Kogi State University - MCM 104 Lesson Notes 2023/2024 PDF

Department of Mass Communication Faculty of Management, Administration, and Social Sciences Kogi State University, Kabba Course Code: MCM 104 Course Title: Introduction to News W...

Department of Mass Communication Faculty of Management, Administration, and Social Sciences Kogi State University, Kabba Course Code: MCM 104 Course Title: Introduction to News Writing Course Unit: 2 By: Mrs Opeyemi Ologun, Bsc. Mass Communication (Unilorin); MA English (University of Ibadan); MISC (ABU, Zaria) Lesson Note 2023/2024 session Course Outline Week 1 News and Components of News Week 2 Writing for News Paper: The Lead Week 3 The Body Week 4 Sources of News Week 5 Reporters Language Week 6 Attributes of a Good Journalist Week 7 News Editing Week 8 Covering Speeches, Meetings and News Conferences Week 9 Writing for Broadcast Journalism Week 10 Theories of the Press Week 11 Code of the Ethics for Nigerian Journalists Week 12 Workshop Week 13 Revision Always grab the reader by the throat in the first paragraph, sink your thumbs into his windpipe in the second and hold him against the wall until the tag line.’- Paul O’Neill. Definition of News News reporting and news writing falls within the field of journalism. As an occupation, journalism refers generally to writing for journals, but in particular for newspapers/magazines. It also includes those who write for radio and television. However, journalism has expanded in meaning and scope, to become the means by which you disseminate news and views, and by so doing has formed itself into a limb of social awareness. It has become an important social function, constituting the means by which the populace receives and give information from and to the world around them; assuming an ethical dimension and to some extent, requires legal accountability for its performance. Mitchell Charnley as cited in Ogunsiji (1989) defines news as “the timely report of facts or opinions that hold interest or importance, or both for a considerable number of people”. This definition indicates that news must have a human touch and be of significance to a large number of people. In other words, news must affect and touch the interest of a fairly large number of people. Professor Charles Coates of the University of New Mexico defines News as “what interests the readers, the listeners, the viewers, the reporter, the editor, the producer, their spouses and their neighbours”. Another definition of news is from Walter Lippman, the author of public opinion. He says “news must be something definite, something dealing with events that are disruptive and things to be covered as news must be new, current and eventful”. What can you see in this definition? Lippman seems to be saying news could be: disruptive, that is troublesome, unsettling, upsetting. News can be strange, alien, unusual, and current, that is up-to-date, fashionable, and topical. Eventful, that is exciting, dramatic, and memorable. Indeed, all these are characteristics of news. News is often upsetting, strange, unusual, topical and exciting. Human beings are always hungry for news. Statements or opinions expressed by the top echelon of the society could pass for news. In other words, what opinion leaders say what important people, glamorous individuals, celebrities do or say can make news? The poor only become a news maker when he is a victim of disaster, or, when he suddenly becomes a millionaire. Among those who are newsmakers are public officials, people in government, public opinion leaders, highly placed people, politicians, pastors, sports icons, captains of industries etc. Inverted Pyramid Inverted pyramid writing style is a format in which news is written in a descending order of importance. It simply means, the most important aspect of all the pieces of information at the journalists’ disposal is written first before any other detail. A news report has three parts: 1. The headline: a Byline. In design, a byline is a short phrase that indicates the name of the author of an article in a publication. Used in newspapers, magazines, blogs, and other publications, the byline tells the reader who wrote the piece. 2. The first paragraph -Lead 3. The remainder of the news story The headline: The Headline first attracts us. It stands out in bold black type. Its message is abrupt and often startling. It makes us stop and look. It tells us quickly what the story covers. Its function is to attract our attention. Though, the headline writing belongs to the copyreader’s province and not to the reporters. The Lead One of the most important elements of news writing is the opening paragraph or two of the news story. Journalists refer to this as the "lead," and its function is to summarise the story and/or to draw the reader in depending on whether it is a "hard" or "soft" news story. The opening paragraph of the introduction paragraph of the news story is called the ‘lead’. Though in journalistic practice we also use this word for biggest headline on the front page of newspaper, calling it the ‘lead story’. The main purpose of the intro or the lead is to make the reader want to read on, motivate them to move further into the news story and state the important facts first. Lead to a story "grabs the reader, informs the reader, and teaches the reader how to read the rest of the story." The lead remains the primary concern of the news writer. As the present-day reader is the man who both runs and reads, present day newspapers seek to facilitate his getting the information quickly. The convention has developed of telling the main facts of a news story in its first lead paragraph. Writing this lead also involves answering the questions, which would occur to any normal person when confronted with the announcement of a news story. These questions, called the five W’s are: Where? Who? What? When? Why? Suppose the news story concerns a fire. In writing the lead-the reporter would answer the questions, ‘What?’ “Fire broke out,” he would write. He would answer the question, ‘Who?’ and ‘Where?’ by telling whose premises were burnt and giving their location. He would answer “When” by telling the time the fire broke out and how long it lasted. ‘Why?’-in this case the cause the usual carelessly tossed cigarette butt. The reporter can also answer the ‘How’ in this story in several ways by describing the type of fire, or by answering ‘How much’? Here, he would estimate the probable lost and find out if premises had been covered by insurance and if so by what amount. The Body The portion of a news story that follows the lead is called the “Body” and it normally presents facts in descending order of importance The body of the story involves combining the opinions of the people you interview, some factual data, and a narrative, which helps the story flow. Essentially, the body amplifies the story by providing additional information. This could be names, descriptions, quotations, conflicting viewpoints, explanations, background data and so forth. News stories end with their least important details–never with any type of conclusion. For example, if two cars collide, injuring several peoples, an inverted pyramid story about the accident might contain the following sequence of paragraphs. The role of a reporter is to find out what people are thinking of an issue and to report the opinions of different stakeholders of an issue. As a reporter, you are the eyes and ears for the readers. You should try to provide some visual details to bring the story to life this is difficult if you have conducted only phone interviews, which is why face-to-face is best. You should also try to get a feel for the story. Transitional Devices Most news stories run into several paragraphs and, may develop several ideas and themes. Transitional words or phrases are used to achieve a smooth flow through the different themes. Thus, transitions help stories move in a smooth logical order from one field to the next. Transitional devices that emphasise the time element in the different aspects of an event are among the most common. Here are a few: Earlier, Later, Next week, at the same time, Meanwhile, Soon, after. Equally common are transitional words and phrases that highlight the location angle: in the state capital, at their home, on main street, at another point nearby. Some transitional words suggest the picture of an action. For example, turning to, suddenly, or grabbing his hand. Some, linkage words emphasise contrasts: E.g. however, conversely, but, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, on the other hand. Quotations Reporters get much information by listening to other persons, and they can convey such information to readers in the form of direct, partial or indirect quotations. 1. Indirect quotations do not use a source’s words and consequently are not placed inside quotation marks; instead, reporters use their own words to summarise or “paraphrase” the source’s remarks. Reporters use indirect quotations when their sources have failed to state their idea effectively. By using indirect quotations, reporters can rephrase their sources’ remarks, stating them more clearly and concisely. Reporters are free to emphasise the sources’ most significant remarks and to reword or eliminate remarks that are unclear, irrelevant, wordy, libellous or otherwise unprintable. 2. Partial quotations use key phrase from a source’s statement and quote them directly. Reporters use partial and direct quotations for statements that are important and interesting and that require no rewording. 3. Direct quotations present the source’s exact words and consequently are placed entirely in quotation marks. Direct quotations are particularly appropriate when sources say something controversial or state their ideas in an unusual or colourful manner. Indirect Quotation: Prof KIT Eniola said the University will end the 2023/2024 session in record time. Partial Quotation: assured parents and students of the institution’s readiness, he said “the 2023/2024 session will be completed in record time.” Direct Quotation: Prof KIT Eniola said: “Parents and Students should be rest assured that the University is poised to complete the 2023/2024 session in record time.” Quotations bring the sources alive reporting their opinions in their own words, with all their original flavour, emotion, colour and drama. Quotations give a sense that readers have talked directly with the sources. Conclusion: The remainder of the news story The end is the conclusion of the news reports. From the headline and the lead one comes to the rest of the story. He selects the most important incident or fact for his lead. Then he proceeds by selecting the next most important incident, fact or detail, the next most important after that, and so on till he reaches least important phase of all. Guided by his idea of news importance, the story assumes graphically the shape inverted pyramid The end will be at the peak of the inverted pyramid with the facts or incidents of least value. When writing a news story for an organization you should always retain the idea that your text is to be read and understood by others. Thus, a story is like building blocks, which should be linked logically to each other. Therefore, there should be continuity between the intro, the lead and the end of the news story. Thus, the most popular format of news writing is the Inverted Pyramid This is the most widely used approach in news writing. The information is given in the descending order of importance. Example of a story of an accident will be written in the format below: Determinants of News As a reporter, your news judgement or ability to determine newsworthy events is very essential. There are several factors that determine whether or not information is newsworthy. Using either of these determinants as a benchmark for ascertaining which information to use is relative, but there are general guidelines. An event may make news because of one or a combination of the following: a. Impact This concerns the question ‘what effect does it have?’ News generally has impact if it affects a lot of people, which means that in making a decision as to what to report, generally opt for information that has the potential to affect a lot of people. For instance, a proposed income tax increase has the potential to affect a lot of people, hence this has impact. b. Timeliness or Immediacy This concerns the question ‘Is it new?’ Information generally has timeliness if it happened recently, that is, an event that has just happened is new and probably news. Timeless or immediacy refers to the currency of the news item. Nothing is as dead as yesterday’s newspaper. c. Prominence Information possesses the quality of prominence if it involves a well-known person or organisation. This refers to the degree of importance of the personality involved in the news. A person may be prominent either because of his name or as a result of his achievements, contributions, or the position he/she occupies in the society (for instance, information about the President of Nigeria will generally be newsworthy). However, an unusual event involving the man-on-the street may make him prominent, e.g. the case of Clifford Orji accused of cannibalism. d. Proximity Information has proximity if it involves something that happened somewhere nearby. This refers to nearness to the news source. It is important to localise your news. Proximity can be geographic or psychological. “10 people killed in Lagos” is more newsworthy than 15 killed in Ghana. Also, report on the latest fashion in London will be of interest to a fashion designer despite its distance. e. Conflict Information has conflict if it involves some kind of disagreement between people. Whether they choose to admit it or not, everybody loves a confrontation. Therefore, if information generally reflects some form of confrontation, it is usually regarded as newsworthy. For instance, good democracy involves more civil conflicts over the nature of public policy, which is why political news is usually in newspapers because of its conflict-inherent nature f. The Unusual Events that deviate sharply from the expected; that departs considerably from the experience of everyday life make news. Here, we are talking about the bizarre, the strange, and the wondrous. g. Currency Occasionally, a situation long simmering will suddenly emerge as the subject of discussion and attention. E.g. the matter of the Niger-Delta h. Necessity The seven previous categories of newsworthiness involve people, events, and situations that call out for coverage – meetings, speeches, accidents, deaths, games, and the like. The final category is of the journalist’s making; that is the journalist has discovered something that is necessary to disclose. The situation or event, the person or the idea may or may not come under any of the previous seven categories of newsworthiness, or may meet one or more of those values. The essential element is that you, the journalist, consider the situation to be something everyone should know about and usually it is a situation that needs to be revealed or remedied. While the definition of news varies among media people, there are some elements that are common to all conceptions of news. To be news, an event must be interesting to the public. Secondly and equally important, it must be new (to the public). Also, it is important to note that it is the telling or the reporting that makes an event a piece of news. Components of a New Story These are also known as rudiments of the news story. These include: 1. Accuracy This is the quality or the state of the writer being precise, or exact in terms of name-calling and/or data presentation in the news. Words correctly spelt the correct middle initial in names and the exact address of people in stories. Accuracy begins with the reporter’s painstaking attention to every detail when gathering facts and information. Initials, spelling of names, correct addresses, exact quotes, precise number of deaths, should be checked and double-checked with a source or a reference when there is doubt. 2. Attribution Attribution means crediting the story to a source. All information and statements, except the most obvious, must be attributed to the source of the material. For example, the police reported two people were killed when…. President Olusegun Obasanjo today urged… However, no attribution is necessary for these assertions: ▪ “March 27 falls on a Monday” “Rain fell yesterday”. ▪ These are obvious statements that could be verified. Attribution does not guarantee the truth of the statement rather it places the responsibility of the material with the source. 3. Balance and Fairness By balance, we mean that both sides in a controversy must be given their say. In a political campaign, all candidates should be given enough space and time to present their major points. In a debate, each speaker is entitled to reach the reader. By fairness, we mean that all parties involved in the news are treated without favouritism. Fairness also involved the honest use of words. Words like admit, refuse, complain have varied meanings and should be used with caution. 4. Brevity News writing is the art of knowing what to leave out and condense. The subject-verb-object (S.V.O) structure helps to cut sentences to the bone. Use action verbs, avoid adverbs and adjectives. 5. Clarity Ability to write clear and interesting story is a valuable skill. Tax rates, budgets, etc, must be translated into everyday English. To do this, you need clear thinking. You need to understand the event before writing. Don’t hide your ignorance. Clear thinking extends to the writing as well as to the subject matter. 6. Human Interest Readers like the human angles to a story. The human element catches the reader’s interest; it should be given prominence in the story. Reporters must include people, their reactions, expectations, and concerns in their stories.  7. Identification This means identifying the people you are writing about so that readers and listeners can visualise, locate and identify these people. The standard identifying format is Name; Age; Address; Occupation. If a story quotes a source as an authority, it is also essential that the source is identified by title or background to give the person the credibility to speak on the subject on which he or she is being quoted. 8. Newspoint Every story must have a point, and must be made high in the story. The news point is also the main theme of the story. It provides the spine of the story. No reporter should begin to write without knowing what the newspoint is. The newspoint is consciously decided upon by the reporter usually at the scene of the event being covered or while the person is being interviewed. 9. Objectivity Objective journalism attempts to present a complete report that is not coloured by the opinion of the reporter or the requirements of the prevailing government. Objectivity is not only as an impersonal ‘balanced’ style of news writing but also as representing the broader claim of journalism as an important third party, the one that speak for the general interest. 10. Verification When a reporter checks his or her information against some kind of objective source, we say that the material has been verified. Verification is important, as it is recognition of the need for truth. The essence of verifying or confirming material is to assure the reader or listener of the truth of the stories. Accuracy is important, but it is not enough. The fact without the truth is futile; indeed, the fact without the truth is false. 11. Complete Complete stories are written by reporters who articulate and answer the questions their readers, viewers and listeners will ask. For example: ▪ The temperature reached an all-time high yesterday at noon. ▪ While in college, she set records in 100 and 200 metre races. You would expect: 1. The temperature hit 102 degrees, breaking the record of 98 degree set on April 10, 1999 2. Her times of 11.20 seconds in the 100 metre dash and 22.03 seconds in the 200 metre race remain standing at the college to this day 12. Responsibility Responsibility is not a visible part of a news story. It is an attitude that the reporter carries to the job. It encompasses all the components we have discussed in this unit. Responsibility is the reporter’s commitment to the story, to journalism, and to the public. Responsibility demands of the reporter that the story be accurate, complete, fair and balanced, that it be so clear anyone can understand it. Journalism is a moral enterprise; it is a calling that should be practiced with honesty and diligence within the limits of verifiable truth and scant time. Types of News There are different types of news. Let us consider the following: 1. Human interest news or human angle news story – This is a type of story that deals with human emotion, pity and psychology. This type of story has to do with family, marriage, sex, divorce, celebrity’s life’s style etc. This brand of news is popular because people are always interested in knowing what is happening to the next person. It is against this background that soft sell magazines thrive in the market. Soft sell magazines practise what is known as yellow journalism. What is yellow journalism? According to the international contemporary dictionary of mass communication and media studies, “yellow journalism is a type of news reports that emphasise sensational and perhaps one-sided information”. Ogunsiji (1989:5) says “yellow journalism embraces the publication of sensational news such as sex, divorces, gossip, romance, scandal and violent news such as kidnapping, fire, war, insurrection, murder and rape”. Joseph Pulitzer and William Hearst were closely associated with the introduction of yellow journalism. Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World invented “much raking” and that was his major contribution to yellow journalism. The need for variety in news consumption and rapid social and economic development gave rise to the practice of yellow journalism in 1896. People wanted something to brighten up their dull lives. The problem was to write the news in such a way that it would appeal to the fundamental passions. Women became the target for sensational love and romance news stories while sports and political news stories were for the men. The primary purpose of introducing yellow journalism was to increase the circulation of newspaper. 