Domain 4 - Advanced Application of Key Safety Concepts PDF

Domain 4: Advanced Application of Key Safety Concepts Electrical Basics  Voltage is the difference in charge between two points.  Current is the rate at which the charge is flowing....

Domain 4: Advanced Application of Key Safety Concepts Electrical Basics  Voltage is the difference in charge between two points.  Current is the rate at which the charge is flowing.  Resistance is a material's tendency to resist the flow of charge (current) Ohm’s Law: V= I x R, Where I is in amperes, V is in volts, and R is in ohms. 1Amp= 1 Columb Series Circuits Components connected in series are connected along a single path; thus, the same current flows through all of the components Parallel In a parallel circuit, the electrical current to each element in the circuit is separate; hence, Circuits if one element was to burn out, the other resistors would still have power. Direct Unidirectional flow of an electric charge. In other words, the current flows through the Currents-DC circuit in the same direction at all times. Alternating The flow of electric charge periodically reverses direction. The current flow passes Currents-AC through a regular succession of changing positive and negative values by periodically reverting its direction of flow. The total positive and negative values of current are equal. Resistance in a R series = R1 + R2 + … Rn Series Circuit Resistance in a 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3..+1/Rn Parallel Circuit Voltage in AC V= √PI/CosΦ V = voltage, I = impedance (Ω), ϕ = the phase angle in degrees , Circuits P = true power (W) power in DC P = VI P = power (W) 1hp=736 w the resistance R = ρ L/A , ρ = Rho (resistivity of the metal) (intrinsic ability to resist the flow of in DC circuits electricity), L = length (m), A = cross-sectional area in square meters Joules law, The amount of heat produced Electrical Power P = power (W) P=I²R=IV=V²/R power in AC P = V² CosΦ / R circuits Capacitors/ Passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric condenser (insulator). When a potential difference (voltage) exists across the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. Capacitor values are measured in farads (F). Capacitance in 1/Ct = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3..+1/Cn , Opposite of resistance a Series Circuit Capacitance in Cparallel = C1 + C2 + … Cn , Opposite of resistance a Parallel Oscillators Electronic circuits designed to produce high-frequency alternating currents thermocouple A sensor that measures temperature. It consists of two different types of metals, heat energy is converted into electrical energy Inductors A passive electrical component that can store energy in a magnetic field created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor’s ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of Henries (H) as a coil Inductance in a Same resistance calculation Circuit Electrical The severity of injury from an electrical shock depends on the amount of electrical Shock Hazard current and the length of time the current passes through the body, body resistance, path of current through body, 5 mA Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing, 6–25 mA Painful shock, loss of muscular control. The freezing current (let go), 50–150 mA  Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe muscular contractions. Death is possible 75 mA ventricular fibrillation heart contract separately which ceases the blood circulation and cause death within a few minutes. Types of burns Electrical burn: e- current pass through the tissues ranging from skin to deep muscles, bones, and organ heal slowly Arc : high-amperage not necessarily direct contact with e- source, flash arcing cause high heat lead to burns (sunburns), flash may ignite the worker’s clothing- 35,000°F, may cause pressure wave to blast, cause many of the copper and Aluminum projectile/melting. Thermal contact: worker skin contact hot surface like overheated e- conductor, Indirect: Falls Electrical Fires Defective or misused electrical equipment is a major cause of electrical fires. use only a Class C or multipurpose (ABC) fire extinguisher Explosions Arcing in the presence of an atmosphere containing combustible dust or flammable vapors may cause an explosion. Overhead Power not usually insulated, controlled Lines Demarcating boundaries (such as with flags, or a device such as a range limit device or range control warning device) and prohibiting the operator from operating the equipment past those boundaries, or Defining the work zone as the area 360 degrees around the equipment A worker can stay at least 10 ft away. A worker can post warning signs. A worker can assume that lines are energized. A worker can use wood or fiberglass ladders, not metal. Power line workers need special training and Wear PPE, such as rubber insulating gloves and insulating sleeves, and industrial protective helmets - Class E Power line proximity warning devices that notify the operator if the boom becomes too close to an energized power line. Distance is related to the voltage of the power line. There are devices for insulating cranes and booms from electrical power if contact is made with an overhead line. limit switches for hoists and cranes. On a crane, for example, the limit switch prevents the load block or hook from overrunning the sheave at the end of a boom. Wire Size and Longer a wire of a given cross section or size, the greater the resistance. Also, the higher the Length resistance, the more the wire will heat when current flows. Each gauge and type of wire has a recommended maximum length to limit its temperature and safe use. Location When possible, electrical equipment should be placed where people and other equipment cannot come into contact with it. distribution lines pass through or are located in the “people” zone, shields, conduit, and barriers should protect them Sealed Equipment Special electrical equipment is installed in hazardous environments. This electrical equipment (switches, motors, lighting fixtures, conduits, etc.) Intrinsically safe : Ex I, The electrical energy within the equipment is restricted to a level below that which may cause an ignition, or restricted to limit the heating of the surface of the equipment instrumentation and low energy equipment. Flameproof explosion: Ex d, is contained within an enclosure which can withstand the force of an explosion and prevent transmission to the outside hazardous atmosphere. Also prevents the hazardous atmosphere from entering the enclosure and coming into contact with equipment. motors, switchgear and hand-lamps. Increased safety: Ex e, Intended to prevent a potential ignition arising, by applying extra precautions to ensure increased security against the possibility of excessive temperatures and sparks. Equipment that normally causes sparks is excluded from use within this method of protection. Examples include transformers and induction motors. Non-sparking Ex n: Precautions are taken so that electrical equipment that has the potential to arc is not capable of igniting a surrounding explosive atmosphere Hazardous I: Locations where flammable gases or vapors are or may be present in the air in quantities location sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures Classifications II: Locations that are hazardous because of the presence of combustible dust III: Locations that are hazardous because of the presence of easily ignitable fibers or flyings that are not likely to be in suspension in air in quantities sufficient to produce ignitable mixtures Rubber pad A person who works on electrical distribution lines sometimes stands on a rubber pad rated for the work It insulates the worker from other conductors so that current will not pass through the worker’s body Defective or Improper use of these cords can cause shocks, burns, or fires: Damaged Cords Insulate live wires. Inspect all cords and wires before each use. and Wires Use only cords that are 3-wire type. Use only cords marked for hard or extra-hard usage. Use only cords, connection devices, and fitting equipped with strain relief. Remove cords by pulling on the plugs, not the cord. Cords not marked for hard or extra-hard use, or which have been modified or damaged, must be taken out of service immediately. Flexible Cords Do not use flexible wiring where frequent inspection would be difficult or where damage would be likely to occur Flexible cords must not be run through holes in walls, ceilings, floors, doorways, windows, or similar openings unless physically protected Ground-Bonding Ground: Connect wire between equipment and earth (ground), Grounding removes charge from the bodies, Grounding may protect people from electric shock. In 120-V Bonding: connection between all components, dispensing and receiving containers, by eliminating the potential difference between two conductors, Ex.: Flammable liquid category 3, a flash point below 100F/37C, must be bonded and grounded to prevent the electrostatic charge during the pump transfer. Fuses A device placed in the live side of a circuit, designed to cut off automatically the power supply to the circuit within a given time when the current flow in the circuit exceeds a given value and produces sufficient heat to melt the fuse which is designed to do so at a Predetermined temperature. It prevents the overload of an electrical system and overheating of electrical wiring. However, its speed of operation is generally too slow to protect people from electric shock. Circuit Breakers Form of switch that opens when current passing through them exceeds some designed limit. One type opens