Medical Sociology Terminology PDF

TERMINOLOGY USED IN MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY Beliefs: Tenets or convictions that people hold to be true Culture: the shared beliefs, practices, and material objects of a group of people Ideal culture: The standards a society would like to embrace and live up to Real culture: The way society really is based...

TERMINOLOGY USED IN MEDICAL SOCIOLOGY Beliefs: Tenets or convictions that people hold to be true Culture: the shared beliefs, practices, and material objects of a group of people Ideal culture: The standards a society would like to embrace and live up to Real culture: The way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists Sanctions: Rewards or punishments for accepted behavior; a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors Social control: A way to encourage conformity to cultural norms Values: A culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society Folkways: Direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture Formal norms: Formal norms are established, written rules. They are behaviors worked out and agreed upon in order to suit and serve the most people. Formal norms are written laws created to maintain peace and harmony in society. Informal norms are the unspoken list of behaviours that are considered acceptable. Informal norms may vary from culture to culture. An example of a formal norm is a law against murder. Laws are formal norms, but so are employee manuals, college entrance exam requirements, and “no running” signs at swimming pools. Informal norms: Casual behaviours that are generally and widely conformed to by the society. Informal norms are social expectations that are not necessarily enforced by any governing body. These norms are often based on shared values and beliefs, and violations can result in social sanctions, such as gossip or exclusion from social activities. Or Informal norms dictate appropriate behaviors without the need of written rules. Norms may be further classified as either mores or folkways. Mores (mor-ays) are norms that embody the moral views and principles of a group. Violating them can have serious consequences Mores: The moral views and principles of a group Norms: The visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured. Norms are a fundamental concept in the social sciences. They are most commonly defined as rules or expectations that are socially enforced. Norms may be prescriptive (encouraging positive behavior; for example, “be honest”) or proscriptive (discouraging negative behavior; for example, “do not cheat”). Mores (mor-ays) are norms that embody the moral views and principles of a group. Mores are moral standards that determine right and wrong; they are not social standards or folkways and the repercussions for breaking mores can be severe such as legal sanctions or even death. Mores change depending on the culture, group, or society, and are the basis of some laws. Violating them can have serious consequences. The strongest mores are legally protected with laws or other formal norms. In the United States, for instance, murder is considered immoral, and it’s punishable by law (a formal norm). But more often, mores are judged and guarded by public sentiment (an informal norm). People who violate mores are seen as shameful. Folkways are norms without any moral underpinnings. They are behaviors that are learned and shared by a social group that we often refer to as “customs” in a group that are not morally significant, but they can be important for social acceptance. Each group can develop different customs, but there can be customs that are embraced at a larger, societal level. Folkways are a category of norm that is roughly translated to a 'social or cultural custom'. Examples of folkways include covering your mouth when you cough or wearing covered shoes to a restaurant. Folkways are culturally-defined norms of etiquette that are not very serious if broken. They are direct appropriate behaviour in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture. They indicate whether to shake hands or kiss on the cheek when greeting another person or the way we greet. Cultural shock: Culture shock refers to feelings of uncertainty, confusion, or anxiety that people may experience when moving to a new country or experiencing a new culture or surroundings. Culture shock is the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a new country. Culture shock can be described as consisting of at least one of four distinct phases: honeymoon, negotiation, adjustment, and mastery. It is also known as cross-cultural adjustment, being that period of anxiety and confusion experienced when entering a new culture. Another word for cultural shock is Synonyms of culture shock (noun sudden exposure to different culture) alienation, anxiety, confusion. This cultural adjustment is normal and is the result of being in an unfamiliar environment. Definition Culture can be defined as a set of patterns of human activity within a community or social group and the symbolic structures that give significance to such activity. Customs, laws, dress, architectural style, social standards, and traditions are all examples of cultural elements. Culture can also be defined as is a behaviour peculiar to Homo sapiens (Human beings), together with material objects used as an integral part of this behaviour. Thus, culture includes language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, and works of art, rituals, and ceremonies, among other elements. The existence and use of culture depends upon an ability possessed by humans alone. This ability has been called variously the capacity for rational or abstract thought, but a good case has been made for rational behaviour among subhuman animals, and the meaning of abstract is not sufficiently explicit or precise. The term symboling has been proposed as a more suitable name for the unique mental ability of humans, consisting of assigning to things and events certain meanings that cannot be grasped with the senses alone. The followings are other ways people define, see or identify culture a. Culture is the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group, or the characteristic features of everyday existence (such as diversions or a way of life) shared by people in a place or time b. Culture is the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an institution or organization c. Culture is the set of values, conventions, or social practices associated with a particular field, activity, or societal characteristic d. Culture is the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends upon the capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations 2. Is an enlightenment and excellence of taste acquired by intellectual and aesthetic training b. Is an acquaintance with and taste in fine arts, humanities, and broad aspects of science as distinguished from vocational and technical skills 3. Culture is also the act or process of cultivating living material (such as bacteria or viruses) in prepared nutrient media, and also a product of such cultivation Material and Nonmaterial Culture Material Culture Material culture refers to the physical aspects of a society, the objects made or modified by a human. These objects surround a people and its activities and are defined by their properties, be they chemical, physical, or biological. Material culture includes all of the physical things that people create and attach meaning to. Nonmaterial Culture In contrast to material culture, non-material culture does not include any physical objects or artifacts. Nonmaterial culture includes creations and abstract ideas that are not embodied in physical objects. Examples of non-material culture include any ideals, beliefs, values, stereotypes, social roles, and social status, music, norms that may help shape society. These are things that exist in the cultural imagination rather than in objects. Difference between immaterial and not material? The different between material and nonmaterial culture is that while material culture can be felt/touch, nonmaterial culture is the opposite which means has no physical substance, or which adds nothing to the subject at hand. Society In sociological terms, society refers to a group of people who live in a definable community and share the same cultural components. On a broader scale, society consists of the people and institutions around us, our shared beliefs, and our cultural ideas. Typically, many societies also share a political authority. For sociologists, society is the cornerstone of everything - this is why it's important to study it. The type of society we live in determines many aspects of our lives, such as where we grow up, how we are influenced, who we meet, what we do, and how we experience life. Each society is different, and there are millions across the world. Sociologist Gerhard Lenski Jr. (1924–2015) defined societies in terms of their technological sophistication. As a society advances, so does its use of technology. Societies with rudimentary technology depend on the fluctuations of their environments, while industrialized societies have more control over the impact of their surroundings and thus develop different cultural features. This distinction is so important that sociologists generally classify societies along a spectrum of their level of industrialization from preindustrial to industrial to postindustrial. Types of Society Preindustrial Societies Before the Industrial Revolution and the widespread use of machines, societies were small, rural, and dependent largely on local resources. Economic production was limited to the amount of labor a human being could provide, and there were few specialized occupations. The very first occupation was that of hunter-gatherer. Hunter-Gatherer Hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate the strongest dependence on the environment of the various types of preindustrial societies. As the basic structure of human society until about 10,000–12,000 years ago, these groups were based around kinship or tribes. Hunter-gatherers relied on their surroundings for survival. They hunted wild animals and foraged for uncultivated plants for food. When resources became scarce, the group moved to a new area to find sustenance, meaning they were nomadic. These societies were common until several hundred years ago, but today only a few hundred remain in existence, such as indigenous Australian tribes sometimes referred to as “aborigines,” or the Bambuti, a group of pygmy hunter-gatherers residing in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Hunter-gatherer groups are quickly disappearing as the world’s population explodes. Pastoral Changing conditions and adaptations led some societies to rely on the domestication of animals where circumstances permitted. Roughly 7,500 years ago, human societies began to recognize their ability to tame and breed animals and to grow and cultivate their own plants. Pastoral societies, such as the Maasai villagers, rely on the domestication of animals as a resource for survival. Unlike earlier hunter-gatherers who depended entirely on existing resources to stay alive, pastoral groups were able to breed livestock for food, clothing, and transportation, and they created a surplus of goods. Herding, or pastoral, societies remained nomadic because they were forced to follow their animals to fresh feeding grounds. Around the time that pastoral societies emerged, specialized occupations began to develop, and societies commenced trading with local groups. Horticultural Around the same time that pastoral societies were on the rise, another type of society developed, based on the newly developed capacity for people to grow and cultivate plants. Previously, the depletion of a region’s crops or water supply forced pastoral societies to relocate in search of food sources for their livestock. Horticultural societies formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allowed them to grow stable crops. They were similar to hunter-gatherers in that they largely depended on the environment for survival, but since they didn’t have to abandon their location to follow resources, they were able to start permanent settlements. This created more stability and more material goods and became the basis for the first revolution in human survival. Agricultural While pastoral and horticultural societies used small, temporary tools such as digging sticks or hoes, agricultural societies relied on permanent tools for survival. Around 3000 B.C.E., an explosion of new technology known