2. Hard News Stories – These are the types of news stories that deal with economy, government, commerce, international news, diplomacy etc. They are called hard news because they are for serious minded people. They are issues oriented stories. In this category, there is no room for frivolities or emotional sensation. This brand of news story gave rise to the practice of investigative journalism. Investigative journalism puts on the colouration of a policeman or a detective. It secretly monitors, analyses and reports back to the society, its finding. This was a kind of journalism that the late Dele Giwa was reputed for. He was known for an excellent performance in investigative journalism. He was eventually murdered through a letter bomb by yet-to-be-identified person. Many people pointed accusing finger to the General Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida government as Dele Giwa had been having a running battle with the government then before the mysterious letter bomb killing. In Nigeria today, there are many journalists who are called investigative reporters. Sometimes, they dress like a mad man, all in an attempt to get information. We have seen an investigative reporter who took his wife to some shrines and prayer houses, pretending to be in search of children. Whereas, they have sired enough children, some of these fake prophets identified factors which have been delaying their being fruitful. The fake prophets consequently demanded some money and other items that will facilitate pregnancy and a child. The investigative journalist later reported his experience and cautioned those visiting the fake prophets to be careful. Such is the beauty of investigative journalism. However, whoever wants to practise investigative journalism must be careful and do it discreetly as it could be dangerous and risky. But the fact that it is dangerous is not enough to deter a determined mind. If well done, the society benefits immensely from it. Investigative journalism ensures that a story is balanced by talking to every actor concerned in a story. Unlike yellow journalism which celebrates sensationalism by playing up rumour and gossip without confirming from those concerned. Investigative journalism ensures that a story is balanced by researching into different angles. As such, the journalist, in the performance of his or her duties, has to contend with various legal and ethical issues. Sources of News The sources of information available to a conventional journalist are many and varied. The processes of gathering information from these sources are fairly standardised. Newsgathering is the process of, or the art of collecting raw materials for reporting. It is an important aspect of news reporting. Indeed, information gathering is the first important step a good communicator – be he a print or an electronic media practitioner-must take. The quality of information gathered will determine the depth and quality of his message and the usefulness of that message (Sobowale, 1983). How does a reporter gather news? 1. The News Room The heart of newsgathering operations is the newsroom. Here, the news editor (or chief reporter) presides over the news desk, compiling the diary of jobs, briefing reporters, monitoring the day's (or week's) coverage, checking the finished stories, liaising with the photographers, answering queries, signing expenses and briefing the editor and chief sub- editor on the progress of operations. Technology has changed the face of the newsroom. Reporters still have their desks but in place of the bedlam of typewriters and telephones there is the faint hum of computer terminals, with their near silent keybo1ards, and the twinkle of telephone console lights. Instead of piled up paper, news stories scroll across Visual Display Unit (VDU) screens as reporters bend over their terminals. It is a change more apparent than real. Apart from the shift to on-screen writing, the reporter's role has not altered less than any other in the computerised newspaper industry. Newsgathering and news writing remain, as they always were, the heart of a newspaper's raison d’etre. The news editor, who has invariably been a senior reporter, briefs reporters in varying details on the requirements and expected length of stories to be covered. Many of the stories will be diary jobs - that is, jobs entered in advance in the newsroom diary. Under this heading comes the courts, councils, committees, tribunals, inquests, political speeches, weddings, meetings, arts events, sporting fixtures and opening ceremonies. Although the form of an event is known in advance, what actually happens or is said or done on the day makes the news. There are also the unexpected events - deaths, accidents, fires, robberies, strikes, weather stories, crashes, sinking, and occasionally the odd fight or elopement. 2. Calls and Contacts As a reporter, you need to know the various sources of news and also try to generate news worthy ideas. Regular contact with your sources of news is also necessary. News can be gathered either through personal visits or by telephone, on known or likely news sources; for example, the police, fire officers, hospitals, council officials, MPs, undertakers and secretaries of organisations. Parliamentary journalists check what questions have been put down to be answered by ministers or attend press briefings. Whatever your newspaper, make your network of calls as wide as time allows. Apart from your attending court sessions, council and public meetings, this might be your only contact with some important sources of original news. Since many calls may not receive favourable responses there is a limit to the time worth spending on some of them, such calls should nevertheless be made courteously, whether on the phone or personally. Calls to religious ministers and secretaries of organisations often turn up more information about what is going to happen than what has happened. Make a note of these pieces of information. Beyond routine calls, you need contacts. Make a list of names, addresses and telephone numbers of your regular contacts. 3. Tip Off Tip offs can be a source of big stories that can make the front page of the next edition of your newspaper. Never shun the person who approaches you, even if you are busy and get a message that someone is at the reception wanting to see you. News could be put together from tipoffs i.e. information reaching the office or a reporter could elicit potential news from contacts. Such stories might involve, or be about a variety of human situations and achievements, tales of heroism or of unfair or shady dealing. Tip-offs often provide newspaper with more spectacular and exclusive stories. 4. Other Mass Media One source of news ideas other than diary jobs can be the news programmes of radio and television – often in the form of a passing mention of something that is going to vitally affect your area. You should read your own newspaper, as well, to know what topics are of current interest, and to find ideas for more news. Also, remember to glance through the advert section, as it could be a source of news. If you get news from advertisements, check to ensure that they have not already been reported. Besides your own paper, take time to glance at any papers you can lay hands on. Here’s what you should be looking for: ▪ Ideas for stories or future diary dates. ▪ Local stories reported elsewhere that your paper has missed and need or require follow-up. ▪ Ideas for pictures. ▪ National news that may have local echoes - i.e. expeditions that may involve local people, marketing news in city and business ▪ columns that could affect local trade. ▪ National sports items with local connections. Other things to look for: letters to the editor, diary columns, show business items, news in brief, sporting briefs, job advertisements, wills, obituaries, academics, church and other appointments; news of industrial orders and technological developments. Almost every pamphlet and piece of paper that comes into the office is worth a glance. 5. Chasing the Facts When given an assignment by your news editor or chief reporter, it is up to you to produce the story. But remember that however accurate, fair and well written your account may be, its success will hinge on your perseverance in getting the facts. If you are unsure of your briefing ask questions before you leave the office. Be sure you know what is expected of you. Give yourself time to check reference books. Above all, check the library for any filed cuttings that relate to your assignment. Making use of the cuttings, files should be second nature to a reporter. They can show if your story really is new, and can fill you in with previous references to the subject or to those involved. Press clippings as they are usually called are a good source for back grounding your stories. Nothing is more embarrassing than for a sub-editor to have to go back to the reporter and say: ‘This is all old. It's been written about before. Haven't you read the cuttings?’ At the same time do not spend too much time on the preliminaries. The informant you need to see may have gone for the day. Remember also the time it will take you to get from A to B. You might have three locations to visit; if you have a set time to meet someone, arrive a few minutes early rather than being late. 6. Beat Information could come to a journalist from a regular beat. Remember, we talked about beat in one of our past lectures. Beat is a designated area for a journalist to cover. A beat could be courts, the police, governor’s office, political party headquarters, hospital, ministry, accident scene, disaster zone etc. For most reporters, however, work means being out of the office. In fact, being where the news is happening. The news editor will expect check calls to be made by reporters from the job so that progress can be noted and briefings updated, and also that copy deadlines are met. Reporters, even new ones, quickly become aware of these routines. They will learn from bitter experience that, no matter how well they have written a story, if it misses the edition they are in trouble. They will learn also that there is not "just one deadline, but a deadline for each edition of the paper, and in some cases, special deadlines for particular pages”. Journalists keep a regular tap on their beats everyday in order to keep abreast of the latest happenings. 7. Press conference This is an arrangement in which anyone or group of people could invite some journalists for a press conference. Press conference could be called to: i. Break news i.e. announce some important development. This is a regular practice for anyone with useful information for the public may organize a press conference, invite journalists to a popular or known venue, stating the time and brief the press. He may read his prepared speech or deliver his speech extempore. After his presentation, the journalists will ask questions to seek clarification. Thereafter, a light refreshment is provided and that is the end of the press conference. ii. To deny allegation. Press conference could be called to deny allegations levelled by someone or a group of people.  