devpsych-prelim-lecture.pdf

lOMoARcPSD|46904289 Devpsych- Prelim - Lecture Developmental Psychology (Our Lady of Fatima University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Dow...

lOMoARcPSD|46904289 Devpsych- Prelim - Lecture Developmental Psychology (Our Lady of Fatima University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes INTRODUCTION INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 1. Individual di昀昀erences Di昀昀erences in characteris琀椀cs, Scien琀椀昀椀c study of the pa琀琀erns of change and in昀氀uences/development outcomes. stability that happens to a person from concep琀椀on throughout their lives. 2. Heredity Inborn traits/characteris琀椀cs inherited 1. Systema琀椀c – coherent & organized from biological parent. 2. Adap琀椀ve – aimed at dealing with internal & external condi琀椀ons of existence 3. Environment 3. Life-long process – life-span development Totality of nonhereditary/experien琀椀al, TODAY (GOALS) in昀氀uences on development; the world outside of the self & the learning that 1. Describe comes from experience. When most children say their first word or The issue of nature vs nurture how large their vocabulary typically is at a certain age, dev scientist observe large groups 4. Matura琀椀on of children and establish norms, or averages, Unfolding of a natural sequence of for behavior of various ages. 2. Explain physical & behavioral changes. Ex. The abili琀椀es to walk & talk are 琀椀ed Attempt to explain how children acquire language and why some children learn to to the matura琀椀on of the body & brain. speak later than usual. Rates & 琀椀ming of development vary. 3. Predict We talk about the average ages for the Predict future behavior, likelihood that a child occurrence of certain events e.g., 昀椀rst will have a serious speech problem. word, 昀椀rst step, but the ages merely 4. Intervene average; each individual’s actual age of Understanding of how language develops may occurrence for these events will vary. be used to intervene in development (child Only when the devia琀椀on from the speech therapy) average is extreme should we consider development excep琀椀onally advanced/delayed. DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT PHYSICAL COGNITIVE PSYCHOSOCIAL CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT Growth of the Learning, Emotions, body & brain, attention, personality, Human beings are social beings. They develop sensory memory, social within a social & historical context. capabilities, language, relationships motor skills, thinking, 1. Family health reasoning, a. Nuclear family – household unit consis琀椀ng of creativity one/two parents & their children, whether These domains are interrelated. Each aspect biological, adopted, stepchildren. a昀昀ects the others. b. Extended family – mul琀椀genera琀椀onal network of grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, & more distant rela琀椀ves (tradi琀椀onal SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION family form). Concept/prac琀椀ce that may appear natural & obvious to those who accept it, but in reality, is 2. Socioeconomic status & neighborhood an inven琀椀on of a par琀椀cular culture/society. a. SES – based on family income & educa琀椀onal There is no objectively definable moment & occupa琀椀onal levels of adults in the when a child becomes an adult/adolescent or household; combina琀椀on of economic & a young person becomes old. social factors. b. Neighborhood – living in a poor Ex. The concept of adolescence as a period of neighborhood with large numbers of development in industrial societies is recent; unemployed people makes it less likely that in Chippewa Indians, this concept does not e昀昀ec琀椀ve social support will be available. exist. Division of the life span into periods is a social construct. 1 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes 3. Culture & race/ethnicity human development as well as to the challenges a. Culture – society’s total way of life including people experience in trying to build their lives. customs, tradi琀椀ons, laws, knowledge, beliefs, values, language, & physical products from tools to artwork, all of the behavior & TIMING OF INFLUENCES a琀 tudes that are learned, shared, & transmi琀琀ed among members of social group. a. Cri琀椀cal period Speci昀椀c 琀椀me when a given event or its Individualis琀椀c – place a priority on personal absence has a speci昀椀c impact of goals and encourage people to view development. themselves as dis琀椀nct individuals. Not absolutely 昀椀xed. Collec琀椀vis琀椀c – concerned with collec琀椀ve Many aspects of development have goals and group dynamics. shown plas琀椀city (range of modi昀椀ability of performance) b. Ethnic group – consists of people united by a Ex. If a pregnant person receives X-rays, dis琀椀nc琀椀ve culture, ancestry, religion, takes certain drugs, or contracts certain language &/ na琀椀onal origin, all of which dis eases at certain 琀椀mes during contribute to a sense of shared iden琀椀ty & pregnancy. shared a琀 tudes, beliefs, & values. b. Sensi琀椀ve periods 4. Historical context The brain’s plas琀椀city is high during Time in which people live in. sensi琀椀ve periods, the brain has a strong ability to adapt to and learn from experiences. Op琀椀mal 琀椀mes in development when NORMATIVE INFLUENCES certain areas of the brain are most ready Biological/environmental events that a昀昀ect to bene昀椀t from the experience. many/most people in a society in similar ways. PAUL B. BALTE’S LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT APPROACH 1. Norma琀椀ve age-graded In昀氀uences within the life course that are 1. Development is lifelong considered with chronological age. Each period of the life span is a昀昀ected by Puberty, marriage, menopause what happened before and will a昀昀ect 2. Norma琀椀ve history-graded what is to come. Signi昀椀cant environment events that shape 