as the Agricultural Revolution made farming possible and profitable. Farmers learned to rotate the types of crops grown on their fields and to reuse waste products such as manure as fertilizer, which led to better harvests and bigger surpluses of food. New tools for digging and harvesting were made of metal, and this made them more effective and longer lasting. Human settlements grew into towns and cities, and particularly bountiful regions became centers of trade and commerce. Feudal The ninth century gave rise to feudal societies. These societies contained a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection. The nobility, known as lords, placed vassals in charge of pieces of land. In return for the resources that the land provided, vassals promised to fight for their lords. These individual pieces of land, known as fiefdoms, were cultivated by the lower class. In return for maintaining the land, peasants were guaranteed a place to live and protection from outside enemies. Power was handed down through family lines, with peasant families serving lords for generations and generations. Ultimately, the social and economic system of feudalism failed and was replaced by capitalism and the technological advances of the industrial era. Industrial Society In the eighteenth century, Europe experienced a dramatic rise in technological invention, ushering in an era known as the Industrial Revolution. What made this period remarkable was the number of new inventions that influenced people’s daily lives. Within a generation, tasks that had until this point required months of labor became achievable in a matter of days. Before the Industrial Revolution, work was largely person- or animal-based, and relied on human workers or horses to power mills and drive pumps. In 1782, James Watt and Matthew Boulton created a steam engine that could do the work of twelve horses by itself. Benefit Gained from Industrial Society 1. Steam power began appearing everywhere. 2. Instead of paying artisans to painstakingly spin wool and weave it into cloth, people turned to textile mills that produced fabric quickly at a better price and often with better quality. 3. Rather than planting and harvesting fields by hand, farmers were able to purchase mechanical seeders and threshing machines that caused agricultural productivity to soar. 4. Products such as paper and glass became available to the average person, and the quality and accessibility of education and health care soared. 5. Gas lights allowed increased visibility in the dark, and towns and cities developed a nightlife. 6. One of the results of increased productivity and technology was the rise of urban centers. 7. Workers flocked to factories for jobs, and the populations of cities became increasingly diverse. 8. The new generation became less preoccupied with maintaining family land and traditions and more focused on acquiring wealth and achieving upward mobility for themselves and their families. 9. People wanted their children and their children’s children to continue to rise to the top, and as capitalism increased, so did social mobility. 10. It was during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries of the Industrial Revolution that sociology was born. 11. Life was and is changing quickly and the long-established traditions of the agricultural eras did not apply to life in the larger cities. 12. Masses of people were moving to new environments and often found themselves faced with horrendous conditions of filth, overcrowding, and poverty. 13. Social scientists emerged to study the relationship between the individual members of society and society as a whole. 14. It was during this time that power moved from the hands of the aristocracy and “old money” to business-savvy newcomers who amassed fortunes in their lifetimes. 15. Families such as the Rockefellers and the Vanderbilts became the new power players and used their influence in business to control aspects of government as well. 16. Eventually, concerns over the exploitation of workers led to the formation of labor unions and laws that set mandatory conditions for employees. Although the introduction of new technology at the end of the nineteenth century ended the industrial age, much of our social structure and social ideas like family, childhood, and time standardization have a basis in industrial society. Postindustrial Society: Information societies, sometimes known as postindustrial or digital societies, are a recent development. Unlike industrial societies that are rooted in the production of material goods, information societies are based on the production of information and services. Digital technology is the steam engine of information societies, and computer moguls such as Steve Jobs and Bill Gates are its John D. Rockefellers and Cornelius Vanderbilts. Since the economy of information societies is driven by knowledge and not material goods, power lies with those in charge of storing and distributing information. Members of a postindustrial society are likely to be employed as sellers of services software programmers or business consultants, for example—instead of producers of goods. Social classes are divided by access to education, since without technical skills, people in an information society lack the means for success. The forgotten female sociologist Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1860–1935) and the earlier Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) are the neglected contemporaries of the male theorists usually recognised as the originators of the classical sociological canon, such as Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, Lester Ward and Max Weber. The queen of sociology Auguste Comte called sociology the 'Queen' of the social sciences because it does everything the other social sciences do - and more. Sociologists tackle some of the most pressing problems confronting humanity. Definition of terminologies Aggregate: a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don’t interact or share a sense of identity Authoritarian leader: a leader who issues orders and assigns tasks Bureaucracies: formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality. In other words, bureaucracy refer to an organisation where tasks are divided among technical specialists who devote