iii. To brief the public on certain developments. Police may call a press conference to confirm the arrest of armed robbers who invaded some banks in Ibadan. 8. Press Release Another source of news story is press release. Some people or organizations can issue press releases and circulate it among journalists. Press release has its own format. We shall discuss more about it later. However, a good press release, as a source of news story must be well- written, duly signed by an identifiable person on a letter-head paper, thereby authenticating it. 9. Interviews Interview is another source of news. Interview is the art of meeting people and asking them questions with a view to eliciting information. The primary purpose of interviewing a person is therefore to get information on any issue at stake. Generally, journalists conduct interviews when they need information about events or issues of public significance. The interview is a journalist’s tool for digging out facts and its importance in the news-gathering process cannot be over-estimated. As pointed out by Andrew Moemeka of the Department of Mass Communication, University of Lagos, “It is considered a very suitable method of digging into persons, issues and events and coming up with facts and figures which may otherwise be hidden from the public”. There are many types of interview. Some of the common ones are: (a) Exclusive Interview – refers to an interview exclusively conducted by a reporter without any other reporter participating in it. It may also mean an interview granted to a reporter by another person without any invitation being extended to any other reporter. Whatever information is disclosed during the interview is known only by the reporter who conducted the interview. When such information is used to write a story, the story is referred to as an exclusive story. A reporter conducting an exclusive interview must book an appointment with the interviewee in advance, prepare his questions before the D-Day and carry out some background research on the interviewee’s interests, social and economic activities. He also wants to collect as much information as he could get on the issues on which he wants to ask questions. (b) Panel Interview – a panel interview is an interview in which more than one reporter participates. The reporters in a panel interview could be about three, throwing questions to an invited guest. The NTA uses this type of interview from time to time to gather information on issues of national importance. But generally, television stations use panel interviews as an instrument of gathering and disseminating information more than any other mass medium. (c) Telephone Interview – is an interview conducted on the phone. This kind of interview is common in advanced countries such as Britain, America and Canada where the telephone systems are functional and effective. The main advantage of this form of interview is that it saves time and reduces the expenses usually incurred when a reporter has to travel long distances before the interview can be conducted. (d) Personality Interview – a personality interview is an interview conducted by a reporter with a view to gathering information concerning a person whose life’s activity the reporter wants to write about. A personality interview may be exclusive and it may not, but in most cases, it is a man-to-man affair. Like the exclusive interview, the reporter must book an appointment with the interviewee in advance, prepare his questions and carry out fact-finding research about the interviewee’s background, his interests and achievements as well as the various issues on which he intends to ask questions. (e) On the spot Interview – refers to situations when reporters ask other persons impromptu questions, usually people who are important in government, visiting foreign dignitaries, social celebrities, top military officers, academics, big business persons and ordinary people who are part of or play significant roles in events being reported or about to be reported. Generally, on the spot interviews are used to gather information about an issue from a number of people. Examples are periods when reporters ask questions from important dignitaries at the airport, venues of international meetings and sports festival arenas. (f) Group Interview – a group interview is an interview in which many reporters participate as in a question-and-answer session during press briefings or news conferences. As many as fifty or more reporters may participate in a group interview. In an interview of this nature, reporters are free to question the person giving the press briefing or addressing the news conference. For example, during the monthly Presidential press briefings of President Olusegun Obasanjo administration media executives are free to ask any question on any national issue. Tools for the Job Don't forget your notebook, mark the dates and reference so you can refer to your notes three months after to check if someone queries your report. Your knowledge of shorthand is important. This may not be the laborious pitman shorthand, but your own self-invented type. Always dress suitably; reserve your casual clothes for off-duty periods. Jeans, leather jackets and roll-up sweaters are not adequate for most engagements, but these may vary considerably even in the course of a day. People will have more confidence in you and your paper if you are smartly and appropriately dressed. Note-Taking You may be attending a meeting, a court hearing or a dinner at which your main task is to watch and listen to what goes on. Check with an official afterwards if there is anything you do not understand. Ask the person for the names of speakers you do not know. Ensure you spell names correctly. Generally, people feel bad when their names are wrongly spelt. At meetings, keep an ear open for unusual or interesting points of view, or for decisions of interest to your paper. If it is a provincial weekly meeting, it will require at least a few sentences from each speaker. One long quote may not make up for four or five quotes. Your report should reflect the various points of view. You may not need long notes to wade through afterwards, but you will need a verbatim report of every important statement you intend to quote. To keep your notes manageable, ignore the preliminaries, the platitudes and the funny stories (unless they are good enough to retell in the gossip column). Try to edit long-winding explanations. Stay through at events to the end when possible. It is annoying to see an account of an event in a rival paper based on some dramatic incident that occurred five minutes after you left. For courtesy sake, try to explain to the secretary if you have to leave to attend another function or prepare your story in time to meet a deadline. If a speaker refers to some published body of facts, check the reference afterwards. If a speaker is replying to something someone has said, ensure all speakers are quoted correctly. If a speaker makes an attack on someone not present, give the other person a right to reply. Reports of damaging statements without an opportunity for the other person to reply are a common source of grievance against newspapers. Make Inquiries If your job is to make inquiries rather than attend a function, the cuttings library should be your first port of call. But do not assume that a cutting from your own newspaper is necessarily accurate. Match it against others - and look for mistakes that are copied from cuttings to stories which have themselves become cuttings. Examine carefully the information you have. If necessary, talk personally to the persons named. For example, a council has built a group of houses of an unusual kind. They are centrally cooled, have small courtyards instead of gardens, have a garage each and also a parking space. These spaces are behind the house; a footpath, not a road, runs along the front. You ask why the council decided to build houses of this kind, who designed them, what are the aims of the design, why the idea of courtyards, and so on Dealing with People Persuade people you interview to let you use their names and addresses. Anonymous quotes from 'a passer-by' carry little conviction. The readers might think that you invented them. The danger in seeking personal views and statements is that you may cause embarrassment or be considered intrusive. The Code of Conduct of the National Union of Journalists reads: ‘In obtaining news or pictures, reporters and press photographers should do nothing that will cause pain or humiliation to innocent, bereaved or otherwise distressed persons.’ Courtesy is the best policy. Explain your person and your mission. Do not ask questions in an aggressive or demanding manner. If your presence is unwelcome, leave. Never go to the house as a bearer of ill or bad news. Allow the police to do their work first. Be patient and sympathetic with people. If you are dealing with people against whom allegations have been made you may need to be tougher. Point out that it is in their interest to make a comment rather than let a one-sided story go to the public. You will discover that every person you talk to, will shed light on a given situation in a slightly different light. Here you must rely on your judgment of what you have been told to make your account as balanced and accurate as possible. The basic facts of a situation often seem like a nut covered in shell upon shell. The reporter's task is to remove the shells to get at the truth. Make your interviews in person if you can. People prefer to talk to someone they can see before them rather than at the other end of a telephone. Besides, going to see your informants helps you to get to know them, which might be useful in the future. It makes it easier to listen and to seize opportunities for further questions on the spot. But do make proper appointments if there is time. If you cannot get to the person you want to, think of someone else who might be of help. Try to avoid being put off with promises of answers tomorrow or next week. Also, if you can, avoid confidences in case they get into print and cause embarrassment. If you are given confidential information, be sure to honour it. If people try to persuade you to keep your story out of the paper, tell them you will pass on their request on to the editor. Do not make any promises. Put your questions to them just the same. Do not be fobbed off by being asked to talk to someone else. The other person may be unavailable on the day. Be Fair If your inquiry concerns local government affairs and is controversial, rather than do the routine, get in touch with the chairman of the relevant council committee. For example, the chairman of the education committee would be more useful than the education officer. Where there are controversial matters, be sure to get on to people on both sides of the argument. If anyone is reluctant to give information, point out how damaging a one-sided report could be. Getting both sides of a story is your safeguard against the inaccuracy of prejudiced informants. One-sided stories can also be damaging and legally dangerous. Similarly, when you are writing about a report or document containing allegations or criticisms about people, give them an opportunity