when the temperature of the breaker reaches a predetermined level. Disadvantage: The temperature of the environment around the breaker can affect its response. The second type is magnetic, which opens when a predetermined current level is reached. Environmental temperature has less effect on this type of breaker. Circuit breakers prevent FIRE Residual Designed as a shock limiting device and not for system protection. It operates on an earth current device- leakage fault. Any differential in the current passing through the line (neutral) and phase (live) GFCI conductors is detected, operating a switch to cut off the electrical supply to the apparatus and Ground fault preventing severe electric shock. The device should operate within 20 msec. (0.02 sec)1/40, trips at 2mA, Air bag inflates 0.05 sec. OSHA 5mA circuit breaker- proper placement of power Outlet---GFCI--extension cord--power tool 120 V GFCIs do not work on line-to-line connections found in distribution of 220V and higher. Power strips are designed to be directed to the wall, UL approval GFCI is used to protect people in wet environment Lockouts A lockout procedure involves placing a lock on a switch or other device to prevent the switch or equipment from being turned on or energized. one kind of lockout device has holes for several locks. Each person who works on equipment that can be energized by the switch places a lock through the lockout device. No one can open another person’s lock and the switch will not operate until all locks are removed and no master keys allowed Interlocks Is a switch intended to prevent access to an energized or dangerous location. Interlocks are often attached to access doors, panels, and gates. When a door opens or a panel is removed, power to the equipment is shut off by the interlock, Fail-safe system Thermal and The temperature of an electric motor will rise during use. If the temperature exceeds a certain Overspeed Cutouts value, a dangerous condition may exist. A temperature-sensitive switch with a preset temperature limit can interrupt power, ex. electrical motors heaters (such as hair dryers) Additional One of the better ways of reducing the risk from electricity is to reduce the voltage, achieved by controls the use of a step down transformer. A common reduction is 110 volts and a transformer used to attain the reduction is described as center tapped to earth in that the secondary winding of the transformer is earthed to its center thus ensuring that the maximum voltage from live to earth involved in an electric shock will be 55 volts. Also double insulation as Class II or double insulated confined spaces and wet areas, it may be difficult to achieve grounding protection, “Safety” low-voltage equipment can reduce the electrical hazard, and special tools, lighting fixtures, power cords, and other electrical equipment are operated at < 24V up to 50- KV 10 distance over 50 to 200 15 over 200 to 350 20 over 350 to 500 25 over 500 to 750 35 over 750 to 1000 45 First Aid Because respiratory arrest and fibrillation are common effects, knowledge of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) Smart Power Smart power integrated circuits (PIC) can help reduce electrical hazards. These devices are Integrated connected to a circuit and will have their own identification. The PIC will not permit current to Circuits flow to a device that it does not recognize. For example, this concept may prevent electrocution of a child who inserts a metal object into a receptacle STATIC An electrical charge will build up when there is motion or friction between two insulated or ELECTRICITY partially insulated objects. The motion does not require rubbing or sliding. Ex. buildup on one’s body from walking on carpet when the air is dry. sliding bulk material, the flow of fluids through pipes and hoses, and vehicle tires on pavements produce static charge, low moisture content high build up, E = ½ C V² E is energy in joules, C is capacitance in farads Capacitance is a property of a material. Capacitance for a person is approximately 100pF. A walk over a carpet in dry air may produce as much as 50,000 V. A resulting spark would release 0.125 J. Hazards Static electricity is creation of an arc and ignition of certain vapor or dust mixtures in air. Controls-Static Controls: minimizing the buildup of charge. Using materials that do not generate or Electricity store as much charge as others can help, Bonding and grounding are the simplest ways to reduce the build up, Humidification of air in closed environments may help, but is usually more costly and less effective in reducing risks. Locations where static charge from clothing could be dangerous, workers wear conductive clothing, particularly shoes. Clothing made from fabric that resists charge buildup or is treated with antistatic chemicals can reduce risk but increase the hazard of electric shock. Training and posters also considers, The relative humidity must be below 50%, humidity increase lead to low electric static charge. HOSPITAL There are many ways a patient can become part of a circuit , and affect on hospital staff PATIENTS Grounding and double insulation help. Isolation of circuits and sensor leads, minimal current for equipment operation, low voltages, and turning off unused equipment can all help. Shielding reduces magnetically induced currents. LIGHTNING The sudden release of static buildup in clouds, particularly during thunderstorms, which can produce very large currents, control of lightning rods or air terminals connected to a special ground rod is the normal method for providing external protection. Air terminals are placed strategically along roof lines providing common grounding points for all systems in a building, use of surge-diverting or protection devices on electrical equipment, placing electrical equipment distant from lightning protection equipment, shielding of equipment and wires, and use of stranded and twisted overcurrent protection. Lightening reach 300 million Volts and about 30,000 Amps. In comparison, the household current is 120 Volts and 15 Amps. Lightning produces NO as high motor vehicle area BATTERY Lead-acid batteries. explode during charging operations, causing battery acid and particles CHARGING from the case to injure the eyes or skin. Explosions: flammability of hydrogen gas and the other electrical nature hydrogen gas from the electrolytic fluid if LEL-UEL concentration (4%–75% by volume of air) a spark or flame can ignite it and can produce an explosion, control dilute the air around the battery, exhaust system used in enclosed room, an emergency eye wash fountain and emergency shower & PPE 2nd Explosion: if two batteries being connected are of different voltage or when joining terminals of differing polarities. Control: batteries being connected together have the same voltage. Connect negative terminals to ground last (for cars that have a negative ground) and disconnected them first. Fire door 1 hr fire proof CONFINED SPACES Confined spaces OSHA Definitions. confined space: A space that has limited or restricted means of entry, is not designed for continuous occupancy, and is large enough and configured so that a person can enter the space and maneuver well enough to perform tasks. Is large enough and so configured that an employee can bodily enter and perform assigned work , Has limited or restricted means for entry or exit (e.g., tanks, tankers, silos, storage bins, vaults and pits), Is not designed for continuous employee occupancy, expose a person to Hazardous atmosphere, such as fire/explosion, oxygen deficiencies, suffocation, heat stress, slip/trip, … engulfment, etc. that required confined space entry permit. Attendant Individual stationed outside one or more permit spaces Confined Space  Contains or has potential to contain hazardous atmosphere Entry Program  Contains material that has potential for engulfing entrant  Has internal configuration such that entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated by inwardly converging walls or by floor which slopes downward & tapers to smaller cross-  Contains any other serious safety or health hazard Atmospheric Flammability: below 10 % of the lower flammable limit (LFL) or on reading 0.1 Monitoring Toxic gases: should be below the permissible exposure limit (PEL)/threshold limit value (TLV) or time-weighted average (TWA) of a substance. O2: 19.5 % to 23.5 %  Measurement at different location bottom/mid/top, gases has different behavior, methane is lighter than air(up), H2S is heavier (bottom), tested periodically for air contaminants which OSHA has no dose or PEL refer to SDS Sequences of testing : O2, flammability, toxicity - OFT Requirements 1 attendant, 1 entrants under competent supervisor entry supervisor may serve as attendant or authorized entrant, as long as that person is trained & equipped as required for each role filled Isolation protected against release of energy & material into space by such means as: blanking or blinding; misaligning or removing sections of lines, pipes or ducts; double block & bleed system for pipeline system: lockout or tagout of all sources of energy; or blocking or disconnecting all mechanical linkages Rescue and 1. In-house rescue services emergency 2. Outside rescue services, such as local fire departments services 3. Nonentry rescues Equipment (including a retrieval line, chest or full-body harness, wristlets, if appropriate, & lifting device or anchor) Excavation-trench above 20ft required competent engineer Facts ► The rate of deaths in excavation is 112% higher than the rate for general construction. 