Developmental Theories PDF

Developmental Theories Dr. Manal Kloub Lecture 3 Dr.Manal Kloub 1  Objectives Upon Completion of this chapter, the student will be able to: Understand the theoretical bases for human growth and development: Psychoanalytic, psychosocial, and...

Developmental Theories Dr. Manal Kloub Lecture 3 Dr.Manal Kloub 1  Objectives Upon Completion of this chapter, the student will be able to: Understand the theoretical bases for human growth and development: Psychoanalytic, psychosocial, and cognitive Discuss main concepts and stages for each theory Discuss how understanding developmental theories can enhance the ability to teach an individual who may be in a specific stage of development. Compare the differences and similarities between theories 2  What is a Theory? A theory: is a statement that explains principles that can predict behavioral development. A theory is based on research that helps to make observations and facts meaningful 3  Why theories are important? Developmental theories focus on changes in physiology, psychology, and behavior that occur normally at different stages in the lifespan. Understanding what affects growth and development, in both a positive and negative way, helps nurses, health care workers, and educators predict behaviors, as well as responses, at each stage and therefore understand why adults may behave in certain ways. 4  Purposes of Human Developmental Theories Describe how and why people become the way they are Explain and predict behaviors (behaviors can be observed and tested) Help caregivers develop individualized interventions that enhance development Help nurses assess clients response to illness 5  Areas of Theory Development “Human behaviors are very complex and difficult to be captured within one theory.” Biophysical: Describe the way our physical body grows- compare to norms Psychoanalytic/ psychosocial: Describe the development of human personality, behaviors and emotions Cognitive: Describe the reasoning and thinking processes Moral: Describe the moral reasoning 6  Biophysical Developmental Theory Main theme: “it us our biological body that determines our behavioral development” Growth patterns are unique Growth patterns are directed by the activity of the genes Sequential development: the order of development is directed by the genetic blueprint (i.e., specified order of development of various organ systems in fetus: a) the heart is the first organ to develop then the central nervous system- head and brain before the extremities, b) vision) 7  Biophysical Developmental Theory Environmental factors affect the growth patterns but not the sequence of the development Children growth and development are based on their timetable and cannot be pushed (genes- controlled) In child rearing, parents should not put schedules for child based on their own beliefs but should take their cues from the child him/herself: Example: feed the child when he is ready and asks for food not based on a schedule prepared by the mother 8  Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud Austrian neurologists (1856-1939) Did studies on morphine addiction Founder of psychoanalysis The goal of the psychoanalysis was to bring to consciousness repressed thoughts and feelings for the person to develop a stronger ego. Psyche is divided into 3 parts: Ego, Super-ego, id Based the theory on the observation gained from mentally disturbed adults 9  Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud The theory is grounded on the belief that children psychological changes are driven by impulses of sex (libido) and aggression Motivation for behavior is to achieve pleasure and avoid pain created by these forces (sexual and aggressive energies) “Libido” was Freud's word for psychic and sexual energy 10  Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud People enter the world as uncontrolled pleasure seeker How libido is expressed depends on the stage of development If desires are not met, Fixation may occur, which would mean that there are remaining desires for pleasure from the source experienced at that stage 11  Stages of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Freud’s psychoanalytic model of personality development Have 5 psychosexual developmental stages in which the child sexual gratification is focused on particular body part: 1. Oral phase…..Infant (i.e., pleasure in nursing) 2. Anal phase…..Toddler (i.e., pleasure in controlling bowel and bladder) 3. Phallic phase….. Preschooler 4. Latent phase….School age child 5. Genital phase…..Adolescent 12  Stages of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory The Oral Stage (Birth to 12 to 18 Months): sucking and oral satisfaction is not only vital to life, but also extremely pleasurable the mouth is the primary source of interaction for infants- sucking and rooting reflexes are important Infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation Infant is entirely dependent upon caregivers i.e., mother) Infant develops sense of trust when his oral needs are satisfied Infant sucks for enjoyment and relief of tension as well as nourishment Being fixated at this stage may mean an excessive use of oral stimulation, such as cigarettes, drinking or eating. 