their full working capacity to the organisation and whose activities are coordinated by rational rules, hierarchy and written documents. Category: These are people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way Conformity: This refer to the extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms Coercive organisations: This refer to an organizations that people do not voluntarily join, but are force to be members owing to circumstances they find themselves such as prison or a mental hospital Democratic leader: A leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before moving into action Division of labour: A situation where each individual in a bureaucracy set up has a specialised task to perform Dyad: A Dyad refer to a situation where two-member group maintain a sociological significant relationship Explicit rules: Explicit rules are types of rules in a bureaucracy where rules are outlined, recorded, and standardised Expressive function: Refer to a group function that serves an emotional need of its members Expressive leader: Refer to a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone’s emotional well-being of member of the group Formal organisations: Refers to bureaucracy set up with large, impersonal organisations Group: Is the collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity Ideal-type: Refers to a model or a collection of characteristics that could describe most examples of the item under discussion Impersonality: Is the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation In-group: Is an individual/ person belongs to a group and feels is an integral part of his identity Instrumental function: The instrumental function/role is a functionalist understanding of the individual function in the family. This role's main purpose is to discipline and provide economic support for the family. For instance, Males who fulfil this role are considered to be power brokers in the relationship as they make all the decisions for the family. Instrumental function therefore is the being oriented toward a task or goal Instrumental leader: A leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks Iron rule of oligarchy: This refers to the theory or assertion that an organisation is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration or collaborative efforts of others Laissez-faire leader: Refers to a hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions Meritocracy: Meritocracy is a bureaucracy set up where membership and advancement is based on merit—proven and documented skills Normative or voluntary organisations: This is the type of organisations where people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards Out-group: An out-group consists of anyone who does not belong to your group, a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with. Out-groups are viewed more negatively, and receive inferior treatment in comparison to that of in-group members. Primary groups: Primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time spent together or a small, informal groups of people who are closest to us Reference groups: A reference group in sociology is a group that a person uses as a reference during self-evaluation. It is basically a comparison group that acts as a standard by which the person judges themselves. Secondary groups: Secondary groups are groups of people who are not related or emotionally connected, yet work together to achieve a common interest, purpose or goal. Classrooms are common meeting places for secondary groups. Is a larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited Triad: Triad refers to a group of three people in sociology or a three-member group such as polyamorous relationship consisting of three people (3 students sharing a room). It is one of the simplest human groups that can be studied and is mostly looked at by microsociology. Dyad: A dyad is a group of two people that interact while a triad is another person added on to create more communicational interactions. For example: adding an extra person, therefore creating a triad, this can result in different language barriers, personal connection, and an overall impression of the third person. Utilitarian organisations: Utilitarian Organisations are organisations that provide a financial benefit to its members in large or local grocery stores where a person can obtain employment. These are utilitarian organisations because employees are giving up their time through labour to earn compensation or an organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need or group of individuals joined to receive a monetary reward or some other benefit that is offered to members of the organisation (government agencies, factories, corporations, schools etc.) DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGY IN RELATIONSHIPS IN HEALTH CARE ORGANISATION (GLOSSARY) Bureaucracies: Formal organisations characterised by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labour, explicit rules, and impersonality. In other words, bureaucracy which was developed by Max Weber, refer to an organisation where tasks are divided among technical specialists who devote their full working capacity to the organisation and whose activities are coordinated by rational rules, hierarchy and written documents. Division of labour: The fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialised task to perform Coercive organisations: Organisations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital Explicit rules: Theses are types of rules in a bureaucracy set up that are outlined, recorded, and standardised Formal organisations: Refer to a large, impersonal organisations with and outlined, and standardised chain of command Ideal-type: A model or a collection of characteristics that could describe most examples of the item under discussion Impersonality: The removal of personal feelings from a professional situation Iron rule of oligarchy: This Refer to a theory or an organisation that is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration Meritocracy: A bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit proven and documented skills Normative or voluntary organisations: Organisations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards Utilitarian organisations: Organisations that are joined to