2. Development is mul琀椀dimensional the behavior & a琀 tudes of an age It occurs along mul琀椀ple interac琀椀ng cohort/historical genera琀椀on and are dimensions (biological, psychological, experienced by the majority of a culture. social) each of which may develop at varying rates. a. Historical genera琀椀onal – group of 3. Development is mul琀椀direc琀椀onal people who experience that same life- As people gain in one are, they may lose changing event at a forma琀椀ve 琀椀me in in another, some琀椀mes at the same 琀椀me. their lives (pandemic, wars) 4. Rela琀椀ve in昀氀uence of biology & culture shi昀琀 over b. Cohort – group/people born at about the life span the same 琀椀me. Process of development is in昀氀uenced by both biology & culture, but the balance between these in昀氀uences changes. NONNORMATIVE INFLUENCES 5. Development involves changing resource Unusual events that have a major impact on alloca琀椀ons individual lives because they disturb the expected Individuals choose to invest their sequence of the life cycle. resources of 琀椀me, energy, talent, money, They are either typical events that happen at an & social support in varying ways. atypical 琀椀me of life (death of a parent when child is 6. Development shows plas琀椀city young) or atypical events (winning the lo琀琀ery). Many abili琀椀es, e.g., memory, strength, & endurance, can be improved Taken together, norma琀椀ve and nonnorma琀椀ve signi昀椀cantly with training & prac琀椀ce, in昀氀uences contribute to the unpredictability of even late in life. 2 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes 7. Development is in昀氀uenced by the historical & Issue 2: Is development con琀椀nuous or discon琀椀nuous? cultural context CONTINUOUS DISCONTINUOUS Human beings not only in昀氀uence but (quantitative change) (qualitative change) also are in昀氀uenced by their historical- Mechanistic Development cultural context. theorists see takes place in THEORY AND RESEARCH development as unique stages, it continuous. occurs at specific BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES Development & time/ages changes in Development is Issue 1: Is development Ac琀椀ve, Reac琀椀ve, or Contextual? individuals occur sudden. Mechanis琀椀c model gradually. Ex. Change from a Ex. Children nonverbal child John Locke said that a young child is a tabula crawling, sitting, to one who rosa (blank slate) on which society writes. standing, walking understands People are like machines that react to words & can environmental inputs. communicate Views human development as series of verbally. predictable responses to s琀椀muli. As an example of the difference between quantitative Machines do not operate of their own; they and qualitative change, take pregnancy. Being 2 months pregnant versus being 6 months pregnant is a react automa琀椀cally to physical forces/inputs. quantitative change: It involves being more or less Results from the opera琀椀on of biological parts pregnant. However, not being pregnant in comparison in response to external/internal s琀椀muli. to being pregnant is a qualitative change. You can’t be If we know enough about how the human a little bit pregnant: You either are or you are not. It is “machine” is put together and about the forces fundamentally a different state, not just a different ac琀椀ng on it, we can predict what the person level of the same state. will do. Deal with quan琀椀ta琀椀ve change (changes in number/amount, i.e., height, weight) For example, to explain why some college students drink too much alcohol, a mechanistic theorist might look for environmental influences, such as advertising and whether the student’s friends are heavy drinkers. Organismic model THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE Sees people as ac琀椀ve, growing organisms who PERSPECTIVE 1: PSYCHOANALYTIC set their own development in mo琀椀on. They ini琀椀ate events; they do not just react. a. Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual Development Thus, the driving force for change is internal. (reac琀椀ve, qualita琀椀ve) Environmental in昀氀uences do not cause Views development as shaped by development, though they can speed or slow unconscious forces that mo琀椀vate human it. behavior. Emphasize qualita琀椀ve change (changes in Psychoanalysis – therapeu琀椀c approach kind, structure, organiza琀椀on, i.e., developing a which seeks to give pa琀椀ents insight into theory of mind) unconscious emo琀椀onal con昀氀icts by At each stage, people cope with di昀昀erent kinds asking ques琀椀ons designed to summon of problems & develop di昀昀erent kinds of up long-buried memories. abili琀椀es. Each stage builds on the previous one 1. Dream manifesta琀椀ons & prepares the way for the next. 2. Free associa琀椀ons (slip of tongue) Organicist see this unfolding structure of development as universal; everyone goes People are born with biological drives through the same stages in the same order, that must be redirected to make it though the precise 琀椀ming varies. possible to live in society. For example, in studying why some students drink too ID Newborns; operates under the pleasure much, looks at what kinds of situations they choose to principle (drive to seek immediate participate in and with whom. Do they choose friends satisfaction) who prefer to party or to study? EGO Represents reason; develops gradually during the 1st year or so of life; operates 3 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes under the reality principle. It aims to PERSPECTIVE 2: LEARNING find realistic ways to gratify the id that are acceptable to the superego. (con琀椀nuous, quan琀椀ta琀椀ve, reac琀椀ve) SUPEREGO Develops at about 5/6 years old; Rela琀椀vely long-las琀椀ng change based on includes the conscience & incorporates experience or adapta琀椀on to the environment. socially approved “should” & “should Behaviorism not” into the child’s value system. It is ꟷ Mechanis琀椀c theory that describes high demanding; if its standards are not met, a child may feel guilty and anxious. observed behavior as a predictable response to experience. ꟷ Although biology sets limits on what Freud considered the 昀椀rst 3 stages to be crucial people do, behaviorist view the for personality development. environment as much more in昀氀uen琀椀al. Psychosexual development ꟷ Human beings at all ages learn about the ꟷ sequence of stages of childhood world the same way other organisms do; personality development in which by reac琀椀ng to condi琀椀ons or aspects of gra琀椀昀椀ca琀椀on shi昀琀s in di昀昀erent erogenous their environment that they 昀椀nd zones. pleasing, painful, or threatening. ꟷ If children receive too li琀琀le/much gra琀椀昀椀ca琀椀on in any of these stages, they a. Ivan Pavlov: Classical condi琀椀oning are at risk of 昀椀xa琀椀on (arrest in In which a response (saliva琀椀on) to a development that can show up in adult s琀椀mulus (bell) is evoked a昀琀er repeated personality). associa琀椀on with a s琀椀mulus (food) that normally elicits the response. (table) The American behaviorist John B. PERSPECTIVE 1: PSYCHOANALYTIC Watson (1878–1958) applied such s琀椀mulus response theories to children, b. Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development claiming that he could mold any infant in Modi昀椀ed and extended Freudian theory by any way he chose. (Li琀琀le Albert) emphasizing the in昀氀uence of society on the developing personality. Pioneer in taking a life-span perspec琀椀ve; ego development is lifelong. Emphasis on social & cultural in昀氀uences and on development beyond adolescence. Psychosocial development ꟷ Covers 8 stages across the life span. ꟷ Each stage involves crisis in personality (major psychosocial theme that is par琀椀cularly important at the 琀椀me and will remain an issue in some degree throughout the rest of life). ꟷ Each stage requires a balancing of b. B.F Skinner: Operant condi琀椀oning a posi琀椀ve tendency and a Individual learns from the consequences corresponding nega琀椀ve one. The of “opera琀椀ng” on the environment. posi琀椀ve tendency should Associa琀椀on is between a behavior and predominate, but some degree of its consequences. the nega琀椀ve is needed as well. Organism will tend to repeat a response ꟷ The successful outcome of each that has been reinforced by desirable stage is the development of a consequences and will suppress a virtue. The resolu琀椀on of later response that has been punished. crises depends on the resolu琀椀on Reinforcement – process by which a reached in previous stages. behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be (table) repeated. Punishment – process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of repe琀椀琀椀on. 4 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes Whether a consequence is PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE reinforcing/punishing depends on the Focuses on thought processes and the behavior person. that re昀氀ects those processes. REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT a. Jean Piaget: Cogni琀椀ve Stage Theory POSITIVE Add good stimulus Add bad stimulus (organismic, qualita琀椀ve) NEGATIVE Remove bad Remove good Children’s cogni琀椀ve development stimulus stimulus advances in a series of 4 stages involving qualita琀椀vely dis琀椀nct types of mental Reinforcement is most e昀昀ec琀椀ve when it opera琀椀ons. immediately follows a behavior. If a response is Organiza琀椀on – tendency to create no longer reinforced, it will eventually be categories. ex琀椀nguished, that is, return to its original Schemes – people create increasingly (baseline) level. complex cogni琀椀ve structures; ways of organizing info about the world that govern the way the child thinks and c. Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory behaves in a situa琀椀on. Impetus for development is bidirec琀椀onal. Reciprocal determinism – person acts on Adapta琀椀on – how children handle new the world as the world acts on the person. informa琀椀on in light of what they already Observa琀椀onal learning/modeling – know; adjustment to new info. people learn appropriate social behavior a. Assimila琀椀on – taking in new chie昀氀y by observing and imita琀椀ng models; informa琀椀on and incorpora琀椀ng it into that is, by watching other people. It can exis琀椀ng cogni琀椀ve structures. occur even if a person does not imitate the Over time Anaya starts to notice differences between observed behavior. planes and birds. For example, she might notice that The choice of a model depends on the although both planes and birds fly, birds have consequences of model’s behavior; people feathers, while planes are made of something hard tend to choose models who are and smooth, and that birds have eyes and planes do pres琀椀gious, who control resources, are not. These observations bring about an uneasy rewarded for they do. motivational state (disequilibrium). Imita琀椀on of models is an important element in how children learn a language, b. Accommoda琀椀on – adjus琀椀ng one’s deal with aggression, develop a moral cogni琀椀ve structures to 昀椀t the new sense, and learn gender-appropriate informa琀椀on. behaviors. Adults learn by observa琀椀on and imita琀椀on Anaya is then motivated to change her understanding of coaches, mentors, and colleagues. to more closely reflect her observations—perhaps by learning the label for plane and realizing that planes For example, Clara sees her sister get disciplined for and birds are not, after all, the same thing. eating a cookie cooling on the counter and thus restrains herself from doing the same thing without herself getting punished. Equilibra琀椀on – constant striving for a stable balance; mo琀椀vates the shi昀琀/balance between assimila琀椀on and Bandura’s updated version of social accommoda琀椀on. learning theory is social cogni琀椀ve theory. The change of name re昀氀ects a greater