13  Stages of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory The Oral Stage (continued) Main conflict at this stage is the weaning process- when the child become less dependent on the feeder Disruption in the physical or emotional availability of the parent, (e.g. inadequate bounding or chronic illness) could have an impact on the infant’s development. Late in the stage infant realize that mother is something separate from self. 14  Stages of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory The Anal Stage (12 to 18 months to 3 Years): Primary focus of the libido and pleasure is on controlling bladder and bowel movements Major conflict in this stage is toilet training Developing this control will lead to sense of accomplishment, self discovery Success in this stage depends on parents approach to toilet training Reward for using the toilet at the appropriate time Punish or shame the child for accidents Too lenient approach will lead to destructive personality (fixation) Too strict parents or begin toilet training too early, lead to rigid and obsessive child (fixation) 15  Stages of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory The Phallic Stage (3 to 6 Years) Primary focus of libido and pleasure is on genitals Children discover the difference between male and female Boys become interested in penis, begin to view their father as the rival for the mother’s affection For boys, the need to posses mother and replace father- fear to be punished by father for these feelings Girls experience penis envy (become aware of the absence of the penis). This realization coupled with the knowledge that her mother doesn't have a penis leads to her thinking her mother unworthy, and becoming attracted to her father, he does have a penis. At the end of the stage the child attempt to reduce conflict by recognizing and accepting the parent with same sex 16  Stages of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory The Latent Stage (6 to 12 to Years): Libido interest are suppressed School-age child more concerned with peers relationships, hobbies Sexual energies exist but are directed toward areas such as social interaction. This is where the child places energy and effort 17  Stages of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Genital Stage (puberty through adulthood): libido begins to be used in its sexual role (outside the family) 18  Freud: Critique He built his theory by knowledge gained from mentally ill individuals (rather than wellness) Freud’s work was heavily criticized for lack of substantial evidence. He regarded basic sexual instincts as being the driving force behind virtually all behaviors. His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. Some of Freud's critics contend that people are more influenced by their life experiences than by their sexual energies. 19  Freud’s Components of Human Personality Components of human personality develop through the developmental stage He regarded the development of personality as being the balance between the: Id Ego and Superego 20 Freud’s Components of Human Personality 21  Id The id is driven by the pleasure principles, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension. The id is very important early in life, because it ensures that an infants needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the id are met. 22  Id “Immediately satisfying the “id” needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing food out of other people’s hands to satisfy our own cravings. This sort of behavior would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable. According to Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the primary process, which involves forming a mental image of the desired object as a way of satisfying the need”. http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofperso nality/a/personalityelem.htm). 23  Ego Is in touch with reality Is the mediator between the two opposing forces of id & superego Regulate impulses and make good decisions: the id impulses can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses. In many cases, the id’s impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification— the ego will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place. A person with good ego strength is able to effectively manage these pressures, while those with too much or too little ego strength can become too unyielding or too disrupting. 24  Superego To perfect and civilize our behavior- Controlling actions Conscience- sense of right and wrong Contains all moral lessons the person has learned in his/her life Influenced by the social standards 25  Freud’s Components of Human Personality Main goal for healthy personality development: maintain balance between pleasure-seeking drives and societal pressure A strong sense of conscience to allow experience of pleasure within the limits of society 26  Defense Mechanisms Are unconscious distortion of reality used to protect the ego Are the method by which the ego can solve the conflict between the super-ego and id Defense mechanisms include: denial, reaction formation, displacement, repression,, rationalization, compensation 27  Table (1) Defense Mechanisms for Coping Rationalization Developing a plausible excuse for unacceptable behavior. Repression "Forgetting" an unpleasant experience. Projection Attributing one's thoughts or feelings to another person. Displacement Expressing feelings (often anger) one has about one person toward another innocent person Reaction Acting just the opposite of what one feels. For formation example, acting sure of oneself when one is really feeling insecure Regression Reverting to immature behavior 28  cont. Table (1)Defense Mechanisms for Coping Identification Joining a group so that its positive identity will be reflected on oneself Sublimation: Rechanneling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable ones For example, channeling aggression into playing football. 