fill a specific material need DEFINITION OF TERMS ON SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO HEALTH AND ILLNESS Biomedical approach: The term 'biomedical' combines biology and medicine to understand and treat health related issues. It aims to understand pathology/disease at a cellular level and provide suitable medical intervention to eliminate/cure the identified pathogen/damaged tissue. Capitalism: Capitalism/Capitalist is an economic system in which private individuals or businesses own capital goods. At the same time, business owners (capitalists) employ workers (labor) who receive only wages; labor doesn't own the means of production but instead uses them on behalf of the owners of capital. Communism: Communism is a type of government as well as an economic system (a way of creating and sharing wealth). In a Communist system, individual people do not own land, factories, or machinery. Instead, the government or the whole community owns these things. Everyone is supposed to share the wealth that they create. Feminism: Feminism is about all genders having equal rights and opportunities. It's about respecting diverse women's experiences, identities, knowledge and strengths, and striving to empower all women to realise their full rights. Functionalism: Functionalism, in social sciences, theory based on the premise that all aspects of a society—institutions, roles, norms, etc. —serve a purpose and that all are indispensable for the long-term survival of the society. Functionalist theory of illness According to the functionalist perspective, health is vital to the stability of the society, and therefore sickness is a sanctioned form of deviance. Holistic approach: A holistic approach means to provide support that looks at the whole person, not just their mental health needs. The support should also consider their physical, emotional, social and spiritual wellbeing. Medicalisation: Medicalisation refers to the process in which conditions and behaviors are labeled and treated as medical issues. Political economy perspective: Political economy most commonly refers to interdisciplinary studies drawing upon economics, sociology and political science in explaining how political institutions, the political environment, and the economic system—capitalist, socialist, communist, or mixed—influence each other. Social constructionism: Social constructionism is a theory of knowledge that holds that characteristics typically thought to be immutable and solely biological—such as gender, race, class, ability, and sexuality—are products of human definition and interpretation shaped by cultural and historical contexts Socialists: Socialists believe that sharing ownership of the means of production equally among society would increase people's quality of life. Socialists want to give people free access to basic life necessities like food, housing, and healthcare. Some socialists also believe employment should be guaranteed as a human right. DEFINITION OF SOCIAL CLASS Social class refers to the stratification of different groups based on power, economic wealth, social wealth and cultural wealth. While Marxists talk about two main social classes (the bourgeoisie, or ruling class, and the proletariat, or working class) sociologists measure class in a number of different ways. The theory of the relationship between social class and illness or disease has gone through several distinct stages. The first or classic tradition was that the lower social classes had high rates of illness due to pathogenic aspects of their typical daily lives such as diet and stress. Social class according to Karl Marx Class, for Marx, is defined as a (social) relationship rather than a position or rank in society. In Marx's analysis, the capitalist class could not exist without the proletariat, or vice-versa. What Marxism say about social class and health According to Marxism, inequalities exist in the distribution of psychosocial occupational risk factors by social class. Neo-Marxist social classes are associated with unequal distributions of self-rated health and mental health. Working-class positions are subject to greater routinisation and less control. Marx and Weber definition of social class Thesis statement: Marx argues that class is determined by economic factors, whereas Weber argues that social stratification cannot be defined solely in terms of class. Marxist’s believe about health and illness Marxists believe that our definitions of health and ill health are determined by the bourgeoisie. Marxists believe that doctors hide the real social causes of illness (poverty, class inequality, etc.) Marxist theory of health and illness  Marxist theory believes that there is a relationship between health and illness and capitalist social organisation. The main focus is on how the definition and treatment of health and illness are influenced by the nature of economic activity in a capitalist society. Relationship between social class and health status in sociology Social class works through the physical environment, social context, socialisation experiences, and health behaviours to shape health and mortality outcomes. However, a persistent concern in research on the association between social class and health is ascertaining causality. GLOSSARY RELATIONSHIPS IN HEALTH CARE ORGANIZATION Bureaucracies: Formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labour, explicit rules, and impersonality. Division of labor: The fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform Coercive organizations: Organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital Explicit rules: The types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized Formal organizations: Large, impersonal organizations Ideal-type: A model or a collection of characteristics that could describe most examples of the item under discussion Impersonality: The removal of personal feelings from a professional situation Iron rule of oligarchy: The theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration Meritocracy: A bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit proven and documented skills Normative or voluntary organizations: Organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards Utilitarian organizations: Organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need