emphasis on cogni琀椀ve processes as central Assimila琀椀on and accommoda琀椀on work together to development. to produce equilibrium. Throughout life, the quest for equilibrium is the driving force behind For example, Earl imitates the toes-out walk of her cogni琀椀ve growth. dance teacher but models her dance steps after those of Lucy, a slightly more advanced student. Even so, she Piaget described cogni琀椀ve development as develops her own style of dancing by putting her occurring in 4 universal, qualita琀椀vely di昀昀erent observations together into a new pattern. stages. From infancy through adolescence, mental opera琀椀ons evolve from learning based on simple 5 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes sensory and motor ac琀椀vity to logical, abstract Compare the brain to a computer: There thought. are inputs (such as sensory impressions) and outputs (such as behaviors). They (table) are interested in what happens in the b. Lev Semenovich Vygostsky: Sociocultural middle. Theory Focused on the social and cultural processes that guide children’s cogni琀椀ve IPA theorist (like Piaget) see people as development. ac琀椀ve thinkers, but they do not propose Whereas previous theorists viewed stages of development, instead they development as a primarily individual view it as con琀椀nuous. process, Vygotsky believed children Note age related increases in the speed, learn collabora琀椀vely through social complexity, and e昀케ciency of mental interac琀椀on and shared ac琀椀vi琀椀es processing and in the variety of material (collabora琀椀ve process). that can be stored in memory. Children learn through social Prac琀椀cal applica琀椀ons test, diagnose, and interac琀椀ons; they acquire cogni琀椀ve skills treat learning problems. as part of their induc琀椀on into a way of For example, theorists within this tradition focus on life. processes such as attention, memory, planning Vygotsky placed special emphasis on strategies, decision errors, decision-making, and goal language, not merely as an expression of setting. knowledge and thought but as an essen琀椀al means to learning and thinking about the world. PERSPECTIVE 4: CONTEXTUAL Development can be understood only in its social Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) – context; the individual is not a separate en琀椀ty guidance is most e昀昀ec琀椀ve in helping interac琀椀ng with the environment but as an children cross by adults or more inseparable part of it. (Vygotsky can be classi昀椀ed advanced peers must help direct and as this). organize a child’s learning. The gap between what they are already able to Urie Bronfenbrenner: Bioecological Theory do by themselves and what they can Child is not seen as just an outcome of accomplish with assistance. development; the child is an ac琀椀ve shaper of Sca昀昀olding – suppor琀椀ve assistance with development. But the child does not exist in a task that parents, teachers, or others isola琀椀on. give a child. For example, Noah receives a new puzzle for his birthday, but after emptying the pieces on the dining room table and trying to fit them together, he makes little progress. His older sister sees him trying, sits next to him, and offers advice on how to begin. “Try putting all the pieces of the same color in piles,” she says. “That makes it easier to see what goes together. You can look at the box for clues. And if you do the edges first, then you have the outline already done.” With his sister’s scaffolding, Noah is able to start working on the puzzle. c. Informa琀椀on-Processing Approach (ac琀椀ve, con琀椀nuous) Seeks to explain cogni琀椀ve development by analyzing the processes involved in MICROSYSTEM everyday environment of home, making sense of incoming informa琀椀on work, school, or neighborhood. It and performing tasks e昀昀ec琀椀vely. includes face-to-face interactions Not a single theory but a framework that with siblings, parents, friends, supports a wide range of theories and class mates, or later in life, research. spouses, work colleagues, or employers. 6 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes MESOSYSTEM interlocking influence of microsystems. For example, a parent’s bad day at work may Species with traits be琀琀er adopted to their affect interactions with a child environment survive and reproduce; those less later that evening in a negative adopted do not. way. Ethology – study of the adap琀椀ve behaviors of EXOSYSTEM interactions between a animal species in natural contexts. microsystem and an outside Evolu琀椀onary psychology – focus on humans and system or institution. For apply Darwinian principles to human behavior. example, countries differ with respect to what type of parental For example, our brains have evolved to find certain leave, if any, is available or faces and body types as attractive, to strive for whether or not a parent can stay dominance, and to perceive babies as cute because home with a newborn. Thus, these propensities addressed the adaptive problems government policies trickle down of mate selection, access to resources, and survival of and can affect a child’s day-to-day young. experiences. MACROSYSTEM overarching cultural patterns, RESEARCH METHODS such as dominant beliefs, ideologies, and economic and 1. Quan琀椀ta琀椀ve research political systems. For example, Deals with measurable data. individuals are affected by the Based on the scien琀椀昀椀c method, which type of political system they live generally characterizes scien琀椀昀椀c inquiry in, and they might reasonably in any 昀椀eld. have different experiences if raised in an open democratic society versus an authoritarian regime with limited freedoms. CHRONOSYSTEM the dimension of time. For example, divorce, residence, wars, ideological shifts, or economic cycles. 