38% of all excavation incidents are due to cave-ins ► 37% of all trenching incidents occur at depths of less than 5 feet. A competent Someone who is trained and qualified to make decisions based on science and engineering person Trench  Depth>width; width 1000 kg (2200 lb), >1 kg (2.2 lb), No limit, 90 days Generators Small quantity >100 kg (220 lb)≤1 kg (2.2 lb) ≥6000 kg (13,200 lb)180 days, 270 days if the TSDF is more than 200 miles Conditionally exempt small quantity generator ≤100 kg (220 lb) ≤1 kg (2.2 lb) ≤1000 kg (2200 lb) No limit Toxic Substances Control EPA to secure information on all new and existing chemical substances, as well as Act (TSCA) to control any of the substances that were determined to cause unreasonable risk to public health or the environment. Congress later added additional titles to the Act, with this original part designated at Title I-Control of Hazardous Substances.7 Other titles included Title II-Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act, Title III- Indoor Air Radon Abatement, and Title IV-Lead Based Paint Exposure. Emergency Planning and Concern over the protection of the public from chemical emergencies and dangers Community Right-to- because of accidental release of methyl isocyanate at Union Carbide’s Bhopal, Know Act- EPCRA India facility in December 1984, and a later toxic release from a West Virginia chemical plant Federal Insecticide, No one may sell, distribute, or use a pesticide unless it is registered by the EPA or Fungicide, and meets a specific exemption as described in the regulations. Registration includes Rodenticide Act- FIFRA approval by the EPA of the pesticide’s label, which must give detailed instructions for its safe use. EPA must classify each pesticide as either “general use,” “restricted use,” or both. General-use pesticides may be applied by anyone, but restricted-use pesticides may only be applied by certified applicators or persons working under the direct supervision of a certified applicator. Because there are only limited data for new chemicals, most pesticides are initially classified as restricted use. Applicators are certified by a state if the state operates a certification program approved by the EPA Asbestos Hazard Specifically, Asbestos-Containing Materials in Schools outlines a detailed process Emergency Response Act that ensures the safe management of all asbestos-containing building materials. Machine Guards, interlocks and safety devices Guarding Principles  Intended to keep people and their clothing from coming into contact with hazardous parts of machines and equipment.  They also prevent flying particles from an operation and broken machine parts from coming into contact with or striking people  Enclosing noise or dust and forming part of an exhaust system for contaminants. Guarding characteristics. Must be a permanent part of the machine or equipment, must prevent access to the danger zone during operation, and must be durable and constructed strong enough to resist the wear and abuse expected in the environment where machines are used. Guards must not create hazards. They should not interfere with the operation of the machine. designed so routine inspection, adjusting, lubricating, cleaning, and repairing can be performed without removing them. Guard Openings To allow access for inspection or lubrication; to monitor machine action. The larger an opening, the farther one can reach through it, machine action location narrowing to 3/8  in, direct proportional relation Distance of Opening from danger line and max. width opening Guard Construction Substantial, consider the forces and events they are intended to protect and the use environment for the machines and guards. Environmental factors such as corrosive mist or excessive heat Types of Machine Motion Rotation, reciprocating or transverse motion, in-running nip points or pinch points, cutting actions, and punching, shearing, and bending. Pinch point hazard is a common class of mechanical hazard where injury or damage may be done by one or more objects moving towards each other, crushing or shearing whatever comes between them. An in-running nip point : In-running nip points (or pinch points) are a special danger arising from rotating or reciprocating parts. Self propelled: interlock Automatic guillotine paper : Remote control Distance and Location The minimum distance required from a floor or walking surface to mechanical power transmission apparatus varies with different standards, although 7 or 8 ft is often used. They should be at least 8 ft high or have functionally equivalent features Enclosure Guards Fixed guard should be fixed to the machine so that it does not create additional hazards, such as a pinch point. Most guards should permit viewing the point of operation, Construct and attach guards with fasteners that cannot be removed without tools to help prevent unauthorized removal Limitation: Sometimes not practical for changing production runs involving different size stock or feeding methods. Machine adjustment and repair often require guard removal. Other means of protecting maintenance personnel often required (lockout/tagout). Interlocked Guards Shuts off or disengages power and prevents machine start-up when guard is open. Should allow for inching of the machine. Allows access for some minor servicing work, in accordance with the lockout/Tagout exception, without time-consuming removal of fixed guards. Limitation: Movable sections cannot be used for manual feeding. Some designs may be easy to defeat. Interlock control circuitry may not be used for all maintenance and servicing work. Maintenance grounds-keepers often use self-propelled machines ( mowers and snow blowers) use interlock Guillotine paper use Remote controls Adjustable Guards Barrier that adjusts for a variety of production operations. Limitation: May require frequent maintenance or adjustment. Operator may make guard ineffective. Self- Adjusting Barrier that moves according to the size of the stock entering point of operation. Guard is in place when machine is at rest and pushes away when stock enters the point of operation. Limitation: Does not provide maximum protection. Hood Guard Circular table saws typically have a hood guard over the blade. The guard “floats” vertically as material is moved into the blade. Devices  Presence sensing, Pullback, Restraint  Safety controls (tripwire cable, two-hand control, etc.), Gates Hand speed constant is standard time to calculate safe distance for light curtain Pullback Cords connected to operator’s wrists and linked mechanically to the machine Devices automatically withdraw the hands from the point of operation during the machine cycle. Pullbacks/pullouts are used as safeguarding devices on both full and part revolution power presses. An overhead pullback device (above) is commonly used in press brakes Restraint Wrists are connected by cords and secured to a fixed anchor point which limit Devices- used with operator’s hands from reaching the point of operation at any time. They attach to the amputation hazards operator’s wrists with wrist-straps and are used to physically limit the movement of the operator’s hands so as to prevent their entry into the point of operation at any time. Presence- Sensing Interlock into the machine’s control system to stop operation when the sensing field Devices (photoelectric, radio frequency, or electromagnetic) is disturbed. D =63 in/s X Ts Presence- Sensing Interlock into machine’s control system to stop operation when a predetermined Mats weight is applied to the mat. A manual reset switch must be located outside the protected zone. Two- Hand Control Requires concurrent and continued use of both hands, preventing them from entering the danger area. Two- Requires concurrent use of both hands, prevents them from being in danger area when Hand Trip machine cycle starts. Type “A” Gate Applicable to mechanical power presses. Provides barrier between danger area and (moveable barrier) operator (or other employees) until completion of machine cycle. Type “B” Gate Applicable to mechanical power presses and press brakes. Provides a barrier (moveable barrier) between danger area and operator (or other employees) during the downstroke. Awareness Barriers An awareness barrier does not prevent access to the point of operation, but it does alert people to a hazardous area or operation, In conjunction with an awareness barrier, a warning should explain the machine’s hazard and the purpose of the barrier. Awareness Signals These are audio or visual signals used with point-of-operation safeguards. The signals alert an operator or others that a hazard exists or is approaching. Emergency Stop Controls An emergency stop control is an electrical, mechanical, pneumatic, or other control used to stop or de-energize a machine when an emergency occurs. are red, clearly labeled, and require only momentary contact to activate them. They are usually larger than other machine controls, so they are easy to locate and operate, If there are multiple operators, each should have easy access to an emergency stop control. Antirepeat The machine cycles more than once, the operator may have reached into the point of operation at the end of the first cycle and injury can occur. Where this situation might occur, the design for a machine action must incorporate an antirepeat mechanism as a safeguard to prevent an inadvertent extra cycle. Brakes Circular saws and other rotary machine actions tend to rotate for some time after they are shut off. Electronic motor brakes can stop the rotary motion within 1 to 2 s after the power is off. Jog Control During cleaning, maintenance, or setup operations, it is often necessary to move machine