Dualism (Plato, Aristotle, Descartes) PDF 2024

Philosophy DP1 2024 Substance Dualism Assessment Prep Concepts: − Tripartite Soul: Reason, Spirit, and Appetite Plato’s view on the soul....

Philosophy DP1 2024 Substance Dualism Assessment Prep Concepts: − Tripartite Soul: Reason, Spirit, and Appetite Plato’s view on the soul. Reason refers to the rational , thinking part of our brains spirit refers to the the part of our soul which controls our anger and temper appetite refers to the part of our soul which controls our desire for physical pleasures − Role of reason (chariot analogy) in Plato & Descartes philosophy and their differences. role of reason in plato role of reason in descartes Key differences - Reason is the - reason is a method - purpose : for plato guiding force for systematic reason is a way to keeping the soul in doubt gain knowledge of harmony - descartes believes the eternal forms. - by following in rebuilding For descartes reason one can knowledge through reason establishes gain better reason in order to certainty and understanding of avoid sensory eradicates doubt the higher realm deception - nature of conflict : For plato reason lies between appetite and spirit in his concept of a tripartite soul. For descartes reason is purely intellectual − World of Ideas World of ideas is a platonic concept which refers to a reality more perfect and more true than our own reality. − Nature of the soul plato aristotle - tripartial soul ( reason , spirit and - Unified substance ( aristotle appetite) believed that the soul and the - immortal ( the soul is in a sense body were interdependent, the immortal as it pre exists the soul actualises the potential of the body) body) - dualism ( plato believes in a very - Types of Souls: Aristotle Philosophy DP1 2024 solid distinction between the soul classified souls into three types and the body. based on the capabilities of the living being: Vegetative Soul: Found in plants; responsible for growth and nutrition. Sensitive Soul: Found in animals; responsible for sensation and movement. Rational Soul: Unique to humans; capable of reasoning and intellect. - The soul is not immortal. Once our bodies cease to exist our soul does as well. − Chariot analogy Plato's chariot analogy is used to explain his idea of tripartite soul and refers to a chariot being driven by two horses one horse represents spirit while the other represents appetite and the charioteer represents reason − Learning as recollection, remembering For plato everything we supposedly learnt was just us recollecting things our souls already knew. − Platonic Forms or Idea Forms are the perfect version of the physical version they are present in the realm beyond our own physical world. Our physical objects are just blurry shadows of forms. − Reason for Plato - Reason is the highest faculty of the soul for Plato and the only means to attain true knowledge of the Forms, which are eternal and perfect realities. - Through reason, we can understand the Forms, especially the Form of the Good, which illuminates all knowledge and is the source of all truth and virtue. − Knowledge from senses VS Knowledge from reason (plato) knowledge from the senses knowledge from reason - knowledge from the senses is - true knowledge can only be unreliable attained through reason - our experiences can only give us - reason is in a manner the gateway opinions about the material for the eternal realm world − Aristotle conception of a substance Philosophy DP1 2024 refers to both the independent entities “ primary substance” and the essence of those entities “ secondary substance − The soul for Aristotle. The soul is part of the body. It is what gives the body life and purpose. - vegetative soul refers to things such a plants. Growth and nutrition - sensitive soul refers to things such as animals. perception and movement - rational soul refers to humans. thought , reasoning and reflection. − Reason for Aristotle - Reason is what distinguishes humans from other living things. Reason allows us to participate in abstract thinking and reflect upon things further than just our primal human desires. − Eudemonia (broadly) eudemonia is the final goal of life. It is the supposedly final level of happiness and fulfillment. − Aristotle 4 causes - the material cause refers to the matter of something “ the what” - the formal cause refers to the form of something “the essence” - the efficient cause refers to how something came to be “the how” - the final cause refers to somethings purpose “ the why” Distinction between Aristotelician and Platonic conception of forms/substance. aristotle platonic - forms do not exist in a separate - forms are perfect realm - forms are immortal - forms exist within things - forms exist in another realm - forms are essentially the essence - the objects we see and interact of what it is to be something with are just poor copies - objects consist of both their matter and their form − Evil demon - If god exists he will be all powerful so who is to say that god does not use his power to deceive us. But if God uses his power to deceive us that would go against the good nature of God.So if we consider the possibility that God