedimentary, or even another metamorphic Types: rock)  Intrusive (Plutonic) o Formed beneath the Earth’s surface, Types with large crystals (eg, granite, diorite,  Contact Metamorphism gabbro) o Occurs when magma contacts rock,  Extrusive (Volcanic) causing temperature changes o Formed on the Earth’s surface, with  Regional Metamorphism small or no crystals (eg, rhyolite, basalt, o Occurs over large areas, often due to obsidian) mountain-building processes (produces rocks like schist and gneiss) SEDIMENTARY ROCKS  Dynamic Metamorphism  Formed from the compacting and cementing of o Caused by intense pressure and heat, sediments, including clay, sand, gravel, or often resulting in deformed rock organic materials  Textures:  Sediments: Result from weathering, erosion, and o Foliated - Shows layers or bands due to deposition of rocks regional pressure (eg, schist) o Non-foliated - Lacks layers (eg, marble) Processes  Erosion o Breaks down rocks into sediments  Deposition o Lays down sediments through wind, water, or ice  Compaction o Pressing of sediments over time, reducing space between grains  Cementation o Final step in forming rock from sediment Types  Clastic o Formed from fragments of rocks or minerals (eg, sandstone)  Non-clastic o Precipitated from concentrated solutions (eg, salts) or organic debris (eg, plant remains, shells)  Chemical o Formed from evaporating water that leaves minerals behind (eg, gypsum)  Organic o Formed from plant and animal debris with calcium minerals (eg, limestone) FACTORS THAT MAKES THE PLANET EARTH HABITABLE  Has the right amount of ingredient for life, including Water and Carbon  Protected from the harmful solar radiation by its magnetic field Nutrient  used to build and maintain an organism’s body  All solid planets and moon have the same general chemical make up, so nutrients are present  Those with a water cycle or volcanic activity can transports and replenish the chemicals required by living organisms Energy  organisms use light or chemical energy too run their life processes  with a steady input of either light or chemical energy, cells can run the chemical reactions necessary for life Atmosphere  Composed of several gases, primarily nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%). The remaining approximately 1% includes trace gases  Traps heat, shield the surface from harmful radiation, and provides chemicals needed for life, such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide  Earth & Venus are the right size to hold a sufficient-sized atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere is about 100 miles thick. It keeps the surface warm & protects it from radiation & small to medium-sized meteorites Water  dissolves & transports chemicals within and to and from a cell  Water is regularly available. Life can go dormant between wet periods, but, eventually, water needs to be available Temperature  influences how quickly atoms & molecules move  life seems limited to a temperature range of - 15oC to 115oC. In this range, liquid water can still exist under certain conditions