29 Summary of Freud's Stages Table ( 2) 30 Erikson psychosocial development (1902-1996) Expansion and modification of Freud's theory Personality development is psychosocial process Develops beyond Freud’s ideas: More stages (8), covered the entire lifespan, and focused on the influence of environmental factors, culture and society in the development of personality. Person’s social view of himself is more important than instinctual drives in determining behaviors In each stage, individuals need to accomplish a particular task before successfully completing the stage. 31  Erikson psychosocial development (1902- 1996) Each task is framed with opposing conflicts It is the balance that we need to learn about each phase and not only the extremes (i.e., we need to learn mostly trust but little mistrust as not o grow up and be fool!) Resolution of each developmental conflict affects the consequent stage 32  Erikson Psychosocial Developmental Theory (1902-1996) Age Stage Signif. Relationship Infant (birth to 1 y) trust vs. mistrust Mother Toddler (1-3) autonomy vs. shame or Parents doubt Preschool (3-6) initiative vs. guilt Family School (6-12) industry vs. inferiority Neighborhood & School Adolescent (12-19) identity v. role confusion Peer groups Young adult (19-25) sense of intimacy vs. Parents friends isolation Middle age (25-50) sense of generativist vs. Household, workmates stagnation Older adults (> 50) Ego integrity vs. despair My kind 33  Stages of Erikson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 1.Trust versus Mistrust (Birth to 1 Year) Task: to develop trust without complete elimination of mistrust Starting with oral satisfaction, the infant learn to trust the caregiver as well as self. Trust based on the quality of the caregiver Trust is achieved when the infant will let the caregiver out of sight without undo distress. Key to this stage is consistency, continuity, and familiarity of caregiver; If available, the child feel that the world is a safe place to live. 34  Stages of Erikson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 1.Trust versus Mistrust (Continued) If inadequate and unreliable parents, the infant develop mistrust and will be suspicious about the world, depression, and withdrawal. Parents do not have to be perfect (overly protective)- infant believe that no one can cause harm. Nurse assess parent’s competence and educate them help provide safe environment Mistrust lead to fear and belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable 35  Stages of Erikson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 2. Autonomy vs. Sense of Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 Years) Task: to develop autonomy (self dependent) while minimizing shame Child learn to control: toilet training, food and cloths choices at their time and pace. Successful children: feel secure and confident The growing child is now becoming accomplished in some basic self-care activities, including walking, feeding and toileting. Parents: to allow the child to explore the environment. Do not be impatient and do things for child that he can do himself because this enforce sense of shame and doubt their ability to do things. This independence is the result of maturation and imitation. 36  Stages of Erikson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 2. Autonomy vs. Sense of Shame and Doubt (Continued) If the parents prevented the child to explore the environment, child will give up and believe that they should not act on their own. If parents give no limits or helped the child do task that they should do themselves, maladaptive. The toddler develops his or her autonomy by making choices that are typical for his age-group include activities related to play things, desires and relationships. Toddlers need to do what they are capable of doing. Limiting choices or harsh punishment can lead to feeling of shame and doubt. 37  Stages of Erikson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 3. Initiative VS. Guilt (3-6 years) Initiative; taking responsibility, learning new skills, feeling purposeful, no longer respond to or imitate others. Depends on parents responded to self-initiated activities. Sense of initiative is reinforces when child is given freedom and opportunities to initiate motor play (running, bike riding, play with sand, water, etc). Also, when parents answer child questions (intellectual initiatives). Parents: encourage child to tryout their ideas, accept and encourage fantasy, imagination, and curiosity Imagination and fantasy help children to further explore their environment Child likes to pretend or tryout new roles 38  Stages of Erikson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 3. Initiative VS. Guilt (continued) Time to play not formal education Child become responsible (flush earrings in the toilet) The child is developing his superego and conscience (sense of right and wrong) Conflicts often rises between the child desire to explore and the limits placed on his behavior These conflicts may lead to feeling of frustration and guilt Guilt also can result if the caregiver's responses are punitive 39  Stages of Erikson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 4. Industry Vs. inferiority (6-11) years School age children are eager to apply themselves to learning socially productive skills and tools. Child learn not only how to do things (like pre-school) but how to do things well. They learn to work and play with their peers. Child world expands to school and community. They thrive for their accomplishments and praise RN: allow peers visits; give small assignments (textbook with small chapters rather than large chapters) Inadequate support for learning new skills, harsh teacher, or rejecting peers may develop a sense of inadequate and inferiority. 