components to certain positions. One means for accomplishing this is with an inching or jogging control. Jog controls allow the machine to be turned on and off Anti-kickback Devices Circular table saws have the capability of throwing or “kicking back” stock that binds or catches on the blade, An anti-kickback dog/splitter is a device that allows material to move freely into the saw blade, but pinches the material against the saw table when the material is pulled or pushed backward. Similar device, called ant kickback fingers, protects radial saw operators during ripping operations Robots These safeguard devices include presence-sensing devices, barriers, interlocked barriers, perimeter guards, awareness barriers, or awareness signals. If an operator must enter the work envelope to maintain or train the robot, additional safeguards are needed. Lockout and tagout procedures, reduced operating speed (10 in/s or less), blocks or stops, emergency shutoff controls, keeping a second person at the robot control panel, and other safeguards may be applied. A pendant control also may help safeguard robots. Self-Automated-man : man job as monitor Pendant Control-Robots A pendant control allows an operator to control a robot from within the work envelope. It must be a single point of control; that is, no other controls can operate the robot  when it is in the pendant, at slow speed, and when buttons or other controls on the pendant are released, they must stop the robot motion, pendant must not place the robot in automatic mode and it must have an emergency stop. Zero Mechanical State The ZMS concept recognizes that detailed procedures will help ensure that a machine or system is safe for maintenance, setup, or cleaning operations. that locking out the main power sources of a machine or system may not remove all sources of energy. Pneumatic, hydraulic, or other fluid lines or components may still be pressurized and may need to be relieved or isolated to make them safe BioCurve tools (a) A conventional hammer handle that requires signficant ulnar deviation of the wrist. (b) A curved handle reduces ulnar deviation. (c) A rip hammer with a BioCurve handle. (d) A mallet with a Bio-Curve handle Start Switch Lockout Prevent inadvertent operation. A tool cannot operate until a keyed switch selects the operating mode, On some powder-actuated tools, a safety switch must be released before the tool will operate. Interlocks Some tools have interlocks that protect the operator or others, riding mower has a switch under the operator’s seat that shuts off the blades or engine when the operator stands up “Dead Man” Switch Many power tools have activating switches that shut off power to the tool when the switch is released. Drills, saws, mowers, hedge trimmers, grinders, and other power tools have such controls. Safeguarding Energy Controls for hazards of gasoline or other flammable fuels used in mowers, trimmers, Sources and other tools are important. Controls for air and fluids under pressure apply to tools with these power sources. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF HAZARD CONTROL MURPHY’S LAW- Major “Anything that can go wrong will go wrong.” “If there is any way the technician can in the US Air Force do it wrong, he will.” the goal is to reduce hazards. Through planning, design, and analysis of production and operations, factors that contribute to incidents can be eliminated or reduced. Hazard control VS Hazard Hazard recognition: is perceiving or being aware that a hazard does or can exist. recognition Hazard control : eliminating or reducing the risk resulting from a hazard Planning vs Design Planning: is the process of developing a method for achieving something, formulating a program of action, or structuring an orderly arrangement of parts. Designing: is an extension of planning. More detail and specific information is incorporated into a method, program of action, or physical object. Design errors examples failure to convert square inches to square feet will produce a large error in a load calculation. Failure to include a factor of safety in a structural calculation can be disastrous. Using the wrong factor of safety can introduce a hazard. Failure to envision the use environment: The task may be hazardous when the floor is wet or shoes are muddy Making inadequate assumptions is another way hazards are introduced. Assuming that a load is static when it is really dynamic may result in failure. Production and Hazards also can result from production and distribution activities, Replacing one Distribution chemical with another may introduce toxic or flammable hazards. Inadequate packaging could result in a release of hazardous materials to handlers, distributors, or buyers. Maintenance and Repair Hazards may come from insufficient, delayed, and improper maintenance and repair. Failure to tighten a bolt or tightening it too much may create a hazard. Failure to lock out or provide lockout Communication The four components are sender, Message, media/channel, and decoding, receiver, feedback, Poor communication or failures in communications can introduce hazards. Hazards can be introduced when changes in design, operations, and procedures are not communicated adequately to those impacted by them. PRINCIPLES OF To minimize hazards, one must be able to : HAZARD CONTROL 1. recognize them 2. define and select preventive actions 3. assign responsibility for implementing preventive actions 4. provide a means for measuring effectiveness Historical data often helps in identifying or anticipating hazards that may exist or potentially exist. Priorities 1. eliminate/replace the hazard 2. reduce the hazard level 3. provide safety devices 4. provide warnings 5. provide safety procedures and protective equipment Reduce the Hazard Reductions in the degree of severity lead to less injury, illness, or damage, Placing hazards where there are few people reduces hazard severity. Using smaller quantities of flammable or toxic material or reducing energy levels at an occupied location is also a severity reduction. A sprinkler system does not prevent fires. It simply minimizes their severity. Reducing the probability of occurrence means that a hazard is less likely to result in an incident. Designing for lower failure rates or using redundancy are others. Avoiding single-point failures Flammable materials should be stored downwind Redundancy-backup The probability of error or failure can be reduced by providing redundancy in an system operation or system. Redundancy means providing more than one means to accomplish something, where each means is independent of the other Another way to provide redundancy is to use a backup system, Some aircraft have as many as four separate hydraulic systems to minimize the chances of control failure, and The second is not normally in operation until the first one fails. For example, having candles or lanterns available for use when the electricity goes off and lights are out is a form of backup system. parallel redundancy: a pilot and a copilot can perform the same function series redundancy: failure of one is failure of the whole system Single Point Failure Failure of a component or subsystem that results in failure of the entire system. A broken starter switch or a dead battery in a car renders it inoperable. Safety Devices Fail-safe devices: designed to prevent exposure to hazards. They also prevent injury or damage when a system or machine fails, automatic fire doors, air brakes on truck trailers, a dead-man switch on a powered hand tool. Types of safety device Fail-passive: a device, such as an electrical circuit breaker or fuse, renders a system inoperative or deenergized until corrective action is taken. has no effect on the operation of the overall system Fail-active: keeps a system energized but in a safe mode until corrective action is taken. Fail-operational: allows a system to function safely, even when the device fails. Warning Devices Notify people of a hazard or danger. Do not remove a hazard. depend on human action, Most warnings signal people through visual or auditory senses, changing lights, sirens, whistles, horns, warnings are present at one time, they can be confusing, During the major loss of coolant incident at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant, 500 or more audio and visual warnings went off during the first minute, Operators had a sensory and decision-making overload Procedures are the lowest control on the priority list because they depend totally on human behavior to recognize the hazard and take appropriate corrective action HAZARD CONTROL Using only one means for control may not be sufficient, at night someone may not see MODELS the barricade, so a flashing light is mounted on the barricade for visibility. For blind  people, the flashing light is useless. When appropriate, a beeper is added to the flashing unit many elements that are involved in incidents : Individually, people, machines, environments, materials Four Ms Man, Media, Machine, and Management, MEEP : material, environment, equipment and people Goal Accomplishment People (1) perform activities (2) and use equipment (3) to help them. People perform Model the activities in some place or facility (4) under constraints of physical (5), social (6), and regulatory (7) environments. There are time (8) and cost (9) limits for the activities. Housecleaning and Housecleaning involves picking up, wiping up, and sweeping up. It includes Housekeeping removal of scrap and waste. Housekeeping reflects the adage “having a place for everything and everything in its place.” Sanitation 1. proper design and operation of sanitary and