to make their reply. Be Thorough. You cannot be too thorough. You need to answer all the questions the reader might ask and all the questions you will ask yourself when you write your report. The name, occupation and full address of those you obtained information from is essential. Do not be satisfied merely with recording opinions. Get people to give the facts on which they have based their opinions. For example, in a strike, what the two sides say about each other matters less than the facts of the situation that caused the conflict. You need these facts. It is interesting to see how the hard facts of a dispute can get lost in the midst of heated arguments. There are other points of detail that may not be necessary but which will add life and reality to your story: the feel of the place where an event happened, the colour of a suit… Get all the facts you can, when you can. There is no substitute for facts. You can always prune down; but it is hard to add to facts when you have left the scene and the people have all gone home, and you have not made any notes. Whom to Ask and Where to Look Here is an alphabetical list of possible informants and useful documents in obtaining and checking information. Don’t forget that a local university will have experts on a wide range of subjects. It may publish a list. ▪ Accidents Local police, Federal Road Safety Corp, ambulance station, hospitals, police press office, doctors, eyewitnesses (but beware of accepting allegations as fact), firms or persons owning vehicles involved, (speak to managers) or owners. ▪ Air Airport managers, operating companies, tour operators, travel companies, aircraft building and leasing firms, Ministry of Aviation. ▪ Architecture ▪ Owners or proposals of buildings, council architects, local architects, civic society, conservation society, Nigerian Society of Engineers. ▪ Army Public relations officers at divisional headquarters and major camps, press office Ministry of Defence, regimental depots (especially for history). ▪ Arts Librarians, art gallery and museum curators, secretaries of arts/music societies, arts departments at colleges, theatre managers, town or county arts and drama organisers, education officer or director, festival organisers. ▪ Betting and gaming Bookmakers, club managers and secretaries, local council (for regulations), Acts of Parliament in public reference library. ▪ Buses Company managers, traffic commissioners (for licensing matters), local councils, consumer organisations. ▪ Cars Automobiles Associations and Royal Automobile Clubs, garages and dealers, police. ▪ Children's welfare Education officer or director, school medical officer, director of social services, chairman social services committee (for children in care), inspector National Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Children, local secretary or organiser National Society for Mentally Handicapped Children (Mencap), local health authority. ▪ Churches Clergy, ministers, bishops and their secretaries or chaplains, superintendents and district chairmen. ▪ Elections  Council press office (size of electorate, number and names of' nominated candidates), party agents and local secretariat, regional agents. ▪ Electricity Electricity-generating companies, power station managers, regional electricity companies, consumer bodies. ▪ Education Federal and State ministries of education, education parastatals and tertiary institutions. ▪ Exports Regional press office for the Department of Trade and Industry, export companies, manufacturers' associations. ▪ Farming ADP Ministry of Agric, Farmers’ associations ▪ Health Ministry of health and health related parastatals such as NAFDAC Hospitals Press officer of hospital trusts, hospital telephones (inquiries concerning casualties admitted), local health authority, community health council. ▪ Houses Local estate agents, surveyors and (for prices), housing associations, building society bulletins, council housing department, housing manager, chairman housing committee, Citizens' Advice Bureau, chief environmental health inspector, the Census (figures on houses without baths), council press office (improvement grants), council architect, engineer and surveyor, local builders, property developers. ▪ Medicine Doctors, local secretary, Nigerian Medical Association, local family health services authority (complaints). ▪ Mental health Director of social services, local health authority, medical superintendent or consultant at psychiatric hospital. ▪ Old people’s welfare Directors of social services, secretaries of senior citizens’ clubs, clergy, ministers of religion, Age Concerns. ▪ Planning State or city planning officer, council surveyors and engineers, chairman of planning committee, secretary civic societies and civic trusts, friends of the Earth. ▪ Railways Company public relations officers will be willing to help; for a quick answer approach a stationmaster, district manager or workshop manager. ▪ Road transport Road Transport Associations, Ministry of Transport  ▪ Schools Chief education officer, chairman of education committee, divisional education officer (in countries), school heads, local secretaries Nigerian Union of Teachers and National Association of Schoolmasters/Union of Women Teachers. ▪ Scientific matters heads of departments at universities and colleges of further education. ▪ Shipping Ship owners and lines, local office of Shippers council (employers), local representative of National Union of Seamen. ▪ Trade unions Local contacts vital here for reporters – trade union representatives can be hard to find; most sizeable unions have regional office but there may be only a clerk on duty. ▪ Unemployment figures Federal Office of Statistics, Ministry of Labour and Productivity ▪ Weather Meteorological office, geography department at university or polytechnic. ▪ Youth employment Careers officer for town or district, training and Enterprise Council. Youth organisations Local youth organisers, state youth organisers, chief education officer or director of education, local secretaries, Scouts, Guides, Boys’ Brigade, etc., secretary county youth clubs association, youth chaplains and other clergy, secretary of local standing conference of youth organisations. Dos / Don’ts of Journalism Practice 1. In Associated Press style, punctuation almost always goes inside quotation marks. No exceptions to this rule. Examples: “Let’s go out,” he said. The name of the movie is “Star Wars.” 2. Numbers: one to nine, then 10, 11 and so on. Exceptions: use figures in headlines. When numbers start a sentence, spell them out. Ages are always numerals. She was 5 years old. The 5-year-old child. 3. Appositional phrases, phrases that explain, take two commas. Examples: Dr. Donald Taylor, the college president, spoke at convocation. Notice that there is a comma before and after the college president. 4. No comma before and, but, or in a series. Examples: The flag is red, white and blue. Tom, Dick and Harry. Notice that there is no comma after Dick. 5. Titles before names are capitalized (President Obama). Job descriptions before names are lower case (Before 2000, coach Colfer was assistant coach.) Titles after names are lower case. (Barack Obama, president of the United States.) 6. Hyphenate compound modifiers: 30-day trial, 10-round fight, mouth-watering cookie. 7. “Put attribution early in the quote,“ Zurek said, “certainly no later than the end of first sentence.” 8. Punctuate quotes correctly: “First sentence of quote goes here,” Suzy Smith, senior communication major, said. “Second sentence goes here.” Every quote starts a new paragraph. 9. Use “said” in attribution, not more fancy words like “stated.” 10. Don’t mix up it’s / its there / they’re / their your / you’re then / than 11. Spell out percent, not %, except in headlines. 12. Spell out days of week and use a comma. (Friday, Sept. 13, was a very unlucky day.) 13. Abbreviate Aug. through Feb. when used with the date. Saturday, Feb. 5, but Saturdays in February. 14. a.m. and p.m. are lower case and need periods. 15. Time: 1 p.m. (NOT 1:00 PM). noon (NOT 12 p.m.). midnight (NOT 12 a.m.) 16. Effect is usually a noun, affect usually a verb. 17. “Backwards write don’t,” said Zurek. It’s Zurek said, not said Zurek. 18. Composition titles like books, movies, songs, etc. go in quote marks. Newspapers & magazines don’t. 19. Spelling: Bruckmann Chapel, Iadarola, Widener 20. Don’t editorialize: Avoid I, me, my, us, our, we. Don't use the first-person "I" in news stories. Never inject your opinions into a hard-news story. Save your thoughts for a review or editorial. 21. Don’t separate two complete sentences with a comma. Use a period. This mistake is called a comma splice. 22. Only Spanish and English departments are capitalized. The rest are lower case. 23. States: The names of the 50 U.S. states should be spelled out when used in the body of a story, whether standing alone or in conjunction with a city. Place one comma between the city and the state name, and another comma after the state name. No state is needed with big cities. Example: He went on the train from Radnor, Pennsylvania, to Philadelphia. 24. Alumnus: Joe is an alumnus, Mary is an alumna, Joe and Mary are alumni. 25. When to quote: Use direct quotes when someone says something unique, someone says something uniquely, or someone important says something important. Otherwise, PARAPHRASE, don’t quote. 26. Paragraphs in news stories should generally be no more than one or two sentences each, not the seven or eight sentences you probably wrote for freshman English. Short paragraphs are easier to cut when editors are working on a tight deadline, and they look less imposing on the page. 27. Generally speaking, the lead, or introduction to the story, should be a single sentence of 35 to 45 words that summarizes the main points of the story, not a seven-sentence monstrosity that looks like it's out of a Jane Austen novel. 28. Always cut unnecessary words. For example, "Firefighters arrived at the blaze and were able to put it out within about 30 minutes" can be shortened to "Firefighters doused the blaze in 30 minutes." 29. Don't use complicated-sounding words when simpler ones will do. A laceration is a cut; a contusion is a bruise; an abrasion is a scrape. A news story should be understandable to everyone. 30. News stories are generally written in the past tense. 31. When you first refer to someone in a story, use the full name and job title if applicable. On all subsequent references, use just the last name. So, it would be "Lt. Jane Jones" when you first mention her in your story, but after that, it would simply be "Jones." The only exception is if two people with the same last name are in your story, in which case you could use their full names. Reporters generally don't use honorifics such as "Mr." or "Mrs." in AP style. (A notable exception is The New York Times.) 