40  Stages of Erikson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 5.Identity versus role confusion (puberty). Dramatic physiological changes associated with sexual maturation. A marked preoccupation with appearance and body image. Identity development begins with the goal of achieving some perspective or direction answer the question "who am I" (athletic, love fast food, daughter, son, etc). Acquiring a sense of identity is essential for marking adult decisions such as choice of vocation or marriage partner. New social demands, opportunities, and conflicts that relate to the emergent identity and separation from family. 41  Stages of Erickson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 6. Intimacy Vs. Isolation (Young Adult) Intimacy: is the ability to be close to others Developed sense of identity- clear sense of who you are Parents with low sense of intimacy may have difficulty accept pregnancy and may not be able to love their newborns Deeper their capacity to love others and care for them Time of fully participative in the community, enjoying adult freedom and responsibility Sense of identity not achieved feeling of isolation from other and inability to form meaningful attachment. 42  Stages of Erickson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 7. Generativity vs. self-absorption and stagnation (Middle Age). Adult with successful intimate relationship focus on supporting future generation. Ability to expand one’s personal and social involvement is very critical at this stage. Able to see beyond their needs and accomplishment to the needs of society. If have high sense of generativity will be self-confident and better able to do various roles (mother, friend, teacher, group member, etc). Dissatisfaction with one’s place and achievements leads to self-absorption and stagnation. 43  Stages of Erickson Psychosocial Develop. Theory 8. Integrity versus Despair (Old age). Age process creates physical and social losses. Adult may also suffer loss of status and function, such as through retirement or illness (External struggles). Internal struggles, such as the search for meaning in life (challenges). Meeting these challenges creates the potential for growth and Wisdom. Many old persons view their lives with a sense satisfaction even with their inevitable mistakes. Others see themselves as failures with their lives marked by despair and regret (may wish that life will begin over again to do things differently). 44  Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development He is a Swiss biologist Interested on the development of intellectual aspect of the children (how they think and reason, and based on what intellectual processes they perceive the world). His theory has 4 periods. Children moves through these periods in sequential manner but at different rate. Internal and external forces didn’t shape thinking. Intellectual development depends on intellectual stimulation and challenges in the environment. Sequencing these stage occurs for all children but the rate of achievement may vary. 45  Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Period 1: Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 years) Characterized by perceptual and motor activities The child relies on seeing, touching, sucking, feeling, and using their senses to learn things about themselves and the environment. Children follows with their eyes, explore things, and turn their heads. They explore with their hands by gripping, letting go, pulling, pushing. Intellectual development depends on schemas (sketch, diagram) or patterns of actions that the child develops to deal with the environment (hitting, kicking, grasping, shakes rattle to make a noise, etc). 46  Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Period 1: Sensorimotor (continued) successful achievement lead to greater exploration (i.e., infant learn that sucking achieves pleasures, he tries to suck fingers, blanket, etc) by the end of this stage, infant form primitive mental images as they achieves object permanence: realizes that things continue to exist even when no longer present to the sense or changed in some way. 47  Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Period 1: Sensorimotor (continued) Examples of object permanence: infant will look for the object if you hide it. Can recognize that a parent remains the same person whether dressed in a robe and slipper, or pants and t-shirts. Plays peek-a-boo because they understand that the person play with them exists behind his hands Learn that they are separate entities from other objects. The world become to make sense when the concept of permanence is learned (infants know their parents exist and will come to them). 48  Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Period ll: Preoperational (2-7 years) child thinks by using symbols and mental images. play is the method of non-language use of symbols, and the way the child understand how events took place (i.e., RN should practice “giving injection” on the child’s bear before giving it to the child). time for parallel play: no rules, no common goals, side-by-side. imitation is way to represent experience. thinking is egocentric (selfish): has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others. 