is not attempting to deceive us but an evil demon is trying to deceive us. Descartes' Evil Demon refers to an all- powerful demon whose goal is to deceive us. And Philosophy DP1 2024 if such a demon exists whose to say that the things around us are actually real and not just a false image created by this evil demon. − Substance dualism (Plato’s version and Descartes’s version) - substance dualism is the idea that there are two different types of substances , Mental and physical. This idea states that the Mind and the body are fundamentally different in nature. plato’s substance descartes substance key differences dualism dualism - soul vs the body - mind vs the - metaphysical - for plato the soul body aspect - plato's is that of a - the mind is a dualism is higher realm thinking rooted in the - the body is a substance , idea of a higher temporary vessel meaning that the realm whereas for the soul. the body and the descartes souls main goal mind are of two dualism is is to gain different natures rooted in the knowledge of existence of two the forms and distinctly ascend to the different higher real substances - role of the soul. For plato the role of the soul is to attain higher knowledge whereas for descartes the soul is a tool for rational thinking − Relation between knowledge / ideas in Plato’s philosophy - knowledge is tied to the idea of ideas and forms. - For plato true knowledge is derived from the world of form - knowledge is recollection of concepts from the world of forms − Material and immaterial - the material world as plato considers it is imperfect and constantly changing. The material world is filled with objects that are imperfect copies of the objects and concepts present in the world of forms - the immaterial world, also referred to as the world of forms, contains the true essence of things. Plato's idea of recollecting knowledge revolves around these forms − Cartesian Doubt Philosophy DP1 2024 - cartesian doubt is the idea that the entire basis of our knowledge can be wrong and therefore we need to doubt everything. - Descartes uses the concept of absolute doubt which refers to the idea that in order to find truth we must doubt everything − Extended and unextended Descartes separates substances into two types of categories the extended and the unextended extended unextended - things which take up physical - substances which lack physical space and have dimensions dimension - physical (body) - non - physical (mind) − Mind/body Problem The mind body problem is the problem in which the mind interacts with the body. As the mind and the body are of two different states − Rationalism - rationalism is the philosophical viewpoint that places reason as the primary source of knowledge − Empiricism - empiricism is the philosophical viewpoint that places sensory experiences as the center of gaining knowledge − Dualism with interaction and without interaction dualism with interaction dualism without interaction - the mind and body are different - the mind and body are separate substances substances - they can interact casually - do not interact casually - mental states can affect physical - operate independently states and vice versa - descartes was an interactionalist − Pineal gland - gland located deep in the brain - was used as a proposal by escarte in relation to how the mind interacts with the body − Occasionalism - is the philosophical viewpoint that physical and mental events do not directly interact with each other but are made to correspond with eachother through gods intervention − Parallelism - is the philosophical viewpoint that physical and mental events occur in parallel to each other. according to this viewpoint when a mental event occur a physical one occurs simultaneously but both events do not influence each other Philosophy DP1 2024 − Idealism - is the idea that the world is detrimental mental and ll the physical things we see and experience are based off of our minds and ideas − Materialism - is the idea that everything is material even our consciousness denying the idea of non physical substances − Physical state - In philosophy, the term physical state often refers to the condition of a physical object or entity, especially in discussions related to the mind-body problem, metaphysics, and the nature of reality. − Mental event - a mental event refers to the things which occur in our brain which dont have physical properties such as thoughts feelings and desires − Intentionality - Intentionality is a key concept in philosophy that refers to the capacity of the mind to direct thoughts toward objects, events, or states of affairs. It is the quality of mental states (such as beliefs, desires, and thoughts) that allows them to be about or represent something. − Subjectivity - Subjectivity refers to the inherent qualities of individual experiences, emphasizing that perceptions and interpretations of reality are unique to each person. − Mind-Body Problem (today and for Descartes) mind body problem today mind body for descartes Philosophical Approaches: Today, the Dualism: Descartes famously mind-body problem encompasses proposed substance dualism, various perspectives, including: asserting that