32. Don't repeat information.Don't summarize the story at the end by repeating what's already been said. Try to find information for the conclusion that advances the story. Functions of the Press The press has four traditional functions to perform and these include: ▪ Surveillance of the environment ▪ Correlation of parts of society in responding to the environment ▪ Transmission of the social heritage from one generation to the next ▪ Entertainment The surveillance (information/news) function: This function refers to the collection and distribution of information concerning events in the environment both outside and within a particular society. Simply put, this is the news function. The correlation (analysis/interpretation) function: This function refers to the interpretation of information about the environment and prescription for conduct in reaction to these events. This is the editorial/opinion/interpretation function. Transmission of social heritage (cultural transmission) function: This function focuses on the communicating of knowledge, values, and social norms from one generation to another or from one group to another, or from members of a group to newcomers. This is the cultural transmission/education/socialisation function. Entertainment function: This function includes communicative acts primarily intended for amusement or escape, irrespective of the instrumental effect they might have. The Reporter In the performance of these functions, the key personality is the reporter. He/she chronicles events as they happen and he is rightly termed, the unknown historian. It is the reporter who goes out to get stories for the news, and stories behind the news. It is the reporter who generally attends press meetings, conferences, scenes of disaster or accidents, demonstrations and other happenings or developments which either make or explain the news {Alao; 1992} It must be noted that in modern art of reporting, reporters have their various areas of specialisation. Special reporters are assigned to report crimes, sports, judiciary, labour, entertainment, business and economy, foreign beat and aviation, among others. Whether it is print or electronic media, the functions of reporters and editors are the same: to write and shape the writing to suit the needs of readers, listeners and viewers. Attributes of a Reporter The following are some of the attributes of a reporter: ▪ Nose for news: A reporter lives on news, he must have an instinct for news, and that is, he should be able to identify a newsworthy event. He should be able to generate news from anyone no, matter how important or insignificant that person is. Randall (2000) explains that reporters must possess this attribute for the following reasons: one, in the positive sense of knowing what makes a good story and the ability to find the essential news point in the midst of dross; two, in the negative sense of not wasting time by pursuing stories that are not worth much; and three, ensuring that he does not miss details and make a fool of himself. ▪ Good command of written and spoken language of his medium ▪ To do your job well, you must have a good training in the profession. This will enable you to learn as much about as many things as possible. The present trend towards specialisationin news reporting makes it mandatory for the reporters to learn as much as possible on the subject they are assigned to such as politics, science, labour, economics and history. ▪ Passion for precision: This means that to excel as a reporter in the business of furnishing the public with information, you must possess a knack for accuracy and precision which Randall (2000) writes as meaning three things: first, recording and writing accurately what information is gathered; ensuring that the details recorded accurately stand true to the spirit and atmosphere of the situation or events – which means adding background and context; and lastly, avoid making any or all kinds of assumptions. ▪ Speed and accuracy: As a reporter, you have to bear in mind that your medium is competing with others in the market. To meet a deadline, you need to race against time in gathering and presenting news. Remember the saying that journalism is history in a hurry. ▪ Objectivity: You need to develop the ability to be impartial, impersonal, objective and dispassionate. You should not shift the emphasis, twist the angle or colour the story. While you can afford to be ruthless, remorseless in condemning unfair happenings in feature or editorial writings news reporting differs; what the listeners, readers want in news is fact and not your opinion or emotional reaction. ▪ Perseverance: As a reporter, you need to persevere and go an extra – mile while pursuing a story. Remember that there is a wide variety of people, while some may have news to offer, others may have, but may not be willing to divulge news. As such, if you are in undue haste, it may damage your investigation by causing you to miss the vital part of the news. ▪ Ability to establish and sustain contacts: As a reporter, it is not enough for you to know how to establish contacts; you should try to sustain contacts. Do not despise anybody; the office assistance or even the cleaner may be your best source in any organisation. So, be friendly with them, as you would want to be with their boss. ▪ Trustworthiness: As a reporter, you need to respect the confidence reposed in you by your source. On no account should you divulge your source of information. Many reporters/journalists in the world have gone to prison; rather than divulge the source of their information. In Nigeria, such persons include Nduka Irabor and Tunde Thompson. ▪ Knowledge of working tools: To facilitate your job, you do not only need to possess some aids, you must know how to use them. These include a camera and computer. In fact, in this age of computer-assisted journalism, it will be odd for a reporter not to be computer literate and also know how to search for information on the Internet. Besides, the knowledge of shorthand will be an added advantage. ▪ Ethics of the profession: Every profession regulates the conduct of its practitioners in terms of duty and ethical behaviour. Journalism involves the kind of trust that imposes strong obligations on all those who practice it. You should keep abreast of the ethics of the journalism profession (not only that you need to obey the ethics.) ▪ Versatility: As a reporter you must have knowledge about the beat you are assigned to cover. Also, you need to know about the community where you are operating. This also means that as a reporter, you must have knowledge of about  everything and must be able to apply yourself to whatever beat/use the editor or a particular situation may require. Thus, take extra time to equip yourself with this quality, as no school of journalism will teach you that. A good reporter should also be pleasant, neat and stay intellectually alert, optimistic and adaptable. The Reporter’s Language Journalism has developed a language of its own, like every industry or profession. Many words have been adopted and given a new or different meaning in both the print and broadcast media. Terminologies Associated with Copy or a News Story Attribution The source of information used in writing a news story Blow up Playing a story beyond its news value or enlarging a picture in engraving Body A news story minus its headline and lead Body type The type, usually 8 points, in which newspaper stories are typeset Break-over To jump story or continue part of a story from one page (usually the front page) to another inside. Some newspapers are in the habit of jumping their stories from back page to another inside e.g. Vanguard and Lagos news Bulletin Important urgent news moved by wire service Colour To slant a story or to inject one’s personal bias into a story Copy A news story submitted by a reporter for editing Dateline The zero-hour or last minute that a story must be turned in so that it can be included in the edition Dupe To duplicate a story or manuscript or any editorial material Editorialize To opinionate a story as against writing facts Editorial Editorial Matter Material in a newspaper that is not adverting End Mark 30 or xxx or is usually placed at the end of a story Five W’s & H Who, what, where, when, why and how; major elements of lead or news Graf Graf – paragraph Inverted Pyramid News story writing format in which facts are arranged in descending order of importance Jump To continue a story on another page Lead The first paragraph of a story which summarises the facts of the story; contains the Five W’s and H; could mean the major story on a page; the lead paragraph could extend to the second paragraph of the story Rewrite man Rewrites stories received by phone from reporters on their beats Editing Terminologies Copy desk A desk used by sub-editors for editing news stories Copy reader Also known as sub-editor: edits copy and write headlines Desk The copy desk on which news stories are edited Desk Chief The head of the copy desk; also known as the Chief sub-editor Edit To correct mistakes in copy Slotman – the Desk Chief; also known as Slotman – the Desk Chief; also known as Chief sub-editor Chief sub-editor Stet An editing mark for “let it stand” or “do not make a change.” Terminologies Associated with Headlines BF Boldface or full-face type CLC Capitals and lower-case letters Deck Line of headline Flush left To set lines even with left column rule Flush right To set decks even with right margin Head Headline HTK Head to come Kicker Highline set above headline to add details or more meaning to headline LC Lower case or small letters Rider Underline set below headline to add more meaning to headline. Upper case Capital letters ULC Upper and lower case or capitals and small letters. Picture Terminologies Caption Display line above picture or cut, also known as over-line. Credit line Source of photo as in: Peter Obey Photo. Cutline Display line run below a picture; it is the opposite of caption. Picture–Cropping Eliminating the unwanted part of picture Pix Means picture Underline A cutline under a picture Layout Terminologies Alley Small white space (usually half a pica) between columns Border line Border line Boxall The head and story are enclosed with rules on all sides. Col -column. Col -column. Continuation – Continuation – Line Tells readers where they can continue with rest of story. Display type Type set larger than body type which is usually 8 picas. Dummy Layout of each page of an edition showing where each item of news or art material is to go. Flag Name plate usually placed on page one of a newspaper; sometimes referred to as the logo. Folio Contains page number. Date and price of paper Gutter Margin or space that separates two facing pages Hairline Rule used to separate two columns Index Index Leading The space between lines of typeset material Logo Page 1 name plate Newshole A space meant for editorial matters other than advertisements OPED OPED Pica A unit of measurement; six picas equal one inch; 12 points equal one pica RBL Means reverse block line Tabloid Half – size newspaper Terminologies associated with interviews ETL Emotional Tone Level Follow-up Follow-up Question Question asked as a result of interviewer’s answer to a major or initial question usually for more clarification. Mic Microphone Off record Off record- information not meant for publication; it is information meant for reporter’s consumption. Background Information that may be published but which must not be attributed to source of quotations. On