storm sewers 2. availability of safe drinking water and sanitary dispensing equipment 3. clean, operable toilet facilities 4. frequent garbage, scrap, and waste removal 5. sanitary food preparation, service, handling, and eating areas 6. insect and rodent control 7. sufficient and sanitary cleanup areas, locker rooms, and showers 8. use of appropriate personal protective equipment and clothing First Aid and Emergency Emergency actions help mitigate the severity of an incident by limiting exposures of Action people, property, and the environment, Emergency actions may take several forms, such as evacuation, emergency communications, treatment, and recovery and may require the use of specially trained teams (fire brigades, spill response teams, etc.) and special equipment (fire protection systems, spill containment equipment, flood control equipment, communication systems, etc.) Process Safety An atmospheric tank means a storage tank that has been designed to operate at Management Standard- pressures from atmospheric through 0.5 psig (pounds per square inch gauge, 3.45 29 CFR 1910.119 kPa). Boiling point of a liquid at a pressure of 14.7 PSI absolute (psia) (760 mm). Catastrophic release: a major uncontrolled emission, fire, or explosion, involving one or more highly hazardous chemicals, that presents a serious danger to employees in the workplace. Highly hazardous chemical a substance possessing toxic, reactive, flammable, or explosive properties Normally unoccupied remote facility: No employees are permanently stationed at the facility Process any activity involving a highly hazardous chemical including any use, storage, manufacturing, handling, or the on-site movement of such chemicals Replacement in kind: a replacement that satisfies the design specification. A trade secret is any confidential formula, pattern, process, device, information, or compilation of information that is used in an employer’s business and that gives the employer an opportunity to obtain an advantage over competitors who do not know or use it. Process safety inapplicable: retail management, well drilling, normal unoccupied Process Safety Information pertaining to the hazards of the highly hazardous chemicals: Information Toxicity information, PEL, Physical data, Reactivity data, Corrosivity data, Thermal and chemical stability data, Hazardous effects of inadvertent mixing of different materials that could foreseeably occur Information Pertaining to A block flow diagram is used to show the major process equipment and the Technology of the interconnecting process flow lines and show flow rates, stream composition, Process temperatures, and pressures when necessary for clarity. The block flow diagram is a simplified diagram. Piping and instrument diagrams: The P&IDs are to be used to describe the relationships between equipment and instrumentation as well as other relevant information that will enhance clarity. Information Pertaining to Materials of construction the Equipment in the P&IDs, Electrical classification Process Relief system design and design basis Ventilation system design Design codes and standards employed Material and energy balances for processes built after May 26, 1992 Safety systems (e.g., interlocks, detection or suppression systems) Process Hazard Analysis An initial process hazard analysis (hazard evaluation) on processes covered by this standard. The process hazard analysis shall be appropriate to the complexity of the process and shall identify, evaluate, and control the hazards involved in the process Hazards of the process being analyzed by : What-If, Checklist, What-If/Checklist, Hazard and Operability Study, Failure Mode and Effects Analysis, Fault Tree Analysis, An appropriate equivalent methodology A “what-if” analysis is an informal method of evaluating hypothetical situations. Management oversight and risk tree (MORT) looks at all events that might happen in a process and uses management processes to minimize risk. Simultaneous time events analysis evaluates a process by looking at all the events happening simultaneously. Fault tree analysis starts with the catastrophic event and moves backward in the process to look at all event sequences that may lead to the catastrophic events. A fault tree is created with the roots of the tree leading to the catastrophic event at the top, is a systematic approach of evaluating specific failures. The analysis starts with the fault and works backwards identify all conditions that will eventually lead to the fault. The analysis uses Boolean logic to determine the probability of the failure. Limitation is failure to identify all the events that may lead to a top event. Failure to include an event may simply be oversight A hazard and operability study identifies hazards and operability problems. Failure modes and effects analysis evaluates how the failure of each system component will affect the entire system, looks at what will happen in a process when components fail in the process. It starts with a failure and moves forward in time to the consequence. What-if analysis is a loosely structured brainstorming exercise to identify situations that may cause system failure. The process hazard analysis shall be performed by a team with expertise in engineering and process operations, and the team shall include at least one employee who has experience and knowledge specific to the process being evaluated. Also, one member of the team must be knowledgeable in the specific process hazard analysis methodology being used. Updated after 5 years of the initial Refresher Training at least every 3 years and more often if necessary Or logic gate = PA+PB-(PA*PB) And logic Gate = PA*PB The house shape is used to indicate events that are expected to occur under normal circumstances. Inspection and Testing The frequency of inspections and tests of process equipment shall be consistent with applicable manufacturers’ recommendations and good engineering practices, Management of Change The employer shall establish and implement written procedures to manage changes (except for “replacements in kind”) to process chemicals, technology equipment, and procedures, and changes to facilities that affect a covered process. The technical basis for the proposed change Impact of change on safety and health Modifications to operating procedures Necessary period for the change Authorization requirements for the proposed change Incident Investigation An incident investigation shall be initiated as promptly as possible, but not later than 48 h following the incident, investigation reports shall be retained for 5 years. Compliance Audits At least every 3 years to verify that the procedures and practices developed under the standard are adequate and are being followed. Employers shall retain the two most recent compliance audit reports. Trade Secrets Employers shall make all information necessary to comply with the section available to those persons responsible for compiling the process safety information, those assisting in the development of the process hazard analysis Flixboro explosion VS Flixboro seviso dioxin release, Vapor cloud explosion, change in plant design Bhopal Bhopal isomethyl toxic plume release, Runaway reaction explosion, maintenance/admin. Owners and contractor OCP, protect business/property owner, or general contractor against liability due to protection negligence or independent contractor/subcontractor act, the independent contractor purchase the policy for a specific project Insurance 4 category Property (fire), health, liability, and life insurance Construction insurance It covers building under construction, it cover perils such as fire, wind, and theft the policy pays the damage up to the coverage limit Hexavalent chromium Welding stainless steel CE and UL CE related to Europe product conformity European, UL Underwriters Laboratories is USA product Commercials drivers Not allowed to consume alcohol within 4 hrs before starting Violation will cause placed out-of-service immediately for a period of 24 hours Report such issuance to his/her employer within 24 hours; report such issuance to a State official, designated by the State, which issued his/her driver's license, within 30 days Alcohol and controlled DOT require annual random testing of at least 50% of the company's entire fleet substance tests for random controlled substances. After accident the alcohol test should be within 8 hrs substance tests should be within 32h, the drive should be subjected to random/unannounced tests for alcohol and drugs review of that order by submitting a petition for review in writing within 10 days Slip meter Used to measure slipperiness of surface, determine the friction coefficient Light meter Used to measure the illumination Center of gravity A higher center of gravity means a high potential for rollover Accident causes Direct causes (energy sources, hazardous materials) Indirect causes (unsafe acts and conditions) Basic causes (management policies, personal or environmental factors) Wheatstone bridge Combustible gas device burn the contaminant catalytically , cause increase in temperature, resulting increase in resistant of the filament and reduce the current MECHANICS AND STRUCTURES Forces, Distribution, and Important properties of materials include strength, brittleness, ductility (ability to bend or deform), thermal expansion and contraction, shape, age, exposure to environmental conditions, Materials and exposures to chemicals. Even strength can vary, depending on whether forces are pulling, crushing, twisting, or cutting. A key relationship between a force F and a body on which it acts is F = SA S = force per unit area