the mind (non-physical) and body Physicalism: The view that (physical) are distinct entities. He everything, including mental believed that while they are states, can be explained in terms separate, they interact through the of physical processes. This aligns pineal gland. with a scientific approach to Interaction: The mind influences understanding consciousness and the body (e.g., deciding to move behavior. your arm), and the body Functionalism: A theory influences the mind (e.g., feeling suggesting that mental states are pain). Descartes struggled with defined by their functional roles explaining how this interaction rather than their physical could occur between two substrates. It emphasizes that fundamentally different different systems (biological or substances. artificial) can exhibit similar mental states if they perform similar functions. Emergentism: The idea that mental states emerge from Philosophy DP1 2024 complex physical processes in the brain but are not reducible to them. This allows for a middle ground between strict physicalism and dualism. - Textes (references to our textbook) : - No 3, 4, 5, 6 & 14, 15, 16, 17 Example of analysis and evaluation questions (longueur answer) : − What is a Forms, and what Plato wanted to explain with his theory of forms? Forms according to plato are unchanging,perfect ,abstract concepts which do not lie in the physical world. Plato attempts to prove that the material world is not the most fundamental reality. Through this theory he attempts to understand reality. − Where does knowledge come from, according to Plato? Knowledge comes from the higher realm. for plato Learning is nothing but recollection. He believes that when we learn something we are just recollecting knowledge our souls previously had from the higher realm. − According to Plato, how can you know something if you’ve never experienced it? Because plato believes that the soul has experienced it. Learning is just recollection. − What is the Aristotelian view on reality? Aristotle has a much more empirical view on reality compared to plato. Aristotle believes that reality can be observed. Objects have substance which means that they have both a material aspect to them and aspect which refers to the object's essence. An important difference between aristotle and plato is their differing opinion on whether there is a higher realm or not − What is a substance for Aristotle? Substance is what something is at its core. Aristotle divides substance into two separate parts. The first being primary substance , this is something which can exist without relying on other concepts. An example of this can be a “ certain man”. The second part being secondary substance, this refers to a more general concept and secondary substances are often blanket terms for primary substances and an example of this can be “man”. For Aristotle, substance is the combination of form and matter, and it serves as the foundation for understanding existence, identity, and the nature of reality. − Introduce and present one solution to the problem of permanence and change The problem of permanence and change is the philosophical question as to how something can be permanent whilst also constantly changing. A solution of this problem is to split things into two parts first their substance and then their properties. For example the substance or in other words the essence of a table will ot change but Philosophy DP1 2024 its properties such as the wood used or the metal used on its legs are perishable and therefore can be changed. − How does Plato show that we have a soul? − Why does Plato claim the soul is immortal? − Do we stay the same even though our physical body decays and changes? In terms of our essence we stay the same our essence is the same but in terms of the properties which our physical bodies consist of we never stay the same our cells are regenerating constantly we are constantly changing. But once our bodies decay and no longer exist we don't either because we lose a fundamental part of ourselves, our matter. − Which one of the parts of the soul is more important than the others? All three parts of the soul play a fundamental role. Spirit holds power over emotions such as anger and honor, appetite holds power over our physical desires whereas reason helps us be rational and informed. Reason can be argued as the most important as it can help us govern both spirit and desire. − In a utopian world, which jobs would the people ruled by spirit get? By reason? By appetite? Due to their need for rationality and truth, people ruled by reason would be suited for jobs such as philosophers or political leaders or teachers. Those governed by spirit will be suited for jobs such as soldiers or police officers or motivators or activists due to their nature of wanting honor and being strong willed. Those riled by appetite would be good for jobs such as − Which worlds are more real? − According to Plato, why should reason be in control? According to plato Reason is the key to eudemonia. For plato the goal of life is to gain knowledge about the higher realm and through that knowledge aced from the physical realm. And since the goal of life for