2. Qualita琀椀ve research Interprets nonnumerical data. According to Bronfenbrenner, a person is not More open-minded and explanatory. merely an outcome of development, but is also a Researchers gather and examine data to shaper of it. People a昀昀ect their development see what hypotheses may emerge. through their biological and psychological Cannot yield general conclusions, but it characteris琀椀cs, talents, and skills, disabili琀椀es, can be rich source of insights into temperament. individual’s a琀 tudes and behavior. PERSPECTIVE 5: E.O WILSON’S EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL Focuses on evolu琀椀onary and biological bases of behavior. In昀氀uenced by Darwin’s theory of evolu琀椀on, it draws on 昀椀ndings of anthropology, ecology, gene琀椀cs, ethology, and evolu琀椀onary psychology to explain the adap琀椀ve, or survival, value of behavior for an individual or species. Charles Darwin’s Natural Selec琀椀on – di昀昀eren琀椀al survival and reproduc琀椀on of di昀昀erent variants of members of a species and is the tool the natural world uses to shape evolu琀椀onary processes. Note that these traits can be physical (such as a tiger’s stripes, which allow it to blend into the background), behavioral (such as the mating dances of many species of birds), or psychological (such as a baby monkey’s need to cling to and cuddle a warm soft body). 7 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes 8 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE FIRST THREE YEARS DIZYGOTIC TWINS MONOZYGOTIC TWINS Fer琀椀liza琀椀on (concep琀椀on) fraternal twins, are result from the the result of two cleaving of one Process by which sperm and ovum—the male separate eggs being fertilized egg and and female gametes/sex cells—combine to fertilized by two are generally create a single cell called a zygote, which then different sperm to genetically duplicates itself again and again by cell division form two unique identical. to produce all the cells that make up a baby. individuals. SEMI-IDENTICAL FEMALES MALES result of two sperm cells fusing with a single ovum; Have about 2 Sperm are produced more genetically similar than dizygotic twins but million immature in the testicles less similar than monozygotic twins. ova throughout (testes/reproductive life. glands) at about In a sexually several hundred Dizygo琀椀c twins who are created from di昀昀erent mature woman, million a day and sperm cells and usually from di昀昀erent ova are no ovulation (rupture are ejaculated in the more alike in hereditary makeup than any other of a mature semen at sexual siblings. follicle in either climax. Dizygo琀椀c twins usually run in the family and have ovary and The sperm swim a gene琀椀c basis; monozygo琀椀c twins usually occur expulsion of its through the cervix ovum) occurs (the opening of the purely by chance. about once every uterus) and into the The tendency toward twinning may be inherited 28 days until fallopian tubes. from a woman’s mother; dizygo琀椀c twins skip a menopause. genera琀椀on. A mother of dizygo琀椀c twins has only The ovum is swept sons, to whom she cannot pass on the tendency. through the fallopian tubes by the cilia (tiny hair MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY cells), toward the uterus. GENETIC CODE Heredity Science of gene琀椀cs; the inborn factors, inherited from one’s biological parents that a昀昀ect Assisted reproduc琀椀ve technology development. Methods used to achieve concep琀椀on through ar琀椀昀椀cial means. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 1. Ar琀椀昀椀cial insemina琀椀on – sperm is injected Chemical “stu昀昀 of heredity. into a woman’s vagina, cervix, or uterus. Its double-helix structure resembles a long, 2. Vitro fer琀椀liza琀椀on (IVF) – woman’s ova are spiraling ladder whose steps are made of pairs of surgically removed, fer琀椀lized in a laboratory chemical units called bases. dish, and implanted in the woman’s uterus. Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G) are the “le琀琀ers” of the gene琀椀c code, which cellular machinery “reads.” The bases are part of the DNA that stores informa琀椀on and gives the DNA the ability to encode phenotypes (visible traits). In some instances, bases can be mismatched, mismatched bases can cause inherited gene琀椀c diseases, cancer and aging. 9 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes Muta琀椀ons – permanent altera琀椀ons in gene琀椀c material. Mismatch repair pathway (MMR) Genes spring into ac琀椀on when they are turned on or o昀昀, either by external environmental Specializes in the repair of mismatches; this can factors such as nutri琀椀on or stress, or by internal be recognized by the MutS protein. factors such as hormone levels in the mother or Change must be signi昀椀cant enough to fetus. Thus, from the start, heredity and discriminate mismatches. environment are inter twined. Dysfunc琀椀on on the MMR has severe implica琀椀on on the stability of gene琀椀c informa琀椀on o昀琀en connected with cancer. SEX DETERMINATION The MutS tests for the 昀氀exibility of the DNA, the bending of a DNA may imply a presence of a Autosomes – 22 pairs, chromosomes that are not related mismatch. to sexual expression. Mismatched DNA are either repaired or excised en琀椀rely. Sex chromosomes – 23rd pair, governs baby’s sex. Chromosomes The sex chromosome of every ovum is an X Coils of DNA that consist of smaller segments chromosome, but the sperm may contain either called genes (the func琀椀onal units of heredity). an X or a Y chromosome. (F: XX, M: XY) The human X chromosome (900 genes) is 3x Ini琀椀ally, the embryo’s reproduc琀椀ve system is larger than the human Y chromosome (55 genes) iden琀椀cal in males and in females. 