49  Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Period ll (Cont’d): Preoperational (2-7 years) Displays static thinking: unable to remember what he started to talk about and at the end of the sentence he is talking about another topic. is able to go beyond direct experience with objects. learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words. unaware of contradictory statements. 50  Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Period ll (Cont’d): Preoperational (2-7 years) Concept of time is now and concept of distance is only as far as he can see. Unable to state cause-effect relationship, categories, or abstraction. characteristics include: language development, egocentrism, classification on single feature, irreversibility. later in the stage, child can communicate about events with others. 51  Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Period lll: Concrete (Real) Operation (7-11 years) think logically about objects and events as it is linked to concrete objects describe a process without actually performing it understand the difference between ones thoughts and others classifies objects according to several features characteristics include: reversibility (for every action there is an opposite action), classification (seriation), conservation (sorting up of number, area, substance, weight, volume). perform number operations such as adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing 52  Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Period lV: Formal Operations (11 - Adulthood) thinking moves to abstract and theoretical subjects (peace, justice, and meaning of life) organize their thoughts in their minds problem solving thinking deal logically with multifaceted situations. reason from hypothetical situations to the concrete. characteristics include: theoretical reasoning, the children gain the ability to make valid and abstract generalizations about reality 53  Kohlberg's Moral Developmental Theory (1927-1987) Describe how individuals acquire moral values (right and wrong) 6 stages of moral development – not all individuals reach the 6th stage Found a link between moral development and Piaget’s cognitive development. A child moral development does not advance if the child cognitive development doesn’t also mature 54  Kohlberg's Moral Developmental Theory Recognizing moral reasoning helps: Understand how the child feels about his illness (if he is thinking it is fair to be ill). Determine whether the child has internalized standards so he will not “cheat” when he suppose to take his own medication without external control. 55  Stages of Moral Development 7/24/2023 Khulood Shattnawi 56  Kohlberg's Moral Developmental Theory Level 1: Pre conventional Level (birth – 7 years) common in children moral reason for acting (the why) relate to the consequences the person believe will occur- personal gain (threat, punishment, or reward). based on cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or wrong illness is viewed as punishment for fighting with others or disobeying parents 57  Kohlberg's Moral Developmental Theory Stage 1. Punishment and Obedience Orientation Absolute obedience to authority and rules (otherwise I will be punished) Motivation to behave is avoidance of punishment (time to eat, sleep, play, etc) Punishment is viewed as a proof that the child did wrong Stage 2: Instrument Relativist Orientation Understand that there is more than one right view (teacher vs. parents) decision to do moral behavior based on satisfying ones and occasionally others needs not loyalty, gratitude, or justice punishment is viewed as a something that child wants to avoid (Follow parents rules) 58  Kohlberg's Moral Developmental Theory - Level II: Conventional Level (7-12 years) judge the morality of actions by comparing these actions to societal views and expectations moral reasoning based on own personal internalization of societal and others expectation (fulfill the expectation of family and group) regardless of immediate and obvious consequences “how my behaviors will affect my relationships with others” 59  Kohlberg's Moral Developmental Theory - Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl orientation gain approval and meet expectation of immediate group being good: have good motives, show concern for others, keep mutual relationships, trust, loyalty, respect one earns approval by “being nice” Stage 4: Society-maintaining orientation expand relationships with others to societal concerns take into account societal perspective (respect authority, do job)- not spending the night out because it is not right 60  Kohlberg's Moral Developmental Theory Level III: Post Conventional, Autonomous Level (adolescents and adults): Balance between one’s basic rights and obligations and societal rules Move away from moral decisions based on authority to define their own moral values Think about: What is ideal society will be 61  Kohlberg's Moral Developmental Theory Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation Values may depend on the social group All rational people will agree on basic rights Law is a social contract (i.e., Follow the societal law but recognize the possibility of changing it if unfair) Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation “Right” defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles Principles are golden rules and universal (applicable to all situations) 62  Kohlberg's Moral Developmental Theory Critique: Most subjects were male Research showed that Most individuals do not move beyond the 4th stage (Society-maintaining orientation) Not examined in different cultures 63