or stress (such as pounds per square inch) and A = area (such as square inches) over which a force acts. Safety Factor (SF) (SF) refers to the ratio of a failure-producing load to the maximum safe stress a material may carry. The maximum safe stress is often called allowable stress. SF = failure producing load/ allowable stress The safety factor will be higher for materials with less homogeneity. Safety factors are higher for sudden, dynamic loads. Safe Distance = Delay Time x Reaction Distance x Safety Factor Forces and Stresses load on the body cause stress: tension or compression stresses shear stresses: Stresses acting parallel to the plane normal stresses: acting perpendicular to the plane Forces on an object are classified by the way they act on a body tensile forces: squeeze an object are compression forces Shear forces: cut an object, bending or flexural loads: object to bend torsional forces: twist an object CAUSES OF STRUCTURAL Design Errors: incorrect or poorly made assumptions of final load due Computational FAILURE errors Faulty Materials: Two factors are lack of homogeneity and changes in properties over time, control homogeneity is through testing and others like ductility, brittleness, or toughness, are also important. Physical Damage: when a load shifts to other elements of a structure, elements may not be able to withstand the load change. One control that may minimize physical damage is placement, Another control is the use of barriers (a) Brittle Failure; It is a crystalline structure failure with minimal plastic or elastic deformation. The factors promoting a brittle fracture are - High tensile stresses,; Residual or locked in stresses; Sudden loading which does not give the material time to deform plastically, - Case hardening; Low temperatures and The degree of brittleness of the material b) Ductile Failure: generally has a smooth fracture surface with plastic deformation of the material before final fracture. High temperatures,; Cold work hardening and - The plasticity of the material Fatigue: o Cracks spreading – repeatedly stressed, newly failed smooth surface o Beachmark – 90 degree to crackdown o Final failure ductile / brittle – insufficient material to withstand the load Fatigue: Factors: o Area of high stress concentration – corners, threads, holes o Cyclical loading ; Temperature, pressure and forced vibration ii) Creep: Characteristics: slow but permanent deformation of a material under load. Some plastic materials; plastic deformation Corrosion: in the buried LPG pipework is an electro-chemical process which is caused due to - Presence of moisture together with the possibility of containments in the soil, - The presence of corrosion cells such as pitting of the metal pipework, - The roles played by anode, cathode and electrolytes, - The liberation and transfer of electrons Tuberculation : Internal pipe corrosion- Bacteria in a pipeline's water reacts to the iron found in the pipe's interior. The result of this reaction is a buildup inside the pipeline. Over time, this buildup grows thicker and disrupts the pipe's flow  b. Protection against corrosion by - Wrapping with protective tape, Coating it with bitumen, Galvanizing (protective zinc coating to steel ), Sleeving with a dry envelop, Providing cathodic protection or a sacrificial anode Overloading and Inadequate Support: structure not having enough load carrying capacity. If designers or users do not foresee these problems, failure can result Poor or Faulty Workmanship: failure is improper assembly and maintenance Poor Maintenance, Use, and Inspection: It is important that proper maintenance be applied to prevent corrosion or damage. Improper use can affect the likelihood of structural failure EARTHQUAKES: when the frequency of vibration in an earthquake is at or very near the resonant frequency amplitude of the vibration becomes amplified and the degree of damage is greater Static Mechanics Forces acting on a body. Static mechanics involves bodies at rest or in equilibrium. Forces acting on them do not create motion, as bolts, rivets, welds, load-carrying components such as ropes and chains Welds P =LtSa, L = the length of the weld, t = the thickness of the thinner plate of the joint, and Sa = the allowable stress of the weld. Dynamics Dynamic mechanics deals with the forces acting on a body to cause acceleration. The motion may be linear and angular. A forklift turning a corner too sharply may cause it to tip over Friction Friction deals with one body in contact with another that is on the verge of sliding or is sliding. Bearing Foundations must transfer the load of a structure to the soil. The load that a soil can support, In most foundation failures, the footings seldom fail. Failures frequently involve soil compression, unequal soil compression or movement, and changes in soil conditions (water content, volume, chemical content) Piles Piles are slender underground columns used to support loads at their top. Loads transfer to soils by the friction and adhesion along the sides of the piles and by bearing at the bottom end. Retaining Walls Soils can exert one of two kinds of lateral pressure: active pressure or passive pressure. Active pressure exists when a wall resists the tendency of soil to slide into the wall Fluid Mechanics Fluid mechanics is the study of forces on fluids. Pascal’s law states that at any level, a fluid exerts an equal force in all directions. Hydraulics, and the science of fluids in motion is fluid dynamics. also known as fluid statics, is the science of fluids at rest 1 ft3 of water will weigh 62.4 lb - 9.8 kN/m3. 0.000145 psi = 1 N/m2, 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa , 1 psi = 144 lbf/ft2. P= F/a , P = pressure (psi), F = force or weight (water: 62.4 lb/ft3), a = area (in2) Vcylinder = πr2 × h, where r = radius of cylinder, h = height of cylinder, π 3.14 p = g h, where h is the vertical distance from the top surface to the point under consideration and g is the specific weight. Torricelli’s Law velocity, (v), of a fluid through a sharp-edged hole at the bottom of a tank filled to a depth h is the same as the speed that a body (in this case, a drop of water) would acquire in falling freely from a height (head, in feet) h, that is, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. v=√2gh , where v = velocity (ft/s), g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s or 32 ft/s), h = head (ft) P = 0.433 × h, Where P = pressure (psi) h = head (ft) Head Pressure Bernoulli’s principle, the total energy at a given point in a fluid is the energy associated with the movement of the fluid, plus energy from pressure in the fluid, plus energy from the height of the fluid. hp = P/W , Where , hp = head pressure (ft), p = gauge pressure w = weight of water Velocity Head The velocity of a fluid expressed in terms of the head or static pressure required to produce that velocity hv =V2/2g where hv = velocity expressed in head (ft) , v = velocity (ft/s, m/s, etc.) g = acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2) Velocity Pressure at occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between the layers Constant Laminar The Reynolds number classification is listed as follows: Velocity Laminar flow: Re < 2000 Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000 Turbulent flow: Re > 4000 Pv= Q2/891d2 , where pv = pressure at constant laminar flow (psi), Q = flow rate (gpm), d = pipe diameter (in., ft, m) Flow Rates and Pressure Q2 = Q1 (S-R2)/(S-R1) Drops Q2 = final flow rate after increasing the flow rate of system 1 (gpm) Q1 = flow rate under original conditions (gpm) S = highest pressure in the system (psi) R1 = pressure that the system dropped to as a result of running at specific conditions (1) (psi) R2 = pressure that the system dropped to as a result of running at specific conditions (2) (psi) P= Q2/K , P = pressure (psi), Q = flow rate (gpm), K = discharge coefficient (0-1) Flow Rates and Q1/Q2= √P1/P2 Where Q = flow rate (gpm), P = pressure (psi) Pressures Calculating Pressure P= 4.52Q/Cd Where , Pd = pressure lost to friction (psi/ft), Q = flow rate (gpm) Loss Due to Friction C = coefficient of roughness of the pipe, d = inside pipe diameter (in.) MATERIALS HANDLING POWERED VEHICLES Vehicles have a rollover protection system (ROPS). falling object protection system (FOPS). The size of the opening should be small enough to prevent objects in a load from penetrating into the operator compartment. The operator also must be able to see the load through or around the FOPS. Cranes may have built-in Load-indicating devices, measure the load and provide the operator with a reading safety devices or warning of the load or an overload warning signal. devices limit switches to prevent “double blocking,” Boom angle indicator or boom radius indicator A reading from this device provides the operator with information to help determine if a load is within safe limits. Load-moment indicators: combine boom angle and load. If the moment necessary to overturn a crane is approached or exceeded, an alarm sounds for the operator. Basket hitch distribute the load /2 on each sling A choker hitch sling carries the same load, but the 1,000-lb load is carried by the single vertical element. Elevators, escalators, and Must be maintained regularly and must be inspected by trained people. require elevator manlifts inspectors to be licensed. At regular intervals Design standards incorporate safety features like brake systems, automatic braking if a cable fails, double doors for the car and openings, interlocks on all doors, Access doors have detector switches to prevent their closing on someone Elevators must