record Information that a reporter may published, attribute to source and quote. Production Terminologies Galley A shadow metal tray in which type is placed after being set. Composing Terminologies Room Room where type is set. Compositor The person who sets type Letter press Printing from raised surface, also known as relief printing technique Paste-up The process of gumming proofs of stories, head and pictures on dummy sheets before making negatives and plates. Proof read To read through proofs of typeset stories with a view to correcting mistakes in them. Typeset Typeseo set in type Tombstone Placing two heads of the same size side by side Type size Type size- refers to size of type which could be 8 point or 40 points Typo Typographical error Advertising Terminologies Ad Advertisement; also known as advert Blind Ad A classified advertisement which does not disclose the identity of the advertiser. Classified Advertisements set in small body type Display Advertisements set in larger type for emphasis. Display Ad Advertising matter other than classified. Miscellaneous Miscellaneous Clips Newspaper cuttings usually kept in the library Editorial The view of a newspaper on a particular issue Fourth Estate The press FYI For your information Morgue A newspaper library Put to bed To close all the pages; to go to press Teletype Automatic printer which receives wire news and types it Teletypesetter Typesetting machine that types on perforated tape automatically Text Verbatim material e.g. unedited speech or message Tip News tip New Agencies ADN News agency of East Germany AFP Agence France-Presse Antara News agency of Indonesia AP Associated Presse DPA News agency of West Germany EFE News agency of Spain GNA Ghana News Agency INA Iraqi News Agency Kyodo News agency of Japan MENA News agency of Egypt NAN News Agency of Nigeria PANA Pan-African News Agency Prenalatina News Agency of Cuba Reuters British news agency  TASS Telegrafnoie Agentvso Sovietskovo Soiuza UPI United Press International CNN Cable Network News News Editing A copy is a technical term which simply means a material to be used in publishing or broadcasting. When we know what it means to edit a copy, we will know what to write or what not to write for public consumption. That is the whole essence of this lecture. In a layman’s language, to edit a copy simply means to correct errors, particularly grammatical mistakes, so as to make the material or copy understandable and acceptable to the generality of the reading public. Surprisingly, editing a copy requires more than that. Editing requires the editor or sub-editor to eliminate all defamatory statements which can lead to the paper being sued for libel. It is the duty of the editor to remove all seditious articles and obscene objects which will attract a heavy penalty on conviction. Also, editing mandates the editor to be mindful of errors in fact, failure of which may lead to false stories being published and the credibility of the paper being considerably reduced. In other words, any newspaper which publishes falsehood will lose credibility among the readers. And, once readers begin to doubt a paper, sales will drop as the paper takes a plunge into the sea of extinction. However, one of the major aims of editing is to make a story look brighter, neater and smarter by tightening up all loose ends and plugging all loopholes in the story. Ogunsiji (1989) quoted Crowell (1970) as saying “editors look over reporters’ work to be sure that it is written so that the people can understand it, that it is in good taste, that it leaves no questions unanswered, and it is not libelous”. When a reporter turns-in his story, the sub-editor or news editor goes through the story with a view to spotting the soft or weak areas in the story. The sub-editor or news editor asks the first question, does this story answer all the five Ws and a single H. That is, Who? What? Where? When? Why? And How? With this at the back of his mind, he meticulously reads through the story and underlines the weak areas. One of the problems he watches out for its grammatical error. Such errors range from the wrong use of tenses to the misuse of punctuation marks. Another error that the sub-editor watches out for is redundancy i.e. using different words to state the facts twice. For example, the ceremony starts 10a.m. in the morning. What is the meaning of “a.m” and what does “in the morning” mean? Some reporters or writers who are not well educated in the use of English language are wont to write like these: 1. Please, return my book back. 2. Reverse the car back. The two sentences above are classical examples of redundancy. The inclusion of “back” is unnecessary. Some errors in fact may arise as a result of the reporter’s ignorance. For example a reporter may write “Lagos, the capital of Nigeria” instead of “Abuja, the capital of Nigeria. It is the duty of the editor who is more experienced, more informed to correct this error in fact. Spelling mistakes and the wrong use of abbreviations, quotation marks and other punctuation marks are errors that a sub-editor or news editor watches out for in the process of editing a copy. Brevity, conciseness and clarity are the watchwords for good editing. A copy reader should endeavour to reduce three paragraphs to one for the sake of clarity and brevity; if need be, but without killing the facts of the case. He is allowed to reconstruct a sentence and change words in the story submitted by a reporter, so long as such changes do not amount to fabrication of his own ideas. Above all, the editor or sub-editor must ensure that the story he has edited conforms to his paper’s house style. Every newspaper has a style guide which governs its operations. In summary, the purposes of editing include: 1. to ensure brevity, clarity and readability. The sub-editor must eliminate all grammatical errors and cluster words (redundant and ambiguous words) in the copy. 2. the fact of a story must not be altered. Those fabricated by the sub-editor must not be substituted. 3. libellous and seditious statements must be guarded against. 4. the story must be made to conform with the paper’s style guide. 5. a sub-editor is free to reconstruct a sentence, change words, kill, merge, or reduce the size of a paragraph. 6. since the sub-editor is not the last gatekeeper he has no right to kill an entire story, at best, he can order the reporter concerned to re-write his story. 7. subject to the news hole (space) available, a copy reader has no constraints in lengthening or reducing the length of any story, as long as facts are not twisted. 8. only experienced reporters should be made sub-editors or editors for safe and dependable editing. 9. editing is not a lazy man’s job. 10. editing should make the copy brighter, cleaner, smarter and more excellent. Understanding Editorial Policy of Media Outfit The word “policy”, according to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, seventh edition, simply mean’s a principle that you believe in that influences how you behave; a way in which you usually behave”. Every media organization has its own editorial policy. In other words. Every newspaper house or broadcast outfit has a set of principles guiding its editorial contents. It is not every issue that all the media organizations can treat with the same prominence. Indeed, it is not every idea that every media outfit can publicize! When the late chief M.K.O. Abiola established the defunct concord newspaper it was adopted as one of its editorial policies not to take tobacco advertisement and give publicity to any tobacco matter. If one took any matter relating to tobacco to the then Concord newspaper such a person was just wasting his or her time. This was because it was against the editorial policy of the concord. Have you ever wondered why a particular news story would be given prominence by a newspaper and another newspaper will treat the same news story perfunctorily? Editorial policy could be one of the reasons. As earlier stated, every new media outfit has its own editorial policy. These editorial policies may not be expressly stated, they may be implicitly adopted but they are these. It is therefore incumbent for every media organization user to find out what each media organization stands for. For example, The Guardian newspaper des not believe in sensationalism. It claims to be broad minded, treating every matter with deserved merit. It is a newspaper which targets the elites. It is not particularly meant for the poor. This editorial policy is reflected in its language, content and package. Conversely, the Nigerian Tribune and some other newspapers target the down trodden, the poor the market women, etc and can play up stories to get attention. The Punch believes in entertainment stories. It thrives on humour. The was a time its motto was “a lively paper for the lively mind. It writes its stories from the entertainment angle. The Sun which is a tabloid (a newspaper that has small pages, a lot of photographs, and stories mainly about sex, famour people etc rather than serious news) lives up to expectation in the market as it is really making money dwelling in its specialized area. Any story about sex scandal will be excitedly published by The Sun while The Guardian for example may shun such a story or play it down. Vanguard newspapers appear feminine, treating woman’s issues with passion. Any story about women or any advertisement designed for women will reach its target audience appropriately in vanguard. One can go on and on to say something about the tacit editorial policies of some of the major newspaper outfits. Media scholars and students are expected to be familiar with all these. Closely related to the issue of editorial policy is the idea of geographical catchments area an important factor that influences how a particular media organization treats a new story. Each media organization has its own area of strength. The Nigerian Tribune, The Punch and The Nation newspapers are competing seriously as the leaders in the South-Western Yoruba speaking states. Champion and The Sun are interested in the South-eastern Igbo speaking states just as New Nigerian, Daily Trust see themselves as the mouth piece of the North. This ethnic bias determiner how a newspapers outfit treats a news story alongside the publisher’s interest. Tribune is out to promote Yoruba agenda and idolize its publisher, the Awolowo dynasty, The Nation is following suit with the former Lagos state governor, Bola Tinubu as its publisher, Gbenga Daniel, the current governor of Ogun state has established The Compass to articulate his vision. Indeed, this knowledge is important for media scholars for effective media planning and execution. It will also enable us to understand the media better. You should therefore endeavour to find out more about the editorial policy of the media, influence of the publisher and the geographical location. COVERING SPEECHES, MEETINGS AND NEWS CONFERENCES As a reporter, regular places of assignment like meetings, speeches, and conferences may be major sources of news. Speeches Speeches are not the most exciting stories a reporter covers, but they are major part of your day-to-day work as a journalist. In