plato is to ascend and the key to that ascension. Reason is the most important. Plato also believes that reason is the most rational in comparison to spirit and appetite and therefore keeps appetite and spirit in check. − How do people ruled by spirit, reason, and appetite differ? They differ in values and in their actions. People ruled by spirit and appetite will most likely value more material things whereas those ruled by reason are more likely to value things such as knowledge and stability. People ruled by spirit and appetite would most likely make irrational decisions whereas those ruled by reason would make rational choices. − Are the forms more real than the material world? In my opinion I believe that the material world is far more real than the forms. I believe this due to the fact that my idea of reality is based on what I can interact with. I can interact with the material world and it can cause me happiness or physical pain. I can touch Philosophy DP1 2024 things in the material world. I can move things around in the material world and therefore it is more real. − Which world is more real, material/immaterial? − How do we know that forms exist? Forms refer to the abstract representation of things residing in a higher realm. We can know the forms exist through concepts such as mathematics and moral principles. Things such as mathematics exist independently outside of the material world and therefore must exist in the realm of forms. − How can I live in a material world yet relate to an immaterial one? Through engaging with both worlds. With great practice and great control over one's reason we can dwell into an immaterial world. While all our physical experiences are of this material world, our souls and our consciousness lie in the immaterial world as all of our emotions and thoughts are immaterial and cannot be perceived in a physical manner. − Are the mind and body distinct parts? This question touches on the concept of dualism and the mind body problem. The concept of dualism is the idea that the mind and body are two separate things. the mind body problem is the problem of how if two separate substances the mind and body can interact with each other. Though there are many physicalist approaches to solving this problem, we understand that those approaches don't take into account our personal conscience. Due to the fact that we do have a conscience which guides us mentally speaking I believe that the mind and the body are two distinct and separate parts. − How does Descartes prove that the mind and the body are separate? Through doubt. Descartes introduces the idea that he can doubt the existence of the material world but he cannot deny the existence of his own consciousness as he is a thinking being which means that in order to be able to deny the presence of one and not the other they must be separate things. − How do Descartes know that he exists? “ I think therefore I am” Descartes' argument is that due to the fact that he can doubt he must exist. − Why are the body and mind different from each other/what is the proof? The body is considered a physical thing whereas the mind is considered a material thing. The proof is within the makeup of our minds and bodies that bodies are perishable while our minds are not. Our bodies are physically visible while our bodies are not. We can doubt the existence of our bodies but we cannot doubt the existence of our minds. − What are the characteristics of the mind/characteristics of the body according to Descartes? According to Descartes the mind “ res congnitans” is a non physical substance. the mind is also considered as thinking and conscious. Descartes aslo believed that the mind could exist independently from the body which could mean potential immortality − Can you be certain you are not dreaming for Descartes? And why? Philosophy DP1 2024 No you cannot.. For Descartes there is no way to know whether you are dreaming or not; the only thing you can be certain about is your existence. − How do we know our senses are not tricking us? We don't. − How do we know that we are not controlled by an evil demon? Once again we do not − What are different responses to the question of how do mind and body interact? Descartes solution to the mind body problem was the fact that he believed they interacted through the pineal gland. Another idea is that they do not interact with each other but simultaneously occur , a mental state is produced and then a physical state is produced both independent of each other. Another idea is that they occur independently but interact through divine intervention. - Which solution of the mind-body problem do you agree with the most and why? I believe that mental state can affect physical experiences and actions and vice versa. This makes the most sense to me due to the fact that I believe in the presence of a mind and a body because i find it hard to deny both my mind and body. − Can we know that others exist? − How would Plato and Descartes answer the question: What am I? Textes : - The “Allegory of the cave”, Plato - Aristotle - The “Chariot Analogy”, Plato - Extract from “Meditations”, Descartes - Extract from Think of Simon Blackburn