contain emergency alarms and means of egress Transportation 37 % of motor vehicle deaths occur between 10:00 p.m. and 4:00 a.m. The death rate per crash generally increases with age. However, it is highest for people between ages 17 and 30 years, factors that contribute to the actual crash sequence, depending on vehicle speed, design, and motion Frontal Impact Bumper should absorb the energy from a 2.5 mi/hr impact of the vehicle. For a time, the standard was a 5 mi/hr impact, At higher speeds, the structure of the vehicle will  absorb the energy of impact by crushing. Today’s vehicles are designed to absorb a great deal of energy; older vehicles were not. Rear-End Collision In a rear-end collision, one vehicle strikes another vehicle in front of it Rollover The chance of rollover increases for vehicles with high centers of gravity. If sliding friction or restraining forces are large enough compared with the forces of lateral motion or If there is enough lateral impact and movement The Second Crash When a vehicle crashes, the occupants continue in motion until they impact the crash of occupants interior of the passenger compartment. Crashworthiness The ability of a vehicle to withstand an accident without intrusion or reduction in the integrity of the passenger compartment. When a crash occurs TRANSPORTATION The NHTSA has safety standards for motor vehicles: the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety HAZARDS Standards (FMVSS), the Department of Transportation (DOT) The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Vehicles The design feature for trucks and cars is antilock brakes. For years, large aircraft had antilock brakes, Because the coefficient of sliding friction is generally less than that for static friction, the sensors interrupt braking for a fraction of a second, allowing a return to static friction, and then braking continues. This sequence repeats frequently until the vehicle stops. Passenger cars have driver-side and passenger-side air bags as standard equipment. lights, brakes, and other features will improve highway safety Operators The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA): being 21 years old, meeting physical qualifications, having knowledge of safe methods, securing cargo, passing road and written tests, and not being disqualified for certain criminal or driving offenses(alcohol or drugs) Many states require high school students to take a driver education course Environments Traffic safety environments are comprised of such factors as time of day, weather conditions, pavement conditions, and other factors. Accidents occur more frequently at night. Example of sand-filled plastic barrels (the Energite III inertial barrier system) that protect vehicles from impacting bridge columns and other objects near highways External Distraction Recently, distractions of various kinds received increasing attention. Cell phones, global positioning displays, video and DVD players, and other built-in or driver- carried equipment may contribute to visual, auditory, or operational distractions Accident reconstruction S= V2/30 μ, where S distance V is the initial velocity (miles per hour) and μ is the coefficient of friction for the tires on the pavement. Railroads Including explosions, fires, and releases of toxic materials. Most rail deaths and injuries now result from grade crossing accidents with motor vehicles. Controls Ladders have rungs that prevent feet from sliding off. There are grab bars at climbing transition points and slip-resistant walkways and handrails. Thermally insulated tank cars prevent heat buildup and explosions from fires in adjacent cars, barrier gates and signals. Sensors that detect the speed of a train activate some gates and ensure adequate lead time for gates to close Aviation Hazard Leaking fuel tanks and ignition can be disastrous. Icing of wings and loss of lift is still a danger in severe weather. Designing emergency exiting for as many as 450 passengers is a challenge. Detecting and avoiding wind shear, particularly in clear weather, also remains a challenge. Controls on-board computers and instruments for navigation, flight control and management, fuel management, fire detection and extinguishment, collision avoidance, pressurization control, and many other functions. Some even have the capability for automated landing. Flight and maintenance logs help ensure that equipment is in good condition. Regulation of pilot training and certification place qualified crews in charge of flight. Pipelines Hazards Related to materials handling and excavation during construction Fire and explosion are major concerns for fuels and flammables. A leak in a pipe, fitting, valve, pump, or other component of the pipeline could produce disastrous results. Controls must meet strict design standards of the DOT, specifies detailed requirements for operation, maintenance, inspection, and reporting procedures, labels to prevent errors in contents and what each component does. There are standards for pipe labeling, planning, communication among workers, and application of many safety procedures. TRANSPORTATION OF Transportation Safety Act of 1974, Hazards , explosives, radioactive material, flammable HAZARDOUS MATERIALS liquids or solids, combustible liquids or solids, oxidizing or corrosive materials, compressed gases, poisons, etiologic agents (hazardous biological materials) Controls defining and recognizing hazardous materials, excluding certain materials from particular transportation modes, limiting quantities, controlling placement, design and selection of packaging, labelling of containers, restricting transportation routes, and using shipping manifests, incident reporting, and training. No one is allowed to carry or ship radioactive material by aircraft. Hazard Class Explosive A Detonation or otherwise of maximum hazard. Explosive B In general, function by rapid combustion rather than detonation. Flammable hazard. Explosive C Certain types of manufactured articles containing class A or class B explosives in restricted quantities. Minimum hazard. Combustible liquids Any liquid having a flash point of more than 100°F and less than 200°F. Corrosive material Any liquid or solid that causes visible destruction of human skin tissue or a liquid that has a severe corrosion rate on steel. Flammable liquid Any liquid having a flash point less than 100°F. Pyroforic liquid-Any liquid that ignites spontaneously in dry or moist air at or less than 130°F. Compressed gas—Any materials or mixture having in the container a pressure exceeding 40 lb/in2 absolute at 70°F or a pressure exceeding 104 lb/in2 absolute at 130°F, or any liquid flammable material having a vapor pressure exceeding 40 lb/in2 absolute at 100°F. Flammable gas Any compressed gas meeting the requirements for lower flammability limit, flammability limit range, flame projection, or flame propagation criteria of DOT. Nonflammable gas Any compressed gas other than a flammable compressed gas. Flammable solid Any solid material, other than an explosive, that is liable to cause fires through friction or retained heat from manufacturing or processing or that can be ignited readily and when ignited burns so vigorously and persistently as to create a serious transportation hazard. Organic peroxide An organic compound containing the bivalent -O-O- structure and that may be considered a derivative of hydrogen peroxide where one or more of the hydrogen atoms has been replaced by organic radicals. (Some exceptions) Oxidizer A substance such as chlorate, permanganate, inorganic peroxide, or a nitrate that yields oxygen readily to stimulate the combustion of organic matter. Poison A Extremely dangerous poisons—Poisonous gases or liquids of such nature that a very small amount of the gas, or vapor of the liquid, mixed with air is dangerous to life. Poison B Less dangerous poisons—Substances, liquids, or solids (including pastes and semisolids), other than class A or irritating materials that are known to be so toxic to humans as to afford a hazard to health during transportation, or that, in the absence of adequate data on human toxicity, are presumed to be toxic to humans. Irritating material A liquid or solid substance that on contact with fire or when exposed to air, gives off dangerous or intensely irritating fumes, but not including any poisonous (class A) material. Etiologic agent A viable microorganism, or its toxin, that causes or may cause human disease.  