6-8 weeks a昀琀er concep琀椀on, male embryos normally start producing the male hormone Human genome testosterone which prompts the development of Cons琀椀tuted by the complete sequence of genes male sex organs. in the human body. SRY gene on the Y chromosome only – cell di昀昀eren琀椀a琀椀on and forma琀椀on of the testes are A useful analogy is to consider the DNA of an triggered. Without this, female reproduc琀椀ve individual as a series of books in a library. Until those organs will develop instead. books are “read” by an enzyme called RNA HOX genes and Wnt-4: variant form of which can polymerase and transcribed into a readable copy of masculinize a gene琀椀cally female fetus. messenger RNA (m-RNA), the knowledge contained within the books is not actualized. And what books will be pulled down from the shelf and read is in part determined by environ mental factors turning genes on and off at different points in development. Through meiosis (cell division), which the sex cells undergo when they are developing, each sex cell ends up with only 23 chromosomes—one from each pair. When sperm and ovum fuse at concep琀椀on, they produce a zygote with 46 chromosomes, 23 from the father and 23 from the mother. 1. Body cells of women and men contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, which carry the genes, the basic units of inheritance. 2. Each sex cell (ovum and sperm) has only 23 single chromosomes because of a special kind of cell division (meiosis). 3. At fertilization, the 23 chromosomes from the sperm join the 23 from the ovum so that the zygote receives 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs. 10 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes DEFECTS IN THE SRY GENE: Regulates the produc琀椀on of male sex hormones (androgens). 1. Sawyer syndrome (46, complete/pure gonadal dysgenesis) DEFECTS IN THE WNT-4 GENE: Individuals with this condi琀椀on have a Müllerian aplasia & Hyperandrogenism male-typical chromosome pa琀琀ern but they develop female-typical sex A昀昀ects reproduc琀椀ve system of females characteris琀椀cs. They have X and Y Has underdeveloped or absent uterus chromosome but look female and has Do not menstruate female reproduc琀椀ve organs; however, Abnormally high levels of androgens which their ovaries do not develop and are causes acne and excessive facial hair. replaced by clumps of 琀椀ssue. SRY gene variants prevent produc琀椀on of the sex-determining region Y protein or PATTERNS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION result in the produc琀椀on of a nonfunc琀椀oning protein. Gregor Mendel Without func琀椀onal sex-determining Austrian monk, laid the founda琀椀on for our region Y protein, a fetus will not develop understanding of pa琀琀erns of inheritance. testes but will develop a uterus and By crossbreeding strains of peas, he discovered fallopian tubes, despite having an X and two fundamental principles of gene琀椀cs. a Y chromosome. 1. Dominant traits are always expressed, whereas recessive traits are expressed only if 2. 46,XX Tes琀椀cular di昀昀erence of sex development both copies of the gene are recessive. Individuals with this condi琀椀on have a 2. Traits are passed down independently of female-typical chromosome pa琀琀ern but each other. develop male sex characteris琀椀cs including testes, though they may be Alleles small and undescended. Genes that can produce alterna琀椀ve expressions Results from an abnormal exchange of of a characteris琀椀c. gene琀椀c material between Y Homozygous – both alleles are the same. chromosome and X chromosome; this Heterozygous – alleles are di昀昀erent. occurs as a random event during the forma琀椀on of sperm cells in the a昀昀ected person’s father. Dominant inheritance The SRY is misplaced always onto the X Dominant allele is always expressed, or shows up chromosome. as a trait in that person. 3. Other SRY gene variant disorders Recessive inheritance The e昀昀ects of these variants on the func琀椀on of the sex-determining region Y Person must have two recessive alleles, one from protein is less severe. each parent. 46,XY 46,XX They have male-typical Can cause Ovo testicular chromosome pattern, but difference; female-typical they have external genitalia chromosome pattern and that are not clear male or tissue from both female and female (ambiguous) male reproductive organs Wnt-4 Signaling molecule that controls the development of female reproduc琀椀ve system. Regulates the forma琀椀on of the Müllerian ducts, Because of dominant inheritance, the same (structures in the embryo that develop into the observable phenotype (in this case, brown hair) uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix, and the upper can result from two di昀昀erent genotypes (RR and part of the vagina). Rr). A phenotype expressing a recessive Development of the ovaries and maintenance of characteris琀椀c (such as red hair) must have a egg cells (oocytes). homozygous recessive genotype (rr). 11 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes Polygenic inheritance SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE OF DEFECTS Interac琀椀on of several genes. Pa琀琀er of inheritance in which certain characteris琀椀cs carried on the X chromosome inherited from the mother are transmi琀琀ed MULTIFACTORIAL TRANSMISSION di昀昀erently to her male and female o昀昀spring. Combina琀椀on of gene琀椀c and environ mental Sex-linked recessive traits are carried on one of factors to produce certain com plex traits. the X chromosomes of an una昀昀ected mother, the Phenomenon where environmental experience mother is the carrier, she does not have the modi昀椀es the expression of the genotype for disorder but can pass on the gene to her most traits. children. Sex-linked disorders almost always appear only Genotype – gene琀椀c makeup of a person, containing both in male children; in females, because they have expressed and unexpressed characteris琀椀cs. two X chromosomes, the dominant gene Phenotype overrides the defec琀椀ve gene. However, for males, there is no opposite dominant X Observable characteris琀椀cs through which your chromosome to override the defec琀椀ve X genotype (underlying gene琀椀c makeup) is chromosome. expressed. Ex. Fragile X syndrome It is the product of the genotype and any relevant environmental in昀氀uences. CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES Occurs due to errors in cell division resul琀椀ng in an extra or missing chromosome. Some of these errors happen during meiosis, the likelihood of errors in meiosis increases in o昀昀spring of women aged 35 or older. Epigenesis – mechanism that turns genes on or o昀昀 and Other chromosomal abnormali琀椀es occur in the determines func琀椀ons of body cells. autosomes during cell division. Ex. Down Syndrome (trisomy-2) because it is usually caused by an extra 21st chromosomes. GENETIC & CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES Incomplete dominance – pa琀琀ern of inheritance in which a child receives two di昀昀erent alleles, resul琀椀ng in par琀椀al NATURE AND NURTURE: INFLUENCES OF HEREDITY expression of a trait. AND ENVIRONEMENT When one parent has a dominant abnormal gene From concep琀椀on throughout life, combina琀椀on of and one recessive normal gene and the other cons琀椀tu琀椀onal factors and social, economic, and parent has two recessive normal gene, each of cultural factors shape development. their children has a 50-50 chance of inheri琀椀ng Reac琀椀on range – poten琀椀al variability depending on the dominant abnormal gene. environmental condi琀椀ons in the expression of a Recessive defects are expressed only if a child hereditary trait. receives the same recessive gene from each biological parent. Canaliza琀椀on – limita琀椀on on variance of expression of Defects transmi琀琀ed by recessive inheritance are certain inherited characteris琀椀cs. more likely to be lethal at an early age than those Genotype-environment interac琀椀on – e昀昀ects of similar transmi琀琀ed by dominant inheritance environmental condi琀椀ons on gene琀椀cally di昀昀erent If a dominantly transmi琀琀ed defect killed before individuals. the age of reproduc琀椀on, it could not be passed on to the next genera琀椀on and thus would Genotype-environment correla琀椀on – strengthen the disappear. phenotypic expression of a genotypic tendency: A recessive defect can be transmi琀琀ed by carriers 1. Passive correla琀椀on – parents, who provide the who do not have the disorder and thus may live genes that predispose a child toward a trait, also to reproduce. tend to provide an environment that encourages the development of that trait. 2. Reac琀椀ve/evoca琀椀ve correla琀椀on – parents react to the child’s gene琀椀c makeup. For example, parents who are not musically inclined may make 12 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes a special e昀昀ort to provide musical experiences 1. Nutri琀椀on and maternal weight – pregnant for a child who shows interest and ability in women typically need 300 to 500 addi琀椀onal music. calories a day, including extra protein. 3. Ac琀椀ve correla琀椀on - As children get older and 2. Malnutri琀椀on – driven by factors such as poverty, have more freedom to choose their own con昀氀ict, and climate change, and more recently, ac琀椀vi琀椀es and environments, they ac琀椀vely select by the COVID-19 pandemic. or create experiences consistent with their gene琀椀c tendencies. 3. Physical ac琀椀vity and work – low-risk pregnancies get at least 150 minutes of moderate to intense aerobic exercise a week. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 4. Drug intake – medical drugs, opioids, alcohol, nico琀椀ne, ca昀昀eine, marijuana, cocaine, Gesta琀椀on methamphetamine. Period between concep琀椀on and birth (between Babies born to drug-addicted mothers 37 and 41 weeks). are o昀琀en addicted themselves and go through withdrawal once they are born Gesta琀椀on age and no longer receiving the drug. This Dated from the 昀椀rst day of an expectant mother’s results in neonate abs琀椀nence syndrome last menstrual cycle. (condi琀椀on in which newborns may show sleep disturbances, tremors, di昀케culty regula琀椀ng their bodies, irritability and crying, diarrhea, fever, and feeding di昀케cul琀椀es). Fetal alcohol syndrome – characterized by a combina琀椀on of retarded growth, face and body malforma琀椀ons, and disorders of the central nervous system. Marijuana is the most commonly used recrea琀椀onal drug during pregnancy. Nico琀椀ne – signi昀椀cant predictor for low birth weight; increased risk of miscarriage, growth retarda琀椀on, STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: s琀椀llbirth, SID, colic among others. Both before and a昀琀er birth, development Ca昀昀eine – four or more cups of co昀昀ee a day during proceeds according to two fundamental pregnancy may increase SID; it also increases the chance principles: Growth and motor development of miscarriage. occur from the top down and from the center of the body outward. Marijuana – lead to birth defects, low birth weight, increased risk of a琀琀en琀椀on disorders and learning Cephalocaudal principle (head to tail) problems. Development proceeds from the head to the Cocaine – spontaneous abor琀椀on, delayed growth, lower part of the trunk. premature labor, low birth weight, small head size, birth Proximodistal principle (near to far) defects, and impaired neurological development. Development proceeds from parts near the Methamphetamine – low birth weight and to be small center of the body to outer ones. for their gesta琀椀onal age. Moreover, fetuses not only remember and 5. Maternal illness recognize voices, but they also have some limited - Acquired immune de昀椀ciency syndrome ability to reproduce them. (AIDS) is a disease caused by the human immunode昀椀ciency virus (HIV), which undermines func琀椀oning of the immune ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: MATERNAL FACTORS system. Teratogen – environmental agent, such as a virus, a drug, - Rubella (German measles) if contracted or radia琀椀on, that can interfere with normal prenatal before the 11th week of gesta琀椀on, will cause development. deafness and heart defects. - Toxoplasmosis is an infec琀椀on caused by a parasite harbored in the bodies of ca琀琀le, 13 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes sheep, and pigs and in the intes琀椀nal tracts of Braxton-Hick’s contrac琀椀ons – false contrac琀椀ons. cats. - Covid-19 STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH Stage 1 6. Maternal emo琀椀onal state Dilation of the cervix, is the longest, typically Moderate maternal anxiety may even lasting 12 to 14 hours. spur organiza琀椀on of the developing Toward the end, contractions occur every 2 to brain. 