writing a story from a speech, you need to find out the following: what was said, who spoke, name and identification, the setting or circumstances of the speech and any unusual occurrence. Any of these can provide the lead and the theme of the story, although most speech stories emphasise what was said. a. Locate the Theme The most difficult task you face on speech is finding the theme. A tipoff to the theme may be the title of the speech. Often, the speaker may pound the podium; raise their voice or suddenly slowing down the delivery to drive home their major points. Sometimes, the main point is in the summary at the end. When you are not sure of the theme, try to interview the speaker after the talk. However, when combining material from a speech and an interview, you should tell the reader or listener where the information came from. Otherwise, those who attended the speech or heard it on radio or television will find the story puzzling. Occasionally, you will find a lead in what the speaker considers the theme. Based on what you have been taught in news judgment, you should lead with what you consider the more important element but summarise high in the story what the speaker considers the major theme. A speech consists of spoken words and so must the story. Unless there is an incident during the talk that would make the circumstances and the setting the most newsworthy item, your story must emphasise what was said with ample quotations. Other important points to note when writing a story from a speech are to always commit the following to mind: A speaker usually makes a point and follows its examples and supporting materials, then he/she moves on to another point, followed by illustrative materials and so on In doing so, the speaker moves toward a climax, which is usually at or near the end of the speech. The climax, however, is usually what can make the headline or lead in the story, so you must watch out for it. This however is not a hard-and-fast rule. The key point may be expressed within the speech, at the beginning or at the end. Never report a speech chronologically, like the minutes of a meeting Avoid this sort of boring writing:  “The speaker began by saying…” “Then she told the audience…” “Next, he pointed out…” The speaker’s full identification (name, place of residence or employment, position, and so on), can be included in the lead, or immediately follow the lead. This identification should be as brief as clarity permits, yet as complete as possible. Giving the name or identity of the speaker especially when more than one speaker is named in the story is critical. Dropping in the name or identity is often enough to remind readers or viewers who are saying what and that statements being reported are not the reporter’s opinion but are statements of the speaker being quoted. Be careful however not to over-attribute. You need not attribute everything if the attribution is obvious from the preceding paragraphs. Present the story with fairness. It may be tempting to praise the speaker, especially if you agree with the person. Avoid it. Do not use adjectives that hint at how you feel (such as value- laden words like ‘well-known’ or ‘prominent’ or ‘beautiful’). Just tell the story about what was said and let your audience draw its own conclusions. Quote in accurate, the exact words. A quotation is that, statement of the speaker’s exact words. Things to guard against when writing from a speech are: o Watch spelling of names. Names of speakers and guests sometimes have unusual spellings, so always ask for correct spellings. Do not assume. If you are not sure about the names, ask about the guest list or ask around. o Avoid the use of trade names of firms, products, and other special usages o Edit your own story. Catch the mistakes before someone else does. You are your own editor since you know what you mean. o Write an appealing lead. Get the audience interested. However, be careful about leads that do not even summarise the main points of the speaker/speech. Pay attention to organisation. Generally, it is best to organise the story in an inverted pyramid fashion. Get the facts straight. Do not confuse the audience with contradiction. Check everything. Do not assume.  Watch vagueness. Avoid using words that have unclear meanings in the context used. Say exactly what you mean. Write what is necessary. Watch stories that are particularly short. If a story is short, ask yourself if you have included sufficient explanation and detail to tell the story correctly. If it is a particularly long story, ask yourself if you have been wordy or redundant. Support all generalisations. Present direct quotations, soundbites, actualties, and paraphrases about the points the speaker made with direct quotations. If you said the speaker was hostile towards the audience, quote him/her saying something to indicate that. It helps to drive home your point. Ask the speaker questions. If something said in the speech was muddled to you, then find the speaker afterward to ask. If you cannot find the speaker, ask someone else in an authoritative position to explain things to you. Meetings Meetings provide newspapers and broadcast stations with enormous amounts of stories. Public bodies such as school boards, city councils, legislatures, directors of corporations, shareholders and private groups conduct much of their business at open meetings. To get good stories from meetings, you need to check the clips to get past stories on subjects the meeting will consider, obtain the agenda ahead of time, and write out questions for interviews. At the meeting, look for the offbeat and unusual and think about the people affected by a decision or policy. Let the following points guide you in writing the story: major business transacted voters’ decisions adoption of policies; purpose, time and location of the meeting items on agenda length of session quotes from witnesses and experts unusual departures from agenda agenda for next session. To be able to write a complete meeting story, Garrison (1990) points some time-tested tips to make things easier: Get oriented. When you get the assignment, find out what you can about the organisation that has called the meeting. Get to the point. What is the most important part of the meeting that will be important to the audience? Do your homework. Do some research in advance. Get the agenda for the meeting Get briefed. Some organisations will hold media briefing sessions in advance of a major meeting. Attend this if you can. At least, make some calls in advance to key individuals to get an idea of what may occur. Arrive early. After you know what to expect, go to the meeting with time to spare. Look around. Check for telephones, lights, sounds, etc Find official sources. The members of the organisation holding the meeting are your key sources. Be keen to catch for ‘a few words’ before, during or after the meeting. Find the real sources. Not every member of the organisation is competent enough to give you information, so find members or people outside the organisation that would provide information on the subject of the meeting. Take good notes. Do not rely on a tape. Make sure your notebook is handy and write down as much as possible. Listen for quotations and sound bites. A meeting story can be very dull, so try to liven it up with quotations and sound bites from debates and discussions during the meeting among the key players. Quotations will help your story get specific when you might be writing generalisations about what occurred. Focus on action. In the end, ensure that your story focuses on the action of the meeting. Decide how to write it. In writing your story, most meetings are best written in a summary style with the inverted pyramid structure Roundup approaches work.  Don’t forget contact numbers. You must try to get numbers of key contacts who you can call and get additional information. News (Press) Conference It permits an individual, group or organisation to reach many reporters at one time with an announcement that will receive more attention than a press release because of the photo possibilities and the staging. It is an efficient and economical way for the media to obtain newsworthy materials. Usually, the news conference has a prescribed form. A prepared statement is read or distributed to the reporters after which they ask questions. Story from news conference must include name and identification of speaker, purpose, time and location, background and major point in statement as well as in question-and-answer period. There are some basic steps in covering the press (news) conference: Get there on time. It might not start on time – some don’t – but you can’t afford to risk missing an opening statement or announcement or get to meet the special guests before the event starts. There may be a shortage of press kits and handouts if the media turnout is large. You will learn from experience which organisations will start on time and which ones will not. Contact the right person once you get there. Find the organiser or press relations contact. If you do not know who is running things, ask. Allow time to set up. If you are working in radio or television, arrive in time to set up your equipment. Listen for the opening statement. A statement usually opens the press conference. It will probably contain the key news of the day. The person holding the conference may be introduced by an aide or press representative. Be ready to ask questions. When the formal statements are finished, you can ask questions for more information not covered in the statements. There may be a time limit on questioning and, depending on the number of reporters present; you may need to be selective in question asking Be aggressive in questioning. You may not be called on if you are not aggressive. If there are not many reporters present, wait for your turn and you will get a chance. If it is crowded, you must attract attention – by standing, waving your hand, or even shouting.  Wrap ups are important. Fill in the information gaps by asking questions at the end (either in the group or alone with the source if given the opportunity). You may find press aides to help you fill in holes if the primary source is not available. Leave yourself an out. In the event you must re-contact persons involved in calling the press conference, take down a phone number where you can call later in the day. Write the story. Usually press conference stories are written in one of three ways. The inverted pyramid remains most popular. Writing for Broadcast Media While many of the students may want to specialize in print media which comprises newspapers and magazines, others may wish to develop a career in broadcasting thereby becoming television newscaster or radio broadcast specialists. Importantly, while the two areas make use of writing as the tool o the trade, there is a world of difference in the writing style of the two genres of communication field. Writing for newspaper is not the same as writing for broadcast media. There is a major difference and the difference is as a result of many factors which include space, time and audience. Space – while newspaper journalist have spare to play fill such as two or three pages o