Radioactive material Any material or combination of materials that spontaneously emits ionizing radiation and has a specific activity greater than 0.002mCi/g. ORM A anesthetic, irritating, noxious, toxic cause extreme annoyance or discomfort to passengers ORM B solid when wet with water) capable of causing significant damage to a transport vehicle or vessel from leakage ORM C A material that has other inherent characteristics not described as an ORM A or ORM B but that make it unsuitable for shipment ORM D A material such as a consumer commodity (packaged or distributed in a form intended and suitable for retail sale for consumption by individuals ORM E A material that is not included in any other hazard class, but is subject to DOT regulations. Included are hazardous waste and hazardous substance Labelling DOT requires a standard warning placard. Motor vehicles, freight containers, and rail cars must have placards listing the class of hazardous material by name and symbol. For some materials, a placard also must list the name of the material and a DOT identifying number. Restricted Transportation Restrict the highways over which certain hazardous materials can travel. Restrictions Routes are typical for areas where there are high densities of people and highly travelled critical tunnels and bridges, a railroad tank car containing LP gas caught fire and exploded in Crescent City, Illinois, in 1970 Shipping Papers DOT regulations require that a shipping order, bill of lading, manifest, The description must include the name of the material, the DOT hazard class, the amount being shipped, and the number and type of containers. The document must separate hazardous materials from other materials. The shipping papers must certify that hazardous materials are packaged and labeled properly Incident Reports During transportation, a carrier must report to DOT any unintentional release of a hazardous material. When an incident involves death, serious injury, major property damage, or certain releases of radioactive and etiologic agents, the carrier must make an immediate telephone report. Training DOT requires that each person who offers hazardous materials for transportation must instruct officers, agents, and employees about applicable regulations. MATERIALS HANDLING Hazards Manual materials handling poses dangers that may be different from the use of cranes or hoists Materials may be flammable or toxic failure of the lifting equipment or falling loads strike something else and cause damage or strike a person and cause injury Controls Eliminate Handling If material handling steps are eliminated, there are fewer opportunities for handling hazards. Planning selection of correct equipment, identification and analysis of steps that may go wrong, and establishment of procedures for dealing with contingency problems. Design and Selection: include structural strength, operational features, control systems, visibility, failure modes, incorporation of safety features, conveyors that move above workers in a factory must have overhead protection for the people below to prevent objects and materials from falling on them. Use: safe use can be cited. Loads on materials handling equipment must not exceed safe load limits Training : Operators and those involved in the area of use must learn what hazards equipment and its use impose and how to control the hazards Environments: Lighting, visibility, weather, terrain, properties of materials (weight, toxicity, stability, etc.). JACKS Hazards Instability, and having a load slip from them. jack placed on the ground may sink when fully loaded. Controls Solid bearing support so that it will not sink or slip. load being lifted should be stabilized at locations away from the jack  Blocking or anchoring the load may be needed. Avoid metal on metal when using a jack. HAND-OPERATED Hand trucks, dollies, carts, and wheelbarrows are hand powered use batteries or other power sources tipping and falling. When maneuvering hand-powered vehicles in tight spaces MATERIALS HANDLING Controls Loads should be stable and well secured, should be limited in height and provide VEHICLES good visibility for an operator, hand trucks designed for handling gas cylinders. They have restraints that fit around a cylinder and are part of the design POWERED VEHICLES Hazards battery-powered vehicles use lead-acid batteries. There are dangers related to electricity and to battery charging. Gasoline and propane fuels, used to power some vehicles, are flammable. Engines and exhaust are hot. In poorly ventilated or confined spaces, the exhaust could create hazardous conditions from carbon monoxide and other products of combustion , operated too fast in a turn, they can roll over. Center of Gravity Vmax ={ gr(d/2h)}1/2 Vmax is in feet per second, g is the gravitational constant (32.2 ft/s2), r is the turn radius (feet), d is the distance from the composite center of gravity for the vehicle and load to the lateral support line (feet), and h is the height of the composite center of gravity from the ground (feet). Controls Vehicles have a rollover protection system (ROPS). It consists of a structure surrounding the operator and forming an operator compartment FOPS. To protect operators from falling objects, overhead protection is needed size of opening should be small enough to prevent objects in a load from penetrating into the operator compartment. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) HOISTING APPARATUS HITCHES: choker, vertical basket prevent swing and maximum load The adage and prevent swing load Foreign Material Exclusion A foreign object is any item that doesn't need to be in a particular area or (FME) & Foreign Object space and is not limited to any specific category. If it doesn't belong, it's Damage (FOD) foreign. Foreign objects can be a threat to nuclear generation, electrical generation and aerospace industries. Machine parts that wear and shear off:  Tools falling from heights or into machinery  Garbage  Building materials (nails, screws and fasteners)  Small items such as paper clips, coins and pens  Rocks, sand and loose vegetation  Personal protective equipment (safety glasses, hardhats and gloves)  Birds, wildlife Foreign object damage (FOD) is damage caused by introducing a foreign object debris into a system or process. The damage can compromise the function of a piece of equipment. An example would be a small tool being sucked into the intake of a turbine engine, causing damaging the impellers. Foreign material exclusion (FME) is a process to prevent the introduction of foreign objects into a sensitive area that may result in damage to assets, harm to people, harm to the environment, loss of quality or economic loss. FME programs will vary from industry to industry and craft to craft.  Secure the FME zone by creating barriers, and monitoring and tracking all assets going into and coming out of the zone.  Flag devices to create awareness of foreign objects that have been temporarily brought into the FME zone and need to be removed.  Inspection and retrieval tools (grabbers, magnets, borescope cameras, etc.) should be readily available with a retrieval plan in place.  Have tool lanyards available to prevent equipment from falling into machinery or onto people.  A storage plan should be in place for small items inside the FME zone.   Avoid clear plastic and glass items. Use tinted materials or tags for increased visibility.  Keep construction and welding debris to an absolute minimum.  Create awareness and train employees on the principles of the FME program. Public Safety Safety in public spaces involves several integrated disciplines. Think about all of the potential situations that could affect those in a public commercial building. Fire, flooding, earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, and building collapse all pose a threat that must be considered when designing and constructing public spaces. Floor loading Addressed in the IBC, is the amount of force placed on the floor of a building. Floor load capacity, the amount of weight a floor can support, must be calculated during the engineering phase of a project. Dead loads are the weight of the structure itself and considered static. Live loads are dynamic forces such as foot traffic or mobile equipment. Both load types must be factored into the floor load capacity. Life Safety Systems The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) maintains the Life Safety Code (LSC) 101, a set of requirements addressing life safety systems in building design, construction, operation, and maintenance. Life safety systems are interior building elements that protect occupants in emergencies like fires and earthquakes. This includes fire/smoke detection systems, alarm systems, fire suppression systems, and emergency exits. Occupant Load LSC 101 requirements are triggered by the occupant load, the number of people that will be occupying a particular space. Occupant load can be calculated using an occupancy load factor. The NFPA gives recommendations for the number of square feet required per person and is dependent on building use. Say the occupant load factor for a commercial kitchen is one person per 200 square feet. If the kitchen is 1000 square feet, the calculated occupancy load for that kitchen is 5 people. 1000 ft2 / 200 ft2 per person = 5 people In areas not in excess of 10,000 ft2 (930 m2), the occupant load shall not exceed one person in 5 ft2 (0.46 m2). In areas in excess of 10,000 ft2 (930 m2), the occupant load shall not exceed one person in 7 ft2 (0.65 m2). The other way to determine the occupant load is to count the number of occupants you would expect in the area. This is the expected occupant load. The actual occupant load is the greater of the two values, either the calculated or the actual number. The NFPA uses the occupant load to specify the minimum number of occupants for which you have to have to provide certain life-saving features. This could include means of egress, fire alarm systems, sprinkler systems, or emergency lighting. Vehicle Fleet Safety Teaching vehicle operators how to properly care for the vehicle while they're using Programs it and to prevent an incident from happening or to minimize the risks involved. To prevent or minimize both direct and indirect costs. If a vehicle is involved in an accident. Direct costs are all those visible costs, like towing the car, workers' compensation, property damage, vehicle replacement or repair, and other similar costs. Indirect costs/Hidden fees: not covered by the insurance. For example, the cost of employee replacement, new employee training, lost time and productivity, asset  replacement, and a bad reputation, These indirect costs are covered by the employer Components Of A  Driver training specific to the vehicles in the fleet Safety Program  Vehicle inspection an