5 minutes. Mild prenatal stress may be associated Lasts until the cervix is fully open (10 with enhanced later resilience in the face centimeters, or about 4 inches) so the baby of stressful events. can descend into the birth canal. Stress and anxiety is associated with a Stage 2 more ac琀椀ve and irritable temperament Descent and emergence of the baby, typically in newborns, nega琀椀ve emo琀椀onality and lasts up to an hour or two. impulsivity, and behavioral disorders in Begins when the baby’s head emerges. early childhood. Stage 3 Expulsion of the placenta, lasts between 10 minutes and 1 hour. 7. Maternal age Women age 30 to 35 are more likely to su昀昀er complica琀椀ons due to diabetes, high blood pressure, or severe bleeding. Higher risk of premature delivery, retarded fetal growth, birth defects, and chromosomal abnormali琀椀es, such as Down syndrome. Adolescent mothers tend to have premature or under weight babies— perhaps because a young girl’s s琀椀ll- growing body. Cesarean delivery 8. Outside environmental hazards Delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the Air pollu琀椀on, chemicals, radia琀椀on, uterus. extremes of heat and humidity, and When labor progresses too slowly, when the other environmental factors. fetus is in the breech (feet or bu琀琀ocks 昀椀rst) or transverse (lying crosswise in the uterus) posi琀椀on, or when the mother is bleeding ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: PATERNAL FACTORS vaginally. High stress, a poor diet, or exposure to Natural childbirth – method of childbirth that seeks to environmental toxicants such as heavy metals or prevent pain by elimina琀椀ng the mother’s fear through pes琀椀cides can cause epigene琀椀c changes and educa琀椀on about the physiology of reproduc琀椀on and result in abnormal or poor-quality sperm. training in breathing and relaxa琀椀on during delivery Fathers who had diagnos琀椀c X-rays or who had high lead exposure at work tended to have low Prepared childbirth – method of childbirth that uses birth weight and be born prematurely. instruc琀椀on, breathing exercises, and social support to Smoking increased likelihood of transmi琀 ng induce controlled physical responses to uterine gene琀椀c abnormali琀椀es. 2nd hand, linked to asthma, contrac琀椀ons and reduce fear and pain. a琀琀en琀椀on problems, low birth weight, and cancer. Doula – experienced mentor who furnishes emo琀椀onal Having an older father is a risk factor for support and informa琀椀on for a woman during labor. schizophrenia, as is having, at least for male children, a young father. May also cause bipolar THE NEWBORN BABY disorder, au琀椀sm. Neonatal period – 昀椀rst 4 weeks of life, is a 琀椀me of BIRTH AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE 1 ST transi琀椀on from the uterus, where a fetus is supported THREE YEARS en琀椀rely by the mother, to an independent existence. Parturi琀椀on – act or process of giving birth, and it typically Neonate – newborn baby, up to 4 weeks old. begins about 2 weeks before delivery. 14 Downloaded by Mikaela Beatriz Espiritu ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|46904289 G8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY 2105) 1ND SEMESTER │ S.Y. 2023-2024 Ms. Gleanzzy Pauline Gay Sepe Reyes Boys tend to be slightly longer and heavier than STATES OF AROUSAL girls. An infant’s physiological and behavioral status at In their 昀椀rst few days, neonates lose as much as a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of 10% of their body weight, primarily because of a wakefulness, sleep, and ac琀椀vity. loss of 昀氀uids. They begin to gain weight again at Newborn’s sleep alternates between quiet about the 5th day and are generally back to birth (regular) and ac琀椀ve (irregular) sleep. Ac琀椀ve sleep weight by the 10th to the 14th day. is the equivalent of rapid eye movement (REM) They have dis琀椀nc琀椀ve features: large head and sleep, which in adults is associated with receding chin. dreaming. Fontanels – where the bones of the skull do not meet. They have pinkish cast, hairy because of lanugo COMPLICATIONS OF CHILDBIRTH (fuzzy prenatal hair), vernix caseosa (cheesy 1. Low birth weight (LBW) varnish, oily protec琀椀on). neonates born weighing less than 2,500 Witch’s milk – secre琀椀on that some琀椀mes leaks grams (5 pounds) at birth. from the swollen breasts of newborn 1. Preterm infants – infants born before comple琀椀ng the 37th week of gesta琀椀on. BODY SYSTEMS 2. Small-for-date infants – infants During pregnancy, the fetus and mother have whose birth weight is less than that separate circulatory systems and heart beats. of 90 percent of babies of the same The fetus gets oxygen through the umbilical cord. gesta琀椀onal age, as a result of slow If a neonate does not begin breathing within fetal growth. about 5 minutes, the baby may su昀昀er permanent Kangaroo care – method of skin-to-skin brain injury caused by anoxia (lack of oxygen) or contact in which a newborn is laid face hypoxia (reduced oxygen supply). down between the mother’s breasts for Full-term babies have a strong sucking re昀氀ex to an hour or so at a 琀椀me a昀琀er birth. take in milk, and have their own gastrointes琀椀